Contents
The editor would
like to thank Dr. Jodie Kulpa-Eddy of USDA, APHIS, Animal Care for her comments and editing of the
introductory material for this document. Thank you to Jean Larson of
the USDA Animal Welfare Information Center for her guidance on document
lay-out and thorough editing of the entire document. Finally,
special thanks to Sandra Ball, Barbara Buchanan, and D'Anna Jensen of the Animal Welfare Information Center for their help in final editing and formatting of
the document.
This publication
updates and expands AWIC's Environmental
Enrichment for Nonhuman Primates Resource Guide, January 1992-February
1999. It covers literature published from 1999-June
2006. This document includes links to
the draft policy published in the Federal Register on July 15, 1999 by
the United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health
Inspection Service, Animal Care and the Final Report on Environment
Enhancement to Promote the Psychological Well-being of Nonhuman Primates
that was drafted by a committee of
experts from areas of research, teaching, regulation, and exhibition and
led to the draft policy. Relevant sections of United States Animal Welfare Act and regulations are also included as well as parts of the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals (NRC, 1996).
The
bibliographic chapters are divided into subject areas that cover the
concept of environmental enrichment, enrichment for nonhuman primates
overall, abnormal behavior exhibited by nonhuman primates, great apes and
gibbons, macaques, old world monkeys other than macaques, marmosets and
tamarins, other new world monkeys, lemurs, lorises, and tarsiers, animal
training as an enrichment strategy, and books and proceedings from
conferences focused on environmental enrichment or nonhuman primate
management.
Citations included in these
chapters were published between 1999 and June 2006 and selected from
searches conducted using a variety of agricultural, medical and life
science databases. In each chapter, the citations are arranged
alphabetically according to the last name of the primary
author.
Each
citation in the bibliographies contains descriptor terms, an abstract when
available, and the NAL call number if the particular source is available
at the National Agricultural Library (NAL). Information on how to
request materials that are included in the collection of the National
Agricultural Library (NAL) may be found at: http://www.nal.usda.gov/services/request.shtml.
The
Web site resources are divided into 6 sections:
- resources on environmental enrichment, for all species and nonhuman primates,
- organizations and professional societies whose members may be involved in nonhuman primate management or research,
- United States National Primate Centers, funded by grants through the National Institutes of Health (NIH), National Center for Research Resources (NCRR), Division of Comparative Medicine (DCM),
- additional university primate centers and animal colonies located in the United States and associated territories,
- environmental enrichment products and supplier information, and
- discussion groups on nonhuman primates
and enrichment.
Readers are cautioned as to the
dynamic nature of the internet and the fact that web addresses and content
are subject to change. All sites are current as of June
2006.
In 1985, the Animal Welfare Act (AWA) was amended to include, among other things, providing
for the psychological well-being of nonhuman primates. In time this
concept became synonymous with the terms "environmental
enrichment" or "environmental enhancement." The
Congressional delegates responsible for the new amendments intended to
allow for more exercise, play, and compatible social interactions for
captive nonhuman primates. In 1989, the United States Department of
Agriculture (USDA), Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS)
responded to the new AWA amendments by drafting regulations based on the
advice received from a group of 10 primate experts.
These proposed regulations contained requirements for social housing,
inanimate enrichment items, and exercise for nonhuman primates.
APHIS eventually amended the regulations with more general language after
receiving public comments on the proposed standards. The regulations
became a final rule in 1991 and still exist today (9 CFR Sec. 3.81).
(For more information on the history and intent of the 1985 amendments,
see Kulpa-Eddy et al., 2005.)
After five years of
enforcing the regulations on environmental enrichment for nonhuman
primates, APHIS surveyed their Animal Care (AC) inspectors about the
implementation of enrichment plans at research facilities, exhibitors, and
dealers. The consensus among AC inspectors was that most facilities
did not understand how to develop an adequate environmental enrichment
plan that would promote the well-being of nonhuman primates. In
response to this concern, additional clarification was set forth in the
Final Report on Environment Enhancement to Promote the Psychological
Well-being of Nonhuman Primates which was included in a draft policy
and issued for public comment on July 15, 1999. Ultimately, the
policy was not implemented. However, the draft policy and Final
Report did provide a great deal of science-based information for
facilities housing nonhuman primates and many began implementing aspects
identified under five general elements (social grouping, social needs of
infants, structure and substrate, foraging opportunities, and
manipulanda). Both the draft policy from the Federal Register and
the Final Report on Environment Enhancement to Promote the
Psychological Well-being of Nonhuman Primates are included in this information resource.
Environmental enrichment is defined by the Library of Congress as "enhancing the environment of confined animals in order
to encourage natural behaviors and improve their quality of life (Kreger, 1999). An effective environmental enrichment
program enhances species-appropriate behaviors and activities, increases behavioral choices, and encourages appropriate
responses to environmental challenges. Environmental enrichment for nonhuman primates can include provision of novel objects,
increased foraging opportunities, and opportunities for social interaction. After the 1985 AWA amendments, many facilities
initially approached environmental enrichment as simply giving the animals toys. However, in response to published research
and input from specialists, including the writers of the USDA draft policy, many facilities housing nonhuman primates now
regard their enrichment plans as part of a larger behavioral health and management program.
Weed and O’Neill-Wagner (2006) discuss the evolution of behavioral management programs
in zoos and laboratory research environments starting on page vii of this document. The creation of a successful behavioral
management program and subsequent environmental enrichment plan is based on an understanding of the natural history of each
particular species. Facilities that maintain nonhuman primates in captivity develop enrichment plans by taking into account
species-appropriate behavior, individual animals’ medical and behavioral histories, and the current limitations of the
setting. The safety of the animals and personnel should always be considered.
In the United States, USDA, APHIS, AC
is responsible for enforcement of the AWA. AC implements the
standards for humane care set forth in the AWA and regulations and
achieves compliance through inspections of regulated facilities,
educational programming, and cooperative efforts with other agencies and
organizations. For laboratory animal care, the National Institutes
of Health (NIH), Office of Laboratory Animal Welfare (OLAW) enforces the
Public Health Service (PHS) policy on Humane Care and Use of Laboratory
Animals for researchers receiving federal funding from PHS. The
contact information for both agencies is provided
here.
References
Kreger, M. (1999). Environmental Enrichment for Nonhuman Primates Resource Guide. Animal Welfare Information Center Beltsville, Maryland, USA, 115 p.
Kulpa-Eddy, J.A., S. Taylor, and K. Adams (2005). USDA Perspective on Environmental Enrichment for Animals. ILAR Journal 46(2): 83-94.
Return to
Contents
Return to Top
The Animal Welfare Information Center, http://www.nal.usda.gov/awic/contact.php
http://www.nal.usda.gov/awic/pubs/Primates2006/Primates.htm
September 28, 2006
