Diseases

Afonso, C.L., E.R. Tulman, G. Delhon, Z. Lu, G.J. Viljoen, D.B. Wallace, G.F. Kutish, and D.L. Rock (2006). Genome of crocodilepox virus. Journal of Virology 80(10): 4978-4991. ISSN: 0022-538X.
NAL Call Number: QR360.J6
Abstract: Here, we present the genome sequence, with analysis, of a poxvirus infecting Nile crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus) (crocodilepox virus; CRV). The genome is 190,054 bp (62% G+C) and predicted to contain 173 genes encoding proteins of 53 to 1,941 amino acids. The central genomic region contains genes conserved and generally colinear with those of other chordopoxviruses (ChPVs). CRV is distinct, as the terminal 33-kbp (left) and 13-kbp (right) genomic regions are largely CRV specific, containing 48 unique genes which lack similarity to other poxvirus genes. Notably, CRV also contains 14 unique genes which disrupt ChPV gene colinearity within the central genomic region, including 7 genes encoding GyrB-like ATPase domains similar to those in cellular type IIA DNA topoisomerases, suggestive of novel ATP-dependent functions. The presence of 10 CRV proteins with similarity to components of cellular multisubunit E3 ubiquitin-protein ligase complexes, including 9 proteins containing F-box motifs and F-box-associated regions and a homologue of cellular anaphase-promoting complex subunit 11 (Apc11), suggests that modification of host ubiquitination pathways may be significant for CRV-host cell interaction. CRV encodes a novel complement of proteins potentially involved in DNA replication, including a NAD(+)-dependent DNA ligase and a protein with similarity to both vaccinia virus F16L and prokaryotic serine site-specific resolvase-invertases. CRV lacks genes encoding proteins for nucleotide metabolism. CRV shares notable genomic similarities with molluscum contagiosum virus, including genes found only in these two viruses. Phylogenetic analysis indicates that CRV is quite distinct from other ChPVs, representing a new genus within the subfamily Chordopoxvirinae, and it lacks recognizable homologues of most ChPV genes involved in virulence and host range, including those involving interferon response, intracellular signaling, and host immune response modulation. These data reveal the unique nature of CRV and suggest mechanisms of virus-reptile host interaction.
Descriptors: alligators and crocodiles virology, Chordopoxvirinae genetics, genome, viral, multigene family, adenosine triphosphatases chemistry, adenosine triphosphatases genetics, amino acid sequence, chordopoxvirinae enzymology, DNA gyrase chemistry, DNA gyrase genetics, molecular sequence data, phylogeny, protein structure, tertiary, sequence alignment, sequence analysis, DNA, sequence homology, amino acid, ubiquitin protein ligases genetics.

Alleman, A.R. and E.K. Kupprion (2007). Cytologic diagnosis of diseases in reptiles. Veterinary Clinics of North America, Exotic Animal Practice 10(1): 155-186. ISSN: 1094-9194.
NAL Call Number: SF997.5.E95 E97
Abstract: The cytologic evaluation of samples obtained from reptile patients may provide invaluable diagnostic information to the clinician. The following article is directed toward providing information regarding the techniques used to obtain samples, discussion of sample types, and guidelines for the cytologic classification of the materials collected from tissue lesions and body fluids.
Descriptors: reptiles, cytodiagnosis, veterinary, animal diseases, samples, techniques, guidelines, tissue lesions, body fluids.

Barten, S.L. (2002). Diseases of the Iguana oral cavity. Proceedings of the North American Veterinary Conference 16(16): 894-895. ISSN: 0003-1488.
NAL Call Number: SF605.N672
Descriptors: iguana, mouth diseases, oral cavity, reptiles, conference proceedings.
Notes: In the volume: Small Animal and Exotics. Part of a three volume set. Meeting held January 12-16, 2002, Orlando, Florida. Includes references.

Bauwens, L., F. Vercammen, S. Bertrand, J.M. Collard, and S. De Ceuster (2006). Isolation of Salmonella from environmental samples collected in the reptile department of Antwerp Zoo using different selective methods. Journal of Applied Microbiology 101(2): 284-289. ISSN: 1364-5072.
NAL Call Number: QR1.J687
Abstract: To evaluate the environmental spread of Salmonella strains in the reptile department of Antwerp Zoo and to compare different isolation methods for Salmonella. One hundred environmental samples were collected in the service sections and public spaces of the reptile department. After pre-enrichment in buffered peptone water (BPW), selective enrichment was performed in Rappaport Vassiliadis Single Component Enrichment Broth (RVS), Selenite Cystine Broth (SEL) and Mueller Kauffman Tetrathionate Broth (MKTTn). Subculturing on Modified Semisolid Rappaport-Vassiliadis (MSRV) Medium, and the combined use of immunomagnetic separation (IMS) and RVS was evaluated. The isolation media used were Hektoen Enteric Agar (HE), Phenol Red Brilliant Green Agar (BG) and Xylose Lysine Decarboxylase Agar (XLD). Salmonella strains were found in 47 samples (47* diaeresis *0%). Most isolations were made on HE after combined IMS/RVS enrichment. Sixty-six Salmonella strains were serotyped, 29 belonged to Salmonella enterica ssp. enterica (I), 3 to ssp. salamae (II), 29 to ssp. arizonae or diarizonae (IIIa/b), 4 to ssp. houtenae (IV) and 1 strain showed autoagglutination. In addition, a 10-year survey (1995-2004) of Salmonella serovars isolated from reptiles at Antwerp Zoo is presented. A high prevalence of Salmonella strains was noted in the service sections of the reptile department. Only a few isolations were made in the public spaces. Selective enrichment in RVS was the most efficient. In combination with IMS, this method gave an even higher isolation rate than the International Standard method (ISO 6579:2002). This study confirms the importance of reptiles as spreaders of Salmonella in their surroundings. The possible infectious risks for zoo personnel and visitors are evaluated. Improved laboratory protocols for the isolation of Salmonella from the environment are suggested.
Descriptors: reptiles, Salmonella enterica, isolation, spread, enviromental samples, Antwerp zoo, strains, infectious risk, personnel, Belgium.

Beck, W. (2003). Praxisrelevante Ektoparasitosen und Dermatophytosen bei kleinen Heimsaugern, Vogeln und Reptilien. [Common ectoparasitic diseases and dermatophytoses in small mammals, birds and reptiles]. Praktische Tierarzt 84(10): 752-762. ISSN: 0032-681X.
NAL Call Number: 41.8 P882
Descriptors: reptiles, common ectoparasitic diseases, dermatophytoses, birds, small mammals, diagnosis, treatment.
Language of Text: German; Summary in English.

Benko, M., P. Elo, K. Ursu, W. Ahne, S.E. LaPatra, D. Thomson, and B. Harrach (2002). First molecular evidence for the existence of distinct fish and snake adenoviruses. Journal of Virology 76(19): 10056-10059. ISSN: 0022-538X.
NAL Call Number: QR360.J6
Abstract: From adenovirus-like viruses originating from a fish and a snake species, a conserved part of the adenoviral DNA polymerase gene was PCR amplified, cloned and sequenced. Phylogenetic analysis showed that the snake adenovirus is closely related to the members of the proposed genus Atadenovirus, whereas the fish isolate seems to represent a separate cluster, likely a new genus.
Descriptors: reptiles, snake, adenoviruses, molecular evidence, DNA, phylogenetic analysis.

Bodetti, T.J., E. Jacobson, C. Wan, L. Hafner, A. Pospischil, K. Rose, and P. Timms (2002). Molecular evidence to support the expansion of the hostrange of chlamydophila pneumoniae to include reptiles as well as humans, horses, koalas and amphibians. Systematic and Applied Microbiology 25(1): 146-152. ISSN: 0723-2020.
NAL Call Number: QR1.Z42
Descriptors: amphibians, reptiles, horses, koalas, humans, host range expansion, molecular evidence, Chlamydophila pneumoniae.

Brown, D.R. (2002). Mycoplasmosis and immunity of fish and reptiles. Frontiers in Bioscience 7: D1338-D1346. ISSN: print: 1093-9946; online: 1093-4715.
Online: http://dx.doi.org/10.2741/brown
Abstract: Advances in molecular phylogenetics have enabled reconstruction of the most likely chronology of events in prokaryotic evolution and correlation with the paleontologic record with increasing precision. Mycoplasmas probably evolved from clostridial ancestors by genome reduction leading to obligate parasitism of host cells. The vertebrate hosts present at the time of the origin of mycoplasmas about 400 million years ago were fish, and later amphibians and reptiles, whose descendants possess most elements of vertebrate innate and adaptive immunity. Successful colonization of those poikilothermous ("cold-blooded") hosts must have involved adaptation to those defenses, shaping mycoplasma-host interactions for more than 125 million years before the earliest emergence of mammals. That history illuminates one aspect of the potential significance of mycoplasmosis of poikilothermous vertebrates to health and disease of other hosts including humans.
Descriptors: reptiles, fish, mycoplasmosis, immunity, poikilothermous vertebrates, parasitism, host cells.

Brown, D.R., D.L. Demcovitz, D.R. Plourde, S.M. Potter, M.E. Hunt, R.D. Jones, and D.S. Rotstein (2006). Mycoplasma iguanae sp. nov., from a green iguana (Iguana iguana) with vertebral disease. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology 56(Pt 4): 761-764. ISSN: print: 1466-5026; online: 1466-5034.
Abstract: Strain 2327T, first cultured from vertebral abscesses of green iguanas (Iguana iguana) collected in Florida, USA, was readily distinguished from all previously described mollicutes by 16S rRNA gene sequence comparisons. Strain 2327T lacks a cell wall, ferments glucose, does not hydrolyse arginine, aesculin or urea and is sensitive to digitonin. Western blots distinguished the novel isolate serologically from the most closely related members of the Mycoplasma neurolyticum cluster. On the basis of these data, the isolate represents a novel species for which the name Mycoplasma iguanae sp. nov. is proposed. The type strain is strain 2327T (=ATCC BAA-1050T = NCTC 11745T).
Descriptors: Iguana iguana, iguanas microbiology, mycoplasma infections, molecular sequence data, phylogeny, ribosomal RNA, genetics, DNA sequence analysis.

Brown, D.R., J.L. Merritt, E.R. Jacobson, P.A. Klein, J.G. Tully, and M.B. Brown (2004). Mycoplasma testudineum sp. nov., from a desert tortoise (Gopherus agassizii) with upper respiratory tract disease. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology 54(5): 1527-1529. ISSN: print: 1466-5026; online: 1466-5034.
Descriptors: reptiles, desert tortoise, Mycoplasma testudineum sp., upper respiratory tract disease, Gopherus agassizii.

Brown, D.R., L.A. Zacher, and D.A. Carbonneau (2005). Seroprevalence of Mycoplasma alligatoris among free-ranging alligators (Alligator mississippiensis) in Florida - 2003. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 36(2): 340-341. ISSN: 1042-7260.
NAL Call Number: SF601.J6
Descriptors: reptiles, Alligator mississippiensis, Mycoplasma alligatoris, seroprevalence, free ranging alligators, Florida.

Buenviaje, G.N., J.M. Millan, P.M. Summers, and R.G. Hirst (2004). Use of copper sulphate for the treatment of dermatophilosis ('brown spot' disease) in farmed crocodiles. Australian Veterinary Journal 82(9): 577-578. ISSN: 0005-0423.
NAL Call Number: 41.8 Au72
Descriptors: reptiles, crocodiles, alternative livestock, animal diseases, skin diseases, copper sulfate, drug therapy, Dermatophilus, bacterial infections, formaldehyde, Crocodylus porosus, drug evaluation, skin lesions, mycoses, mixed infection, dermatophilosis.

Carter, S.L., B.D. Horne, D.W. Herman, D.K. Nichols, C.A. Haas, and J.C. Mitchell (2005). Bacterial pneumonia in free-ranging bog turtles, Glyptemys muhlenbergii, from North Carolina and Virginia. Journal of the North Carolina Academy of Science 121(4): 170-173.
NAL Call Number: Q11 .J6817
Descriptors: reptiles, bog turtles, free ranging, Glyptemys muhlenbergii, bacterial pneumonia, case report, North Carolina, Virginia.

Coberley, S.S., R.C. Condit, L.H. Herbst, and P.A. Klein (2002). Identification and expression of immunogenic proteins of a disease-associated marine turtle herpesvirus. Journal of Virology 76(20): 10553-10558. ISSN: 0022-538X.
NAL Call Number: QR360.J6
Abstract: Herpesviruses are associated with several diseases of marine turtles, including lung-eye-trachea disease (LETD) and fibropapillomatosis. Two approaches were used to identify immunodominant antigens of LETV, the LETD-associated herpesvirus. The first approach targeted glycoprotein B, which is known to be immunogenic and neutralizing in other species. The second strategy identified LETV proteins recognized on Western blots by antibodies in immune green turtle plasma. A 38-kDa protein was resolved by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis, sequenced, and identified as a scaffolding protein encoded by the overlapping open reading frames of UL26 and UL26.5. Glycoprotein B and the scaffolding protein were cloned and expressed in Escherichia coli. The expressed proteins were recognized on Western blots by antibodies in immune green turtle plasma. Phylogenetic studies based on UL26, DNA polymerase, and glycoprotein B revealed that LETV clusters with the alphaherpesviruses.
Descriptors: reptiles, marine turtle herpesvirus, immunogenic proteins, disease associated, lung-eye-trachea disease, LETD, identification.

Cooper, J.E. (2003). Skin diseases of reptiles. Veterinary Times 33(23): 12-13. ISSN: 1352-9374.
Descriptors: reptiles, skin diseases, abscesses, dermatitis, diagnosis, ectoparasites, treatment, neoplasms, lesions.

Corrente, M., K.G. Friedrich, A. Madio, C. Desario, V. Tiri, and M. Campolo (2003). Comparison of different cultural media for the recovery of Salmonella strains from reptile faeces. In: Erkrankungen der Zootiere: Verhandlungsbericht des 41 Internationalen Symposiums uber die Erkrankungen der Zoo und Wildtiere. [Proceedings of the Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research, Berlin, No.5],May 28, 2003-June 1, 2003, Rome, Italy, p. 345.
Descriptors: reptiles, Salmonella, cultural media, comparison, reptile feces, strains.

D' Agostino, C., A. Lanza, C. Nannetti, G.M. Damiani, C. Tarantino, and S. Perrucci (2003). Criptosporidiosi nei rettili. [Cryptosporidiosis in reptiles]. Obiettivi e Documenti Veterinari 24(2): 43-46. ISSN: 0392-1913.
Descriptors: reptiles, snake, lizard, turtles, cryptosporidosis, diagnosis, fecal exam, Cryptosporidium serpentis, C. saurophylum, disease.
Language of Text: Italian.

De Voe, R., K. Geissler, S. Elmore, D. Rotstein, G. Lewbart, and J. Guy (2004). Ranavirus-associated morbidity and mortality in a group of captive eastern box turtles (Terrapene carolina carolina). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 35(4): 534-543. ISSN: 1042-7260.
NAL Call Number: SF601.J6
Abstract: Seven captive eastern box turtles (Terrapene carolina carolina) from a large collection of North American chelonians in North Carolina became acutely ill in the fall of 2002. Five of the turtles died. Clinical signs included cutaneous abscessation, oral ulceration or abscessation (or both), respiratory distress, anorexia, and lethargy. The predominant postmortem lesion was fibrinoid vasculitis of various organs, including skin, mucous membranes, lungs, and liver. No inclusion bodies were detected by histopathology or electron microscopy of formalin-fixed tissue. An iridovirus was isolated from tissues obtained postmortem from two of the box turtles that died. The virus was characterized by electron microscopy, polymerase chain reaction, and sequence analysis of a portion of the major capsid protein as a member of the genus Ranavirus.
Descriptors: reptiles, captive eastern box turtles, morbidity, mortality, ranavirus, clinical signs, postmortem lesions, iridovirus, case study.

DeNardo, D.F. (2004). Stress and its influence on clinical disease in reptiles. Small Animal and Exotics Book Two: Pain Management Zoonosis Proceedings of the North American Veterinary Conference, Volume 18 18: 1326-1328. ISSN: 0341-6953.
Descriptors: reptiles, stress, influence on clinical disease, restraint.

Drury, S.E., R.E. Gough, and D.B. Welchman (2002). Isolation and identification of a reovirus from a lizard, Uromastyx hardwickii, in the United Kingdom. Veterinary Record 151(21): 637-638. ISSN: 0042-4900.
NAL Call Number: 41.8 V641
Descriptors: reptiles, lizard, Uromastyx hardwickii, reovirus, isolation and identification, UK.

Dsouli, N., H. Younsi Kabachii, D. Postic, S. Nouira, L. Gern, and A. Bouattour (2006). Reservoir role of lizard Psammodromus algirus in transmission cycle of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato (Spirochaetaceae) in Tunisia. Journal of Medical Entomology 43(4): 737-742. ISSN: 0022-2585.
NAL Call Number: 421 J828
Abstract: To investigate the reservoir role of the lizard Psammodromus algirus for the Lyme disease spirochete, 199 lizards were trapped from April to October 2003 in El Jouza, northwestern Tunisia. In this site, the infection rate of free-living Ixodes ricinus (L.) by Borrelia was evaluated by immunofluorescence as 34.6% for adult ticks and 12.5% for nymphs. Eighty percent of P. algirus (117/146) captured during this study were infested by I. ricinus, the predominant tick species collected from lizards. The intensity of tick infestation of this host by larvae and nymphs ranged from 0.14 to 7.07 and from 1.5 to 6.58, respectively. These immature stages of I. ricinus were found on lizards in spring and the beginning of summer, with a peak of intensity during June (10.16 immature ticks by lizard). Tissue cultures from lizards and xenodiagnosis with larval I. ricinus were used to assess the infection and the ability, respectively, of infected lizards to transmit Borrelia to naive ticks. Seventeen percent of xenodiagnostic ticks (40/229) acquired B. lusitaniae while feeding on P. algirus. Therefore, we demonstrated the ability of the lizards to sustain Borrelia infection and to infect attached ticks, and we proved that P. algirus is a reservoir host competent to transmit B. lusitaniae.
Descriptors: lizard, Psammodromus algirus, Borrelia burgdorferi, physiology, disease reservoirs, Ixodes, lizards parasitology, Lyme disease, arachnid vectors, lyme disease transmission, polymerase chain reaction methods, tick infestations, epidemiology, Tunisia.

Ebani, V.V., D. Cerri, F. Fratini, N. Meille, P. Valentini, and E. Andreani (2005). Salmonella enterica isolates from faeces of domestic reptiles and a study of their antimicrobial in vitro sensitivity. Research in Veterinary Science 78(2): 117-121. ISSN: 0034-5288.
NAL Call Number: 41.8 R312
Abstract: From October 2001 to February 2002, the faecal samples of 305 reptiles (165 saurians, 99 ophidians and 41 chelonians) were bacteriologically examined to detect Salmonella enterica. S. enterica was isolated from 73 (23.93%) faecal samples including 44 (60.27%) samples collected from saurians, 15 (20.55%) from chelonians and 14 (19.18%) from ophidians; considering the number of samples taken for each reptile group, S. enterica was isolated from the 36.58% of chelonians, 26.66% of saurians and 14.14% of ophidians. The isolates were distributed among 38 serotypes. Sixty-nine (94.52%) isolates were resistant to erythromycin. About one-third of the isolates was resistant to sulfisoxazole (35.61%), gentamycin (32.88%), amoxycillin (31.51%) and ampicillin (27.40%). All but one of the isolates were sensitive to chloramphenicol. A high percentages of isolates were sensitive to enrofloxacin (84.93%), nitrofurantoin (80.82%), trimethoprim (76.71%) and tetracycline (75.34%).
Descriptors: reptiles, fecal testing, anti bacterial agents, pharmacology, microbiology, Salmonella infections, Salmonella enterica, drug effects, sensitivity tests, serotyping, veterinary.

Eggenschwiler, U. (2004). Respiratory diseases in turtles: recognition, treatment and prevention. Reptilia GB 34: 70-73. ISSN: 1138-4913.
Descriptors: reptiles, turtles, respiratory diseases, recognition, prevention, treatment.

Eisenberg, T. (2004). Salmonella in reptiles. Reptilia GB 33: 21-26. ISSN: 1138-4913.
Descriptors: reptiles, Salmonella, diseases, diagnosis, treatment.

Ene, A., M. Su, S. Lemaire, C. Rose, S. Schaff, R. Moretti, J. Lenz, and L.H. Herbst (2005). Distribution of chelonid fibropapillomatosis-associated herpesvirus variants in Florida: molecular genetic evidence for infection of turtles following recruitment to neritic developmental habitats. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 41(3): 489-497. ISSN: 0090-3558.
NAL Call Number: 41.9 W64B
Abstract: Marine turtle fibropapillomatosis is associated with chelonid fibropapilloma-associated herpesvirus (C-FP-HV) and commonly affects juvenile green turtles (Chelonia mydas) in neritic (nearshore) habitats. Green turtles have a complex life history, characterized by shifts in trophic level as well as habitat during ontogeny. Thus, several hypotheses can be proposed for when turtles become infected with C-FP-HV. They may acquire the virus at an early stage in the life cycle, including prenatal, hatchling, or the posthatchling pelagic stages. Alternatively, they may become infected later in life after they emigrate from the open ocean to neritic habitats. Each hypothesis generates predictions about the spatial distribution of genetic variants of C-FP-HV among nearshore sites within a region. Sequencing of polymerase chain reaction-amplified viral DNA from fibropapillomas of individual turtles was used to genotype the viral variants present in marine turtles from different coastal areas in Florida. We found four distinct virus variants (A, B, C, and D), two of which (A and C) were present in multiple turtle species. Green turtles in Florida were infected with variants A, B, and C. Variant A was found in green turtles from all three areas. Outside the Indian River Lagoon, variant A was most commonly detected and was found in >94% of diseased green turtles and 70% of loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) in the Florida Bay/Florida Keys. However, in the Indian River Lagoon, variant B was found in >94% of affected green turtles. Variant B was not detected outside of the Indian River system. Chi-square analysis strongly supported (P<0.001) an association between viral variant distribution in green turtles and location. On the basis of the assumption that juvenile green turtles found in Florida's west-central coast, Florida Keys, and Indian River Lagoon areas represented recruits from a mixed pelagic population, we expected that the distribution of viral variants in these turtles would be relatively homogeneous among locations; this would correspond to infection in the earlier phases of their life cycle. The heterogeneous distribution of viral variants in green turtle tumors from different Florida coastal locations strongly supports the hypothesis that, during epizootics, turtles are infected with specific C-FP-HV variants after they arrive as juveniles in neritic habitats. The conclusion that C-FP-HV is acquired after turtles recruit to nearshore habitats should help focus further research efforts on understanding the mechanisms of transmission and raises the possibility that the effect of fibropapillomatosis on turtle populations might be reduced by management strategies designed to break the cycle of transmission in these locations.
Descriptors: green turtles, Chelonia mydas, herpesevirus, herpesviridae infections, veterinary, skin neoplasms, tumor virus infections, turtles virology, base sequence, DNA, viral analysis, fibropapilloma, viral classification, fibroma virology, epidemiology, Florida.

Farfan Ale, J.A., B.J. Blitvich, N.L. Marlenee, M.A. Lorono Pino, F. Puerto Manzano, J.E. Garcia Rejon, E.P. Rosado Paredes, L.F. Flores Flores, A. Ortega Salazar, J. Chavez Medina, J.C. Cremieux Grimaldi, F. Correa Morales, G. Hernandez Gaona, J.F. Mendez Galvan, and B.J. Beaty (2006). Antibodies to West Nile virus in asymptomatic mammals, birds, and reptiles in the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 74(5): 908-914. ISSN: 0002-9637.
Online: http://www.ajtmh.org
Abstract: Surveillance for evidence of West Nile virus (WNV) infection in taxonomically diverse vertebrates was conducted in the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico in 2003 and 2004. Sera from 144 horses on Cozumel Island, Quintana Roo State, 415 vertebrates (257 birds, 52 mammals, and 106 reptiles) belonging to 61 species from the Merida Zoo, Yucatan State, and 7 farmed crocodiles in Ciudad del Carmen, Campeche State were assayed for antibodies to flaviviruses. Ninety (62%) horses on Cozumel Island had epitope-blocking enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) antibodies to flaviviruses, of which 75 (52%) were seropositive for WNV by plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT). Blocking ELISA antibodies to flaviviruses also were detected in 13 (3%) animals in the Merida Zoo, including 7 birds and 2 mammals (a jaguar and coyote) seropositive for WNV by PRNT. Six (86%) crocodiles in Campeche State had PRNT-confirmed WNV infections. All animals were healthy at the time of serum collections and none had a history of WNV-like illness.
Descriptors: mammals, birds, reptiles, viral analysis of antibodies, West Nile fever, wild animals, enzyme linked immunosorbent assay, Mexico, seroepidemiologic studies.

Farkas, S.L. (2004). Hullok adenovirusai. [Adenoviruses of reptiles]. Magyar Allatorvosok Lapja 126(4): 212-216. ISSN: 0025-004X.
Descriptors: reptiles, adenoviruses, lizards, snakes, aligators, turtles, tortoises.
Language of Text: Hungarian; Summary in English.

Feldman, S.H., J. Wimsatt, R.E. Marchang, A.J. Johnson, W. Brown, J.C. Mitchell, and J.M. Sleeman (2006). A novel Mycoplasma detected in association with upper respiratory disease syndrome in free-ranging eastern box turtles (Terrapene carolina carolina) in Virginia. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 42(2): 279-289. ISSN: 0090-3558.
NAL Call Number: 41.9 W64B
Abstract: Clinical signs of upper respiratory tract disease-like syndrome (URTD-LS) were observed in free-ranging eastern box turtles (Terrapene carolina carolina) from Virginia, USA (May 2001-August 2003), some of which also had aural abscesses. After a Mycoplasma sp. was detected by polymerase chain reaction (PCR), a study was undertaken to better define the range of clinical signs of disease and to distinguish mycoplasma-associated URTD-LS from other suspected causes of URTD-LS and aural abscessation in box turtles. Nasal and/or ocular swabs (from turtles possessing URTD-LS) or nasal washes (from asymptomatic turtles) were collected from turtles May 2001-August 2003; samples were assayed for Mycoplasma spp., chelonian herpesvirus, and iridoviruses by PCR testing. A partial DNA sequence (933 bases) of the small ribosomal subunit (16S rRNA) of the box turtle Mycoplasma sp. was analyzed to determine its phylogenetic relatedness to other Mycoplasma spp. of veterinary interest. Mycoplasma sp. was detected in seven (six with clinical signs of URTD-LS; one asymptomatic) of 23 fortuitously collected animals from six of 11 Virginia counties. Clinical signs in Mycoplasma sp.-infected animals included unilateral to bilateral serous to mucopurulent nasal discharge, epiphora, ocular edema, and conjunctival injection. Five Mycoplasma sp.-positive animals possessed aural abscesses; two did not. Analysis of the mycoplasma 16S rRNA gene sequence from one asymptomatic and three symptomatic animals representing four counties revealed a consensus Mycoplasma sp. sequence closely related to, but distinct from, M. agassizii. None of the samples collected contained viral DNA of chelonian herpesviruses or invertebrate and vertebrate (including FV3) iridoviruses. In conclusion, a new Mycoplasma sp. was associated with URTD-LS in native box turtles from Virginia that was not codetected with other suspected causes of chelonian upper respiratory disease; there was no proof of a direct relationship between aural abscessation and the Mycoplasma sp.
Descriptors: reptiles, eastern box turtles, Terrapene carolina carolina, Mycoplasma infections, polymerase chain reaction, respiratory tract infections, microbiology, DNA, bacterial analysis, respiratory tract infections, epidemiology, pathology, Virginia.

Filip, T. and A. Kuebber Heiss (2005). Ein Update zur Herpesvirose bei Schildkroeten. [An update on the herpes virus in tortoises & turtles.]. Marginata 7: 36-43.
Descriptors: reptiles, tortoises, turtles, herpes virus, disease, update.
Language of Text: German.

Foley, A.M., B.A. Schroeder, A.E. Redlow, K.J. Fick Child, and W.G. Teas (2005). Fibropapillomatosis in stranded green turtles (Chelonia mydas) from the eastern United States (1980-98): trends and associations with environmental factors. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 41(1): 29-41. ISSN: 0090-3558.
NAL Call Number: 41.9 W64B
Abstract: We examined data collected by the US Sea Turtle Stranding and Salvage Network on 4,328 green turtles (Chelonia mydas) found dead or debilitated (i.e., stranded) in the eastern half of the USA from Massachusetts to Texas during the period extending from 1980 to 1998. Fibropapillomatosis (FP) was reported only on green turtles in the southern half of Florida (south of 29 degrees N latitude). Within this region, 22.6% (682/3,016) of the turtles had tumors. Fibropapillomatosis was more prevalent in turtles found along the western (Gulf) coast of Florida (51.9%) than in turtles found along the eastern (Atlantic) coast of Florida (11.9%) and was more prevalent in turtles found in inshore areas (38.9%) than in turtles found in offshore areas (14.6%). A high prevalence of FP corresponded to coastal waters characterized by habitat degradation and pollution, a large extent of shallow-water area, and low wave energy, supporting speculation that one or more of these factors could serve as an environmental cofactor in the expression of FP. A high prevalence of FP did not correspond to high-density green turtle assemblages. Turtles with tumors were found most commonly during the fall and winter months, and the occurrence of tumors was most common in turtles of intermediate size (40-70-cm curved carapace length). Stranded green turtles with tumors were more likely to be emaciated or entangled in fishing line and less likely to have propeller wounds than were stranded green turtles without tumors. Turtles with and without tumors were equally likely to show evidence of a shark attack. The percent occurrence of tumors in stranded green turtles increased from approximately 10% in the early 1980s to over 30% in the late 1990s. Fibropapillomatosis was first documented in southernmost Florida in the late 1930s and spread throughout the southern half of Florida and the Caribbean during the mid-1980s. Because green turtles living in south Florida are known to move throughout much of the Caribbean, but are not known to move to other parts of the USA or to Bermuda, the spread and current distribution of FP in the western Atlantic, Gulf of Mexico, and Caribbean can be explained by assuming FP is caused by an infectious agent that first appeared in southern Florida. Aberrant movements of captive-reared turtles or of turtles that are released into areas where they were not originally found could spread FP beyond its current distribution.
Descriptors: green turtles, Chelonia mydas, environmental pollution, adverse effects, fibropapillomatosis, papilloma, skin neoplasms, epidemiology, fibroma etiology, pathology, geography, papilloma epidemiology, etiology, pathology, prevalence, seasons.

Gal, J. (2004). A hullok verkepzo es keringesi szerveinek fontosabb megbetegedesei. [Major diseases of hemopoetic and circulatory systems of reptiles]. KisallatPraxis 5(3): 134-136. ISSN: 1585-9142.
NAL Call Number: SF981.K573
Descriptors: reptiles, major diseases, hemopoetic system, circulatory system.
Language of Text: Hungarian; Summary in English.

Gal, J., M. Mandoki, C. Jakab, E. Sos, and M. Marosan (2003). Entamoebosis zold leguanban (Iguana iguana).[Entamoebiosis in green iguana (Iguana iguana)]. Magyar Allatorvosok Lapja 125(7): 422-424. ISSN: 0025-004X.
Descriptors: reptiles, iguana, case reports, entamoebosis, clinical aspects.
Language of Text: Hungarian; Summary in English.

Gal, J., M. Marosan, and D. Winkler (2004). A hullok kivalaszto keszulekenek anatomiaja, elettana es fontosabb megbetegedesei. [Anatomy, physiology and major diseases of the reptile excretory apparatus]. KisallatPraxis 5(1): 22, 24-26. ISSN: 1585-9142.
NAL Call Number: SF981.K573
Descriptors: reptiles, anatomy, physiology, diseases, excetory apparatus, kidneys, intestines.
Language of Text: Hungarian; Summary in English.

Gal, J., A. Antal, E. Sos, and M. Marosan (2003). A keteltuek es a hullok legzokeszulekenek anatomiaja, elettana es fontosabb betegsegei. Irodalmi attekintes. [Anatomy, physiology and important diseases of the respiratory apparatus of amphibians and reptiles. Literature review.]. Magyar Allatorvosok Lapja 125(3): 165-171. ISSN: 0025-004X.
Descriptors: amphibians, reptiles, anatomy, physiology, important diseases, respiratory apparatus, literature review.
Language of Text: Hungarian.

Gal, J., E. Sos, L. Mezosi, S. Radvanyi, M. Mandoki, and T. Toth (2006). Abscess formation caused by Plesiomonas shigelloides in the body cavity of the lizard Ameiva ameiva (Linnaeus, 1758). Salamandra 42(1): 53-56. ISSN: 0036-3375.
Descriptors: reptiles, lizard, Amevia amevia, abcess formation, body cavity, bacteria, Plesiomonas shigelloides, chronic inflammation.

Garner, M.M. (2003). Focus on diseases of reptiles. Exotic DVM 5(3): 65-70. ISSN: 1521-1363.
NAL Call Number: SF981.E96
Descriptors: reptiles, lizards, snakes, turtles, diseases, conference proceedings.
Notes: Meeting Information: International Conference on Exotics (ICE2003), Palm Beach, Florida, USA, 2003.

Garner, M.M., S.M. Hernandez Divers, and J.T. Raymond (2004). Reptile neoplasia: a retrospective study of case submissions to a specialty diagnostic service. Veterinary Clinics of North America, Exotic Animal Practice 7(3): vi, 653-671. ISSN: 1094-9194.
NAL Call Number: SF997.5.E95 E97
Descriptors: reptiles, neoplasia, retrospective study, case submissions, diagnostic service.

Garner, M.M. and J.T. Raymond (2004). Methods for diagnosing inclusion body disease in snakes. Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the Association of Reptilian and Amphibian Veterinarians 11: 21-25. ISSN: 1529-9651.
Online: http://www.arav.org/
NAL Call Number: SF996.A77
Descriptors: reptiles, inclusion body disease, diagnosing, methods, IBD, snakes, liver biopsy.

Govett, P.D., C.A. Harms, A.J. Johnson, K.S. Latimer, J.F.X. Welleham, M.H. Fatzinger, L.S. Christian, T.R. Kelly, and G.A. Lewbart (2005). Lymphoid follicular cloacal inflammation associated with a novel herpesvirus in juvenile alligators (Alligator mississippiensis). Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation 17(5): 474-479. ISSN: 1040-6387.
NAL Call Number: SF774.J68
Descriptors: reptiles, juvenile alligators, Alligator mississippiensis, lymphoid follicular cloacal inflamation, novel herpesvirus.

Greenblatt, R.J., S.L. Quackenbush, R.N. Casey, J. Rovnak, G.H. Balazs, T.M. Work, J.W. Casey, and C.A. Sutton (2005). Genomic variation of the fibropapilloma-associated marine turtle herpesvirus across seven geographic areas and three host species. Journal of Virology 79(2): 1125-1132. ISSN: 0022-538X.
NAL Call Number: QR360.J6
Abstract: Fibropapillomatosis (FP) of marine turtles is an emerging neoplastic disease associated with infection by a novel turtle herpesvirus, fibropapilloma-associated turtle herpesvirus (FPTHV). This report presents 23 kb of the genome of an FPTHV infecting a Hawaiian green turtle (Chelonia mydas). By sequence homology, the open reading frames in this contig correspond to herpes simplex virus genes UL23 through UL36. The order, orientation, and homology of these putative genes indicate that FPTHV is a member of the Alphaherpesvirinae. The UL27-, UL30-, and UL34-homologous open reading frames from FPTHVs infecting nine FP-affected marine turtles from seven geographic areas and three turtle species (C. mydas, Caretta caretta, and Lepidochelys olivacea) were compared. A high degree of nucleotide sequence conservation was found among these virus variants. However, geographic variations were also found: the FPTHVs examined here form four groups, corresponding to the Atlantic Ocean, West pacific, mid-Pacific, and east Pacific. Our results indicate that FPTHV was established in marine turtle populations prior to the emergence of FP as it is currently known.
Descriptors: Hawaiian green turtle, (Chelonia mydas), herpesvirus, fibropapilloma, genomic variation, neoplastic disease, infection, herpes simplex virus.
Notes: Comment In: J Virol. 2006 May;80(9):4643; author reply 4343-4.

Greenblatt, R.J., T.M. Work, G.H. Balazs, C.A. Sutton, R.N. Casey, and J.W. Casey (2004). The Ozobranchus leech is a candidate mechanical vector for the fibropapilloma-associated turtle herpesvirus found latently infecting skin tumors on Hawaiian green turtles (Chelonia mydas). Virology 321(1): 101-110. ISSN: 0042-6822.
Abstract: Fibropapillomatosis (FP) of marine turtles is a neoplastic disease of ecological concern. A fibropapilloma-associated turtle herpesvirus (FPTHV) is consistently present, usually at loads exceeding one virus copy per tumor cell. DNA from an array of parasites of green turtles (Chelonia mydas) was examined with quantitative PCR (qPCR) to determine whether any carried viral loads are sufficient to implicate them as vectors for FPTHV. Marine leeches (Ozobranchus spp.) were found to carry high viral DNA loads; some samples approached 10 million copies per leech. Isopycnic sucrose density gradient/qPCR analysis confirmed that some of these copies were associated with particles of the density of enveloped viruses. The data implicate the marine leech Ozobranchus as a mechanical vector for FPTHV. Quantitative RT-PCR analysis of FPTHV gene expression indicated that most of the FPTHV copies in a fibropapilloma have restricted DNA polymerase expression, suggestive of latent infection.
Descriptors: reptiles, Hawaiian green turtles, Chelonia mydas, fibropapilloma, herpesvirus, Ozobranchus leech, vector, skin tumor.

Greer, L.L., J.D. Strandberg, and B.R.2. Whitaker (2003). Mycobacterium chelonae osteoarthritis in a Kemp's ridley sea turtle (Lepidochelys kempii). Journal of Wildlife Diseases 39(3): 736-741. ISSN: 0090-3558.
NAL Call Number: 41.9 W64B
Abstract: A stranded Kemp's ridley sea turtle (Lepidochelys kempii) was rescued and treated at the National Aquarium in Baltimore (Maryland, USA) for inappetence and epidermal appendicular and plastral lesions. After 4 mo of care, the turtle developed a swollen left elbow joint. Within 1 mo of initial swelling, osteolytic lesions developed in the proximal radius and ulna. The elbow joint was surgically debrided, flushed, and cultured. The incision dehisced 10 days after surgery. Mycobacterium chelonae was cultured from the left elbow joint and from a skin nodule of the dorsum of the right front flipper. The turtle was euthanized due to apparent systemic infection with M. chelonae. Mycobacterium chelonae was isolated from cultures taken at necropsy of the lung, liver, spleen, kidney, and pericardium. Osteoarthritic infections with M. chelonae have not been reported in reptiles. Additionally, primary osteoarthritic diseases of synovial joints are uncommon in reptilian species. Due to the paucity of reports of mycobacterial diseases in sea turtles, the continued documentation of these cases will increase knowledge and understanding in caring for these endangered animals.
Descriptors: reptiles, Kemp's ridley sea turtle, Mycobacterium chelonae, osteoarthritis, elbow joint, necropsy, liver, spleen, kidney, pericardium, case study.

Greiner, E.C. (2003). Coccidiosis in reptiles. Seminars in Avian and Exotic Pet Medicine 12(1): 49-56. ISSN: 1055-937X.
NAL Call Number: SF994.2.A1S36
Descriptors: reptiles, coccidiosis, disease, seminar paper.

Guedes, R.M.C. and G.E. Lavalle (2004). Hepatic cirrhosis in a red-food tortoise (Geochelone carbonaria). A case report. Arquivo Brasileiro De Medicina Veterinaria e Zootecnia 56(1): 123-125. ISSN: 0102-0935.
Descriptors: reptiles, red footed tortoise, Geochelone carbonaria, hepatic cirrhosis, case report..
Language of Text: Portuguese.

Hejnar, P., J. Bardon, P. Sauer, and M. Kolar (2007). Stenotrophomonas maltophilia as a part of normal oral bacterial flora in captive snakes and its susceptibility to antibiotics. Veterinary Microbiology 121(3-4): 357-362. ISSN: 0378-1135.
NAL Call Number: SF601.V44
Abstract: Only little is known about normal oral bacterial flora in captive snakes containing Stenotrophomonas maltophilia. This microbe has been reported as a causative agent of numerous infections in reptiles. Therefore, the goal of the study was to detect its presence in the mouths of a significant number of healthy captive snakes and determining its susceptibility to antibiotics at 30 and 37 degrees C. The isolates were obtained in 1999-2005 from mouth swabs of 115 snakes of 12 genera and 22 species-most often Elaphe guttata (24 individuals; 20.9%). Susceptibility to 24 antibiotics was tested by the microdilution method. The microbe was demonstrated in 34 (29.6%) individuals. Overall, 47 strains of S. maltophilia were acquired. Evaluation using PFGE profiles and antibiograms resulted in confirmation of one strain of S. maltophilia in 23 (20.0%) individuals, two strains in nine (7.8%) and three in two (1.8%) snakes. All tested antibiotics were more effective at 37 degrees C, with the partial exception of cotrimoxazole and cefoperazone/sulbactam. At a temperature of 37 degrees C, the lowest frequency of resistance to levofloxacin (no resistant strains), cotrimoxazole and ofloxacin (97.9% of susceptible strains) was recorded. At 30 degrees C, the most active agents were cotrimoxazole (97.9% of susceptible strains), levofloxacin (91.5%) and ofloxacin (85.1%). In conclusion, S. maltophilia is present in the mouths of about one third of healthy captive snakes, showing good susceptibility to cotrimoxazole, some fluoroquinolones and aminoglycosides. The antibiotics (particularly aminoglycosides) are more effective at 37 degrees C.
Descriptors: reptiles, snakes, oral bacterial flora, captive snakes, Stenotrophomonas maltophilia, infection, susceptibility to antibiotics tested.

Helke, K.L., T.K. Cooper, J.L. Mankowski, and S.L. Poynton (2006). Disseminated visceral coccidiosis in indo-gangetic flap-shelled turtles, Lissemys punctata andersonii. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 42(4): 788-796. ISSN: 0090-3558.
NAL Call Number: 41.9 W64B
Descriptors: reptiles, flap-shelled turtles, Lissemys punctata andersonii, coccidiosis, disseminated visceral, Eimeria, lung, liver, auditory canal, pharynx, kidney, spleen.

Herbst, L., A. Ene, M. Su, R. Desalle, and J. Lenz (2004). Tumor outbreaks in marine turtles are not due to recent herpesvirus mutations. Current Biology 14(17): R697-R699. ISSN: 0960-9822.
Descriptors: reptiles, marine turtles, tumor outbreaks, not due to recent herpesvirus mutations.

Herrera Leon, S., M. Saco, A. Martinez Silvestre, L. Silveira, A. Echeita, and M.A. Usera (2005). Molecular characterization of a new serovar of Salmonella bongori 13,22:z39:- isolated from a lizard. Research in Microbiology 156(4): 597-602. ISSN: 0923-2508.
NAL Call Number: QR1.A55
Abstract: Three Salmonella strains isolated from a lizard (Gallotia simoni) in the "Isla del Hierro" (Canary Islands, Spain) were serotyped as Salmonella bongori serotype 13,22:z39:-, which has not been described in the Kauffmann-White scheme of Salmonella serovars. In order to shed light on the assignment of those strains to the S. bongori species, several genes were amplified and/or sequenced. The iroB gene has been reported to be present only in S. enterica, while the invA gene has been described as being a helpful tool in distinguishing Salmonella from other bacterial species. Both genes were amplified and, as expected, only invA could be amplified. The fliC gene, encoding the phase 1 flagellin fljB gene, encoding phase 2 flagellin, and the gapA gene, which is believed to present polymorphic alleles among different subspecies, were amplified and sequenced. The sequence obtained from fliC(z39) matched with the sequences fliC(z39) obtained from other serovars. The sequence obtained from gapA clustered into the S. bongori group when it was compared to others previously described. We conclude that these three isolates are members of the S. bongori species representing a new serovar that will be described in the next supplement to the Kauffmann-White scheme.
Descriptors: lizards, microbiology, salmonella, genetics, bacterial genetics, proteins genetics, cloning, flagellin genetics, polymerase chain reaction, salmonella classification, Spain.

Hidalgo Vila, J., C. Diaz Paniagua, C. de Frutos Escobar, C. Jimenez Martinez, and N. Perez Santigosa (2007). Salmonella in free living terrestrial and aquatic turtles. Veterinary Microbiology 119(2-4): 311-315. ISSN: 0378-1135.
NAL Call Number: SF601.V44
Abstract: Detection of Salmonella in pet turtles has been the focus of extensive research, but its incidence in free living turtles is not well known. The aim of this study was to evaluate the incidence of Salmonella in terrestrial and aquatic species of chelonians inhabiting a National Park in southwestern Spain. Individuals of the terrestrial tortoise Testudo graeca (n = 16) and the aquatic turtles Emys orbicularis (n = 26) and Mauremys leprosa (n = 50) were investigated. Maximum incidence of Salmonella was recorded in the terrestrial species (100%). In contrast, the incidence of infected animals was low in the aquatic species, 12% in M. leprosa and 15.4% in E. orbicularis. Five serotypes of Salmonella belonging to subspecies Enterica (I) and Salamae (II) were identified. All serotypes were found in the terrestrial species, and three in the aquatic ones, suggesting that wild terrestrial chelonians are important reservoirs of Salmonella in our study area. Cloacal transmission during mating is the most probable mode of transmission among individuals.
Descriptors: reptiles, turtles, aquatic, terrestrial, Salmonella, free living, pet turtles, cloacal transmission, incidence.

Hidalgo Vila, J., A. Martainez Silvestre, and C. Daiaz Paniagua (2006). Benign ovarian teratoma in a red-eared slider turtle (Trachemys scripta elegans). Veterinary Record 159(4): 122-123. ISSN: 0042-4900.
NAL Call Number: 41.8 V641
Descriptors: reptiles, red-eared slider turtle, Trachemys scripta, ovarian cancer, benign ovarian tumor, case study.

Hong, M.L., L.R. Fu, R.P. Wang, and H.T. Shi (2003). The advances in the research of the turtle's disease. Chinese Journal of Zoology 38(6): 115-119. ISSN: 0250-3263.
Descriptors: reptiles, turtles, diseases, research, advances, review, cause, diagnosis.
Language of Text: Chinese; Summary in Chinese and English.

Hsieh, C.Y., T.C. Chang, Y.L. Shen, C.D. Chang, C. Tu, M.C. Tung, L.C. Chen, and S.S. Tsai (2006). Pathological and PCR detection of mycobacteriosis in pond-cultured Chinese soft shell turtles, Trionyx sinensis. Aquaculture 261(1): 10-16. ISSN: 0044-8486.
Abstract: Mycobacteriosis due to infection of Mycobacterium marinum is a common disease in pond-cultured Chinese soft shell turtles, especially in those surviving beyond their first year. The infected turtles independently showed either heterophilic or histiocytic granulomas in various organs such as the spleen, liver, lungs, intestine, kidneys, stomach and pancreas. The heterophilic granuloma contained many acid-fast unbranching bacilli intracellularly in macrophages and extracellularly in the necrotic center. The histiocytic granuloma had only a few bacteria, mainly in the cytoplasm of Langhan's giant cells. The organisms were rarely observed in the advanced lesions of both types. Based on PCR assays for partial hsp65 gene of Mycobacterium spp., all of our strains were identified as M. marinum which can be divided into two groups. The strains of the first group induced heterophilic granulomas and had very high nucleotide sequence identities (99.8%-100%) to the reference strains of M. marinum (AF456471) and M. pseudoshottsii (AY550226). Those strains of the second group caused histiocytic granulomas and also showed very high identities (99.8%-100%) to the reference strains of M. marinum ATCC 927 (AF456470) and M. shottsii (AY550225). However, when we compared the partial sequence of the hsp65 gene from group one and two strains the identities between the two groups range from 98.8% to 99.3%, therefore we can not assert that these two belong to the same species.
Descriptors: reptiles, soft shell turtles, Trionyx sinensis, Mycobacterium marinum, animal pathogenic bacteria, bacterial proteins, sequence analysis, disease detection, pathogen identification, histopathology, turtle culture.

Huchzermeyer, F.W. (2002). Diseases of farmed crocodiles and ostriches. Revue Scientifique Et Technique International Office of Epizootics 21(2): 265-276. ISSN: 0253-1933.
Abstract: Crocodiles and ostriches are very sensitive to stress, and the ideal conditions for intensive rearing have not yet been established. Consequently, mortality is often directly linked to conditions on the farm. Crocodile and caiman pox, adenoviral hepatitis, mycoplasmosis, chlamydiosis and coccidiosis are crocodile-specific infections with reservoirs in wild populations and adult wild-caught breeding stock. Other important conditions are salmonellosis, non-specific septicaemia, trichinellosis, the nutritional diseases osteomalacia, fat necrosis and gout, as well as winter sores. The only ostrich-specific transmissible disease is libyostrongylosis. Other important conditions are Newcastle disease, avian influenza, fading chick syndrome, tibiotarsal rotation and enteritis. No cases of coccidiosis in ostriches have ever been confirmed.
Descriptors: reptiles, crocodiles, farmed, diseases, stress, intensive rearing, mortality, nutritional diseases.

Irizarry Rovira, A.R., A. Wolf, and J.A. Ramos Vara (2006). Cutaneous melanophoroma in a green iguana (Iguana iguana). Veterinary Clinical Pathology 35(1): 101-105. ISSN: 0275-6382.
NAL Call Number: SF601.A54
Abstract: An adult, male, green iguana (Iguana iguana) of unknown age was presented with a history of an enlarging, dark, skin mass in the right axillary region. The mass was excised because neoplasia was suspected. Impression smears of the cut surface of the mass were prepared for cytologic examination, and the mass was fixed for histologic examination. The impression smears contained numerous, discrete, pigmented, neoplastic cells consistent with melanin-producing neoplastic chromatophores. Histologic findings were consistent with a cutaneous melanophoroma. By transmission electron microscopy, the intracytoplasmic pigment granules corresponded to numerous melanosomes and lower numbers of premelanosomes. Tissue sections of the tumor were immunoreactive for Melan A antigen and were negative for S-100 antigen. The cytologic, histologic, electron microscopic, and immunohistochemical findings of the neoplasm were consistent with those of melanophoroma, an uncommon neoplasm of reptiles. The present report augments the limited body of knowledge on cytomorphologic and immunohistochemical characteristics of pigmented neoplasms in reptiles.
Descriptors: green iguana, Iguana iguana, skin neoplasms veterinary, skin neoplasms diagnosis, skin neoplasms pathology.

Jacobson, E.R. (2002). Chlamydiosis: an under reported disease of reptiles. Proceedings of the North American Veterinary Conference 16(16): 916-917. ISSN: 0003-1488.
NAL Call Number: SF605.N672
Descriptors: reptiles, diseases, chlamydiosis, under reported, infection.
Notes: In the volume: Small Animal and Exotics. Part of a three volume set. Meeting held January 12-16, 2002, Orlando, Florida. Includes references.

Jacobson, E.R. (2002). Infectious diseases of sea turtles. Proceedings of the North American Veterinary Conference 16(16): 912-913. ISSN: 0002-1488.
NAL Call Number: SF605.N672
Descriptors: reptiles, turtles, infectious diseases, sea turtles.
Notes: In the volume: Small Animal and Exotics. Part of a three volume set. Meeting held January 12-16, 2002, Orlando, Florida. Includes references.

Jacobson, E.R., B.L. Homer, B.A. Stacy, E.C. Greiner, N.J. Szabo, C.L. Chrisman, F. Origgi, S. Coberley, A.M. Foley, J.H. Landsberg, L. Flewelling, R.Y. Ewing, R. Moretti, S. Schaf, C. Rose, D.R. Mader, G.R. Harman, C.A. Manire, N.S. Mettee, A.P. Mizisin, and G.D. Shelton (2006). Neurological disease in wild loggerhead sea turtles Caretta caretta. Diseases of Aquatic Organisms 70(1-2): 139-154. ISSN: print: 0177-5103; online: 1616-1580.
Online: http://dx.doi.org/10.3354/dao070139
Abstract: Beginning in October 2000, subadult loggerhead sea turtles Caretta caretta showing clinical signs of a neurological disorder were found in waters off south Florida, USA. Histopathology indicated generalized and neurologic spirorchiidiasis. In loggerhead sea turtles (LST) with neurospirorchiidiasis, adult trematodes were found in the meninges of the brain and spinal cord of 7 and 3 affected turtles respectively, and multiple encephalic intravascular or perivascular eggs were associated with granulomatous or mixed leukocytic inflammation, vasculitis, edema, axonal degeneration and occasional necrosis. Adult spirorchiids were dissected from meningeal vessels of 2 of 11 LST brains and 1 of 10 spinal cords and were identified as Neospirorchis sp. Affected LST were evaluated for brevetoxins, ciguatoxins, saxitoxins, domoic acid and palytoxin. While tissues from 7 of 20 LST tested positive for brevetoxins, the levels were not considered to be in a range causing acute toxicosis. No known natural (algal blooms) or anthropogenic (pollutant spills) stressors co-occurred with the turtle mortality. While heavy metal toxicosis and organophosphate toxicosis were also investigated as possible causes, there was no evidence for their involvement. We speculate that the clinical signs and pathologic changes seen in the affected LST resulted from combined heavy spirorchiid parasitism and possible chronic exposure to a novel toxin present in the diet of LST.
Descriptors: subadult loggerhead sea turtles Caretta caretta, nervous system diseases, trematoda, infections, turtles, parasitology, brain parasitology, kidney, chemistry, liver, chemistry, marine toxins analysis, heavy metals, skeletal pathology, nervous system diseases, parasitology, pathology, sciatic nerve pathology, trematoda pathogenicity, trematode infections pathology.

Johnson, A.J., A.P. Pessier, and E.R. Jacobson (2007). Experimental Transmission and Induction of Ranaviral Disease in Western Ornate Box Turtles (Terrapene ornata ornata) and Red-Eared Sliders (Trachemys scripta elegans). Veterinary Pathology 44(3): 285-297. ISSN: 0300-9858.
Online: http://www.vetpathology.org/cgi/content/abstract/44/3/285
NAL Call Number: 41.8 P27
Abstract: An experimental transmission study was designed to determine whether a causal relationship exists between a Ranavirus (BSTRV) isolated from a Burmese star tortoise that died and the lesions observed in that tortoise. A pilot study was performed with 3 box turtles (Terrapene ornata ornata) and 3 red-eared sliders (RESs; Trachemys scripta elegans) to assess their suitability in a larger study. Based on the outcome of this study, RESs were selected, and 2 groups of 4 RESs received either an oral (PO) or intramuscular (IM) inoculum containing10(5) 50% Tissue Culture Infecting Dose (TCID(50)) of a BSTRV-infected cell lysate. One turtle each was mock inoculated PO or IM with the same volume of uninfected cell lysate. Three of four IM-inoculated RESs developed clinical signs (nasal and ocular discharge [3 of 3], oral plaques [1 of 3], conjunctivitis and hyphema [1 of 3] and extreme lethargy [3 of 3]). A Ranavirus was isolated from kidney homogenates of 3 euthanatized turtles; DNA sequences of a portion of the major capsid protein gene were amplified by polymerase chain reaction. Consistent histologic lesions were observed only in IM-inoculated turtles and included fibrinoid vasculitis centered on splenic ellipsoids, multifocal hepatic necrosis, and multicentric fibrin thrombi in a variety of locations, including hepatic sinusoids, glomerular capillary loops, and pulmonary capillaries. Virions compatible with Ranavirus were observed within necrotic cells of the spleen of 1 IM-inoculated turtle using transmission electron microscopy. This study fulfills Koch's postulates, confirming a causal relationship between BSTRV and the clinical and histologic changes in chelonians infected with this virus.
Descriptors: reptiles, box turtles, experimental transmission, induction, ranaviral disease, inoculated, PO, IM, clinical signs, Koch's postulates.

Joyner, P.H., J.D. Brown, S. Holladay, and J.M. Sleeman (2006). Characterization of the bacterial microflora of the tympanic cavity of eastern box turtles with and without aural abscesses. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 42(4): 859-864. ISSN: 0090-3558.
NAL Call Number: 41.9 W64B
Descriptors: reptiles, eastern box turtle, aural abscesses, tympanic cavity, bacterial microflora, characterization, aerobic bacterial cultures.

Joyner, P.H., A.A. Shreve, J. Spahr, A.L. Fountain, and J.M. Steeman (2006). Phaeohyphomycosis in a free-living eastern box turtle (Terrapene carolina carolina). Journal of Wildlife Diseases 42(4): 883-888. ISSN: 0090-3558.
NAL Call Number: 41.9 W64B
Descriptors: reptiles, eastern box turtle, free living, phaeohyphomycosis, infection, swelling, hind limb, diagnosis, hematology, necropsy, fungi.

Klenk, K., J. Snow, K. Morgan, R. Bowen, M. Stephens, F. Foster, P. Gordy, S. Beckett, N. Komar, D. Gubler, and M. Bunning (2004). Alligators as West Nile virus amplifiers. Emerging Infectious Diseases 10(12): 2150-2155. ISSN: print: 1080-6040; online: 1080-6059.
NAL Call Number: RA648.5.E46
Descriptors: reptiles, Alligator mississippiensis, West Nile virus, transmission, virus amplifiers, WNV.

Kohler, G. (2006). Diseases of Amphibians and Reptiles, Malabar, USA: Krieger Publishing Company, 171 p. ISBN: 1575242559.
Descriptors: diseases, clinical aspects, diagnosis, euthanasia, examination, neoplasms, imaging techniques, surgery, treatment, amphibians, reptiles, blood tests, first aid, book.

Kuroki, T., Y. Une, and T. Endo (2003). Cryptosporidium infections in reptiles. Japanese Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 8(1): 27-34. ISSN: 1342-6133.
Descriptors: reptiles, diseases, Cryptosporidium infections, Veterinary, feces.
Language of Text: Japanese; Summary in English.

Lane, R.S., J. Mun, L. Eisen, and R.J. Eisen (2006). Refractoriness of the western fence lizard (Sceloporus occidentalis) to the Lyme disease group spirochete Borrelia bissettii. Journal of Parasitology. 92(4): 691-696. ISSN: 0022-3395.
Abstract: The western fence lizard, Sceloporus occidentalis, is refractory to experimental infection with Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto, one of several Lyme disease spirochetes pathogenic for humans. Another member of the Lyme disease spirochete complex, Borrelia bissettii, is distributed widely throughout North America and a similar, if not identical, spirochete has been implicated as a human pathogen in southern Europe. To determine the susceptibility of S. occidentalis to B. bissettii, 6 naive lizards were exposed to the feeding activities of Ixodes pacificus nymphs experimentally infected with this spirochete. None of the lizards developed spirochetemias detectable by polymerase chain reaction for up to 8 wk post-tick feeding, infected nymphs apparently lost their B. bissettii infections within 1-2 wk after engorgement, and xenodiagnostic L. pacificus larvae that co-fed alongside infected nymphs did not acquire and maintain spirochetes. In contrast, 3 of 4 naive deer mice (Peromyscus maniculatus) exposed similarly to feeding by 1 or more B. bissettii-infected nymphs developed patent infections within 4 wk. These and previous findings suggest that the complement system of S. occidentalis typically destroys B. burgdorferi sensu lato spirochetes present in tissues of attached and feeding I. pacificus nymphs, thereby potentially reducing the probability of transmission of these bacteria to humans or other animals by the resultant adult ticks.
Descriptors: Borrelia burgdorferi, immunology, lizards immunology, lizards microbiology, Lyme disease, arachnid vectors, complement system proteins immunology, disease susceptibility, immunity, natural immunology, Ixodes, immunology, transmission.

Lee AnHsing, Chen ChenYu, Lee YinnJie, Fei ChangYung, Liu ChenHsuan, and Chi ChauHwa (2003). Case report: hepatozoonosis in Taiwan beauty snake. Taiwan Veterinary Journal 29(2): 146-150. ISSN: 1682-6485.
NAL Call Number: SF604.C54
Descriptors: reptiles, Taiwan beauty snake, hepatazoonosis, case reports, diagnosis, haematology, treatment, necropsy.
Language of Text: Chinese; Summary in English.

Lloyd, C., R. Manvell, S. Drury, and A.W. Sainsbury (2005). Seroprevalence and significance of paramyxovirus titres in a zoological collection of lizards. Veterinary Record 156(18): 578-580. ISSN: 0042-4900.
NAL Call Number: 41.8 V641
Descriptors: lizards, paramyxovirus, titres, antibodies, seroprevalence, zoo, immunosorbent assay, London, respirovirus infections, epidemiology, significance.

Lu, Y.A., Y. Wang, A.A. Aguirre, Z.S. Zhao, C.Y. Liu, V.R. Nerurkar, and R. Yanagihara (2003). RT-PCR detection of the expression of the polymerase gene of a novel reptilian herpesvirus in tumor tissues of green turtles with fibropapilloma. Archives of Virology 148(6): 1155-1163. ISSN: 0304-8608.
NAL Call Number: 448.3 Ar23
Descriptors: reptiles, green turtles, Chelonia mydas, papilloma, animal diseases, gene expression, tissue distribution, Herpesviridae, etiology.

Luechtefeld, L. (2004). West Nile transmitted from alligator to human. Veterinary Practice News 16(1): 14. ISSN: 1528-6398.
Descriptors: reptiles, alligator, West Nile virus, transmitted to human, virus shedding, feces.

Mader, D.R. and M.M. Garner (2002). Metabolic bone diseases in the green iguana. Proceedings of the North American Veterinary Conference 16(16): 921-922. ISSN: 0003-1488.
NAL Call Number: SF605.N672
Descriptors: reptiles, Iguana, metabolic diseases, bone diseases, veterinary care, diagnosis, meeting.
Notes: In the volume: Small Animal and Exotics. Part of a three volume set. Meeting held January 12-16, 2002, Orlando, Florida.

Manire, C.A., H.L. Rhinehart, D.A. Sutton, E.H. Thompson, M.G. Rinaldi, J.D. Buck, and E. Jacobson (2002). Disseminated mycotic infection caused by Colletotrichum acutatum in a Kemp's ridley sea turtle (Lepidochelys kempi). Journal of Clinical Microbiology 40(11): 4273-4280. ISSN: 0095-1137.
Online: http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JCM.40.11.4273-4280.2002
NAL Call Number: QR46.J6
Abstract: Colletotrichum acutatum is a cosmopolitan plant pathogen with a wide host range. While the organism's phytopathogenic potential has been well documented, it has never been reported as an etiologic agent of disease in either animals or humans. In this case, a juvenile Kemp's ridley sea turtle, Lepidochelys kempi, probably with immune compromise following cold stunning (extended hypothermia), developed a disseminated mycotic infection in the lungs and kidneys. Prophylactic treatment with oral itraconazole did not prevent or cure the infection. This report of a Colletotrichum acutatum infection in an animal extends the range of disease caused by this organism beyond that of a phytopathogen.
Descriptors: reptiles, Kemp's ridley sea turtle, Lepidochelys kempi, Colletotrichum pathogenicity, hypothermia, mycoses, fatal outcome, mycotic infection, plant diseases.

Marschang, R.E., S. Donahoe, R. Manvell, and J. Lemos Espinal (2002). Paramyxovirus and reovirus infections in wild-caught Mexican lizards (Xenosaurus and Abronia spp.). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 33(4): 317-321. ISSN: 1042-7260.
NAL Call Number: SF601.J6
Abstract: Virus isolation attempts were carried out on wild-caught Xenosaurus grandis, X. platyceps, and Abronia graminea from Mexico. These animals were also tested for exposure to paramyxoviruses and reoviruses. Pharyngeal and cloacal swabs were collected from 30 lizards, and blood was collected from 23 lizards. A cytopathogenic virus was isolated from the cloacal swab of one of the X. platyceps. The isolate was identified as a paramyxovirus on the basis of its sensitivity to chloroform, resistance to 5-iodo-2'-deoxyuridine, size and morphology of the viral particles, hemagglutination of chicken erythrocytes, and serologic reaction with paramyxovirus-specific antisera. Antibodies against the paramyxovirus isolated in this study were found in four animals from three species. Antibodies against a different paramyxovirus isolated from a monitor lizard were found in seven animals from three species, showing that all the species tested are susceptible to paramyxovirus infections. Antibodies to a reptilian reovirus were found in three of the X. grandis.
Descriptors: reptiles, wild caught Mexican lizards, Xenosaurus, Abronia, paramyxovirus, reovirus, blood, pharyngeal, cloacal, swabs.

Maslow, J.N., R. Wallace, M. Michaels, H. Foskett, E.A. Maslow, and J.A. Kiehlbauch (2002). Outbreak of Mycobacterium marinum infection among captive snakes and bullfrogs. Zoo Biology 21(3): 233-241. ISSN: 0733-3188.
NAL Call Number: QL77.5.Z6
Descriptors: reptiles, snakes, zoo animals, zoos, bullfrogs, Rana catesbeiana, mycobacterial diseases, Mycobacterium marinum, strain differences, mortality, disease transmission, Wisconsin, aquatic animals, outbreaks, disease surveys.

McCowan, C., C. Shepherdley, and R.F. Slocombe (2004). Herpesvirus-like particles in the skin of a saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus). [Erratum: 2004 Sept., v. 82, no. 9, p. 579.]. Australian Veterinary Journal 82(6): 375-377. ISSN: 0005-0423.
NAL Call Number: 41.8 Au72
Descriptors: reptiles, saltwater crocodile, herpesevirus like particles, skin.

Meier, J., D. Jarofke, and M. Vix (2004). Viruses in turtles (Reptilia: Chelonia): a review. Zoologische Garten 74(6): 371-378. ISSN: 0044-5169.
Descriptors: reptiles, turtles, viruses, review, Chelonia, diseases.
Language of Text: English; German.

Mohan, K., F. Dziva, N.L. Mukarati, and D. Moyo (2005). Possible new Chlamydophila species causing chlamydiosis in farmed Nile crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus). Veterinary Record 157(1): 23-25. ISSN: 0042-4900.
NAL Call Number: 41.8 V641
Descriptors: crocodiles, Crocodylus niloticus, Chlamydophila, isolation, purification, chlamydophila infections, pathogenicity, pathology, liver pathology, RNA, swine, Zimbabwe.

Nagano, N., S. Oana, Y. Nagano, and Y. Arakawa (2006). A severe Salmonella enterica serotype Paratyphi B infection in a child related to a pet turtle, Trachemys scripta elegans. Japanese Journal of Infectious Diseases 59(2): 132-134. ISSN: 1344-6304.
Abstract: Our report highlights a case of severe childhood salmonellosis related to a pet turtle, a red-eared slider (Trachemys scripta elegans). A 6-year-old girl had gastroenteritis complicated with sepsis caused by serotype Paratyphi B, which shared the same pulsed-field gel electrophoresis profiles with the organism isolated from a pet turtle. Based on our literature survey on childhood invasive salmonellosis acquired from reptiles, this case is the first documented reptile-associated salmonellosis including sepsis caused by this serotype.
Descriptors: reptiles, child infected by Salmonella enterica, Paratyphi B, pet turtle, Trachemys scripta elegans, gastroenteritis, salmonellosis.

Nakadai, A., T. Kuroki, Y. Kato, R. Suzuki, S. Yamai, C. Yaginuma, R. Shiotani, A. Yamanouchi, and H. Hayashidani (2005). Prevalence of Salmonella spp. in pet reptiles in Japan. Journal of Veterinary Medical Science 67(1): 97-101. ISSN: print: 0916-7250; online: 1347-7439.
Online: http://dx.doi.org/10.1292/jvms.67.97
NAL Call Number: SF604.J342
Abstract: From November 2000 to July 2002, 112 fecal samples from pet reptiles, including 18 turtles, 71 lizards and 23 snakes, sold at a pet shop were examined for the prevalence of Salmonella spp. in Japan. Salmonella spp. were isolated from 83 (74.1%) of 112 samples, and a total of 112 Salmonella isolates were identified as subspecies I to IV. The majority of isolates (62.5%) belonged to subspecies I and 54 isolates could be identified as any of 28 serovars. The predominant serovars were found to be S. Bardo, S. Newport and S. Panama, which cause human salmonellosis. These results indicate that pet reptiles may be a potential infectious source of human salmonellosis in Japan.
Descriptors: pet reptiles, Salmonella, prevalence, Japan, fecal samples, lizards, turtles, snakes, pet shop, human infection.

Nevarez, J.G., M.A. Mitchell, Dae Young Kim, R. Poston, and H.M. Lampinen (2005). West Nile virus in alligator, Alligator mississippiensis, ranches from Louisiana. Journal of Herpetological Medicine and Surgery 15(3): 4-9. ISSN: 1529-9651.
NAL Call Number: SF997.5.R4 B85
Descriptors: reptiles, alligator, Alligator mississippiensis, West Nile virus, ranches, diseases, Louisiana, USA.

Oprescu, I. (2004). Bolile parazitare ale reptilelor si terapia lor. (Partea A II-A). [The parasitic diseases of reptiles and their treatment. (Part II)]. Revista Romana De Medicina Veterinara 14(1): 67-74. ISSN: 1220-3173.
Descriptors: reptiles, parasitic diseases, treatment, veterinary.
Language of Text: Romanian.

Oros, J., B. Acosta, J.M. Gaskin, S. Deniz, and H.E. Jensen (2003). Mycobacterium kansasii infection in a Chinese soft shell turtle (Pelodiscus sinensis). Veterinary Record 152(15): 474-476. ISSN: 0042-4900.
NAL Call Number: 41.8 V641
Descriptors: reptiles, soft shell turtle, Pelodiscus sinensis, Mycobacterium kansasii, bacterial infection, disease, case report.

Oros, J., A. Arencibia, L. Fernandez, and H.E. Jensen (2004). Intestinal candidiasis in a loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta): An immunohistochemical study. The Veterinary Journal 167(2): 202-207. ISSN: 1090-0233.
NAL Call Number: SF601.V484
Abstract: Post mortem examination of a juvenile loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta) stranded in the Canary Islands revealed a fishing-line in the small intestine. Histologically, severe necrotic enteritis, multiple haemorrhages, and marked oedema of the intestinal submucosa were observed. Yeast cells and fungal hyphae were seen in the lamina propria of the intestinal mucosa and in the connective tissue of the submucosa. Because fungal cultures were not taken at the time of necropsy, an immunohistochemical study was performed in order to identify the fungus involved. Specific monoclonal and heterologously absorbed polyclonal antibodies served as the primary reagents for identification of aspergillosis, candidiasis, fusariosis, geotricosis, scedosporiosis, and zygomycosis, using an indirect immunofluorescence staining technique. The fungal elements were strongly stained only by a polyclonal antibody against Candida albicans and a monoclonal antibody against C. albicans. There are no known previous reports of Candida sp. causing skin disease or systemic mycotic infection in sea turtles.
Descriptors: reptiles, loggerhead sea turtle, Caretta caretta, intestinal candidiasis, necrotic enteritis, yeast cells, fungal hyphae, lamina propria, case report, Canary Islands, stranding.

Oros, J., C. Delgado, L. Fernandez, and H.E. Jensen (2004). Pulmonary hyalohyphomycosis caused by Fusarium spp. in a Kemp's ridley sea turtle (Lepidochelys kempi): An immunohistochemical study. New Zealand Veterinary Journal 52(3): 150-152. ISSN: 0048-0169.
NAL Call Number: 41.8 N483
Descriptors: reptiles, Kemp's ridley sea turtle, Lepidochelys kempi, pulmonary hyalohypomycosis, Fusarium specis, immunohistochemical study.

Oros, J., A. Torrent, P. Calabuig, and S. Deniz (2005). Diseases and causes of mortality among sea turtles stranded in the Canary Islands, Spain (1998-2001). Diseases of Aquatic Organisms 63(1): 13-24. ISSN: print: 0177-5103; online: 1616-1586.
Online: http://dx.doi.org/10.3354/dao063003
Abstract: This paper lists the pathological findings and causes of mortality of 93 sea turtles (88 Caretta caretta, 3 Chelonia mydas, and 2 Dermochelys coriacea) stranded on the coasts of the Canary Islands between January 1998 and December 2001. Of these, 25 (26.88%) had died of spontaneous diseases including different types of pneumonia, hepatitis, meningitis, septicemic processes and neoplasm. However, 65 turtles (69.89%) had died from lesions associated with human activities such as boat-strike injuries (23.66%), entanglement in derelict fishing nets (24.73%), ingestion of hooks and monofilament lines (19.35%), and crude oil ingestion (2.15%). Traumatic ulcerative skin lesions were the most common gross lesions, occurring in 39.78% of turtles examined, and being associated with Aeromonas hydrophila, Vibrio alginolyticus and Staphylococcus spp. infections. Pulmonary edema (15.05%), granulomatous pneumonia (12.90%) and exudative bronchopneumonia (7.53%) were the most frequently detected respiratory lesions. Different histological types of nephritis included chronic interstitial nephritis, granulomatous nephritis and perinephric abscesses, affecting 13 turtles (13.98%). Ulcerative and fibrinous esophagitis and traumatic esophageal perforation were the most frequently observed lesions in the esophagus, being associated in the majority of the cases with ingestion of fishing hooks. Larval nematodes of the Anisakidae family caused gastritis in 15 turtles (16.13%). Necrotizing and/or granulomatous hepatitis were the lesions most commonly observed in the liver (27.95%). Traumatic lesions included necrotizing myositis (10.75%) mainly caused by entanglement in fishing nets or boat-strikes, and amputation of 1 or 2 flippers (25.81%) by netting. Traumatic erosions and/or fractures of the carapace/plastron mainly caused by boat-strikes were also observed (26.88%). Eye lesions included heterophilic keratoconjunctivitis, ulcerative keratitis and heterophilic scleritis, affecting 7 turtles (7.53%).
Descriptors: sea turtles microbiology, parasitology, physiology, diseases, epidemiology, disease mortality, pathology, cause of death, turtles anatomy, histology, Canary Islands.

Oros, J., S. Tucker, L. Fernandez, and E.R. Jacobson (2004). Metastatic squamous cell carcinoma in two loggerhead sea turtles Caretta caretta. Diseases of Aquatic Organisms 58(2-3): 245-250. ISSN: print: 0177-5103; online: 1616-1586.
Online: http://dx.doi.org/10.3354/dao058245
Abstract: We received 2 stranded loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) with squamous cell carcinomas to necropsy. The dead turtles had been collected in Gran Canaria and Fuerteventura in April 1994 and May 1997, respectively to determine the cause of death. One turtle had 3 ulcerated lesions in the dorsal part of the neck and several irregular masses in the lungs and kidneys. Histologic examination of lesions in the skin, lungs, kidneys, and ventricular myocardium revealed neoplastic proliferation of abnormal keratinocytes. Ultrastructural examination identified the tumoral cells as epithelial cells. The second turtle had 4 lesions in the skin of the head and flippers, and several irregular masses in the lungs, liver, and kidneys. Histological examination revealed a squamous cell carcinoma with metastases to muscle tissue, liver, lungs, and kidneys. Attempts to characterize the tumoral cells by immunohistochemistry using several monoclonal and polyclonal antisera against high and low molecular weight cytokeratins from mammals, as well as vimentin and desmin, failed. Differences between reptilian keratins (mainly beta-keratins) and mammalian keratins (mainly alpha-keratins) could explain this absence of immunoreactivity. This is the first description of squamous cell carcinoma in sea turtles.
Descriptors: reptiles, loggerhead sea turtles, Caretta caretta, squamous cell carcinioma, necropsy, muscle tissue, lungs, liver, kidneys.

Otokunefor, T.V., B.I. Kindzeka, I.O. Ibiteye, G.U. Osuji, F.O. Obi, and A.W.K. Jack (2003). Salmonella in gut and droppings of three pest lizards in Nigeria. World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology 19(5): 545-548. ISSN: 0959-3993.
NAL Call Number: QR1.M562
Descriptors: reptiles, Gekkonidae sp., Lacertilia, lizards, disease vectors, household pests, feces, intestinal microorganisms, food pathogens, animal pathogens, Salmonella, Agama agama, Ameiva ameiva., Nigeria.

Otto Boede, E. and O. Hernandez (2004). Enfermedades en tortugas Arrau o del Orinoco, Podocnemis expansa, mantenidas en zoocriaderos Venezolanos. [Diseases in Arrau sideneck turtle, Podocnemis expansa, kept in Venezuelan farms]. Revista Cientifica 14(5): 395-403. ISSN: 0798-2259.
Descriptors: reptiles, diseases, Arrau sideneck turtle, Podocnemis expansa, farms, Venezuela.
Language of Text: Spanish; Summary in English.

Pasmans, F., P.d. Herdt, J. Dewulf, and F. Haesebrouck (2002). Pathogenesis of infections with Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Muenchen in the turtle Trachemys scripta scripta. Veterinary Microbiology 87(4): 315-325. ISSN: 0378-1135.
NAL Call Number: SF601.V44
Abstract: The pathogenesis of Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Muenchen infections in the aquatic turtle Trachemys scripta scripta was studied. After oral infection with 5 x 10(5) cfu of serovar Muenchen of 10-14-month-old turtles, kept at 26 degrees C, the intestine and especially the ileum, caecum and colon was colonized. Invasion of the intestinal wall, causing histopathological lesions, and colonization of internal organs were not observed. Serovar Muenchen was only isolated from turtles for 8 days after exposure. Keeping the turtles at 37 degrees C caused colonization of liver and spleen in two of six orally infected turtles and augmented the numbers of bacteria in the intestinal tract. In contrast to oral infections, intraperitoneal infections of turtles with serovar Muenchen enabled the bacterium to persist inside the host for at least 5 weeks. Clearance of serovar Muenchen from the liver and blood was more pronounced at 26 degrees C than at 37 degrees C. ELISA antibodies were demonstrated in intraperitoneally but not in orally infected turtles kept at 26 degrees C. In conclusion, the lack of persistence and invasiveness of serovar Muenchen in T. s. scripta after oral exposure might be due to the turtle's relatively low body temperature and/or the absence of well-organized gut-associated lymphoid tissue.
Descriptors: reptiles, Cheloniidae, Salmonella, genetic variation, pathogenesis, disease course, intestines, ileum, cecum, colon, infection, histopathology, shedding, persistence.

Pasmans, F., P.d. Herdt, and F. Haesebrouck (2002). Presence of Salmonella infections in freshwater turtles. Veterinary Record 150(22): 692-693. ISSN: 0042-4900.
NAL Call Number: 41.8 V641
Descriptors: reptiles, turtles, Testudines, Salmonella, salmonellosis, disease prevalence, disease transmission, risk.

Pasmans, F., A. Martel, F. Boyen, D. Vandekerchove, I. Wybo, F.V. Immerseel, M. Heyndrickx, J.M. Collard, R. Ducatelle, and F. Haesebrouck (2005). Characterization of Salmonella isolates from captive lizards. Veterinary Microbiology 110(3-4): 285-291. ISSN: 0378-1135.
NAL Call Number: SF601.V44
Abstract: Reptile-associated salmonellosis in humans is an increasing public health issue. This study aimed at characterizing Salmonella isolates from captive lizards and to compare them to human isolates. Salmonella was isolated from 25 of 33 cloacal and 47 of 79 faecal samples from captive lizards (75.8 and 59.5%, respectively). The strains belonged to 44 serotypes of subspecies I (27 serotypes), II (9), IIIb (3) and IV (5). Two strains, one of serotype Enteritidis and one of serotype Amsterdam, were resistant to nitrofurantoin. Invasion assays in Caco-2 cells were performed with 40 saurian isolates of subspecies I, 15 isolates of subspecies II, 4 strains of subspecies IIIb, 6 subspecies IV isolates and 17 human isolates of corresponding serotypes of subspecies I. Saurian isolates belonging to subspecies I invaded the Caco-2 cells to a higher extent than those from the other subspecies. The human isolates invaded the Caco-2 cells to a lesser degree compared to their saurian counterparts. In the same strains, the presence of virulence genes agfA, shdA, spvR, pefA and sopE was determined using PCR. Whereas agfA was detected in all strains, pefA was only detected in one saurian and in the human serotype Enteritidis strains. The spvR gene was detected in the same serotype Enteritidis strains and in 33% of the subspecies IV strains. The shdA gene was present in all the human isolates and in 86% of subspecies I saurian isolates. SopE was found in 17% of the human isolates, in 24% of the saurian subspecies I strains and in all of the subspecies IV strains.
Descriptors: captive lizards, Salmonella isolates, characterization, strain, Salmonella infections, pathogenicity, infections, serotyping, humans, virulence.

Pasmans, F., F. Van Immerseel, W. Van den Broeck, E. Bottreau, P. Velge, R. Ducatelle, and F. Haesebrouck (2003). Interactions of Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Muenchen with intestinal explants of the turtle Trachemys scripta scripta. Journal of Comparative Pathology 128(2-3): 119-126. ISSN: 0021-9975.
Abstract: Salmonella infections in reptiles, in contrast to those in birds and mammals, are limited to the intestinal tract. In this study, interactions of a strain of Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Muenchen (SEEM) with intestinal explants of the turtle Trachemys scripta scripta were examined by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Adhesion and invasion in the chelonian intestinal explants at 30 degrees C and 37 degrees C were evaluated quantitatively. For purposes of comparison, the invasive capacity of SEEM in the continuous avian epithelial cell line DIV-1 at 30 degrees C and 37 degrees C was determined. Small numbers of M-like cells were found in the ileum of the turtles. The bacteria adhered mainly to the mucus of the intestinal explants. Only small numbers of salmonellae were associated with epithelial cells. Higher numbers of bacteria adhered at 30 degrees C than at 37 degrees C. Epithelial damage, embedding of bacteria in the epithelial surface and a ruffling-like process were noted only at 37 degrees C. Minimal numbers of salmonellae invaded the explants at 30 degrees C and 37 degrees C. Invasion of DIV-1 cells was greater at 37 degrees C than at 30 degrees C. The study suggested that the intestinal mucous layer provides an important site of colonization for salmonellae in the chelonian host and protects the underlying epithelial cells.
Descriptors: reptiles, turtle, Salmonella infections, intestinal explants, intestinal mucous layer, colonization.

Petterino, C., M. Bedin, G. Podesta, and A. Ratto (2006). Undifferentiated tumor in the ovary of a corn snake (Elaphe guttata guttata). Veterinary Clinical Pathology 35(1): 95-100. ISSN: 0275-6382.
NAL Call Number: SF601.A54
Abstract: A 6-year-old intact female corn snake (Elaphe guttata guttata) was presented with a 3-week history of anorexia. Coelomic radiographs revealed a 9 x 4 cm soft tissue opacity suggestive of a right ovarian enlargement. The mass (9 x 5 x 4 cm) was surgically removed, and multiple smears from tissue sections were stained with Diff-Quik. Multiple tissue samples from the mass were collected and fixed in formalin. Cytologic specimens were moderately cellular and contained light pink amorphous background material. The cells were primarily spindle-shaped with moderate to marked anisocytosis and anisokaryosis. Cells sometimes were round to polygonal, and rarely were arranged in small clusters. Macrophages occasionally were observed. Histologic specimens consisted of a highly cellular mass composed of pleomorphic, spindle-shaped cells and, occasionally, round to polygonal cells arranged in irregular fascicles. The neoplastic cells were immunoreactive for cytokeratin (AE1/AE3), smooth muscle actin, and skeletal muscle actin, but did not stain for vimentin or desmin. On the basis of the morphologic and immunohistochemical results, a diagnosis of ovarian undifferentiated carcinoma was made. In this report, we describe the challenges of using immunohistochemistry to diagnose this uncommon type of tumor in reptiles.
Descriptors: reptiles, corn snake, ovary, undifferentiated tumor, anorexia, ovarian enlargement, coelomic radiographs, tumor, carcinoma.

Pfleger, S., G. Benyr, R. Sommer, and A. Hassl (2003). Pattern of Salmonella excretion in amphibians and reptiles in a vivarium. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health 206(1): 53-59. ISSN: 1438-4639.
Online: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/14384639
Abstract: During a period of about three years the faeces of five species of amphibians (35 individuals) and of 23 species of reptiles (103 individuals) living in one vivarium with terrariums imitating different types of ecosystems were examined for Salmonellae. From 54 out of 376 faecal samples Salmonella spp. was isolated (= 14%). Twenty-one different Salmonella strains were found. Salmonellae could be isolated about twice as often from animals kept under arid or mesic conditions than from animals living in humid or aquatic environments although this was not statistically significant. Statistically significant for the rate of Salmonella excretion was the animals' diet and the class the animals are belonging to. Animals feeding on mice (p = 0.04) and reptiles in general (p = 0.04) were more commonly excreting Salmonella. Duration of stay was also a significant factor (p = 0.0005), whereby the relative risk for Salmonella excretion increased with the factor 2.91 per year during the investigation period. Salmonella strains were not necessarily transferred among animals living in the same terrarium or among the inhabitants of different terrariums. The pattern of Salmonella excretion was generally fragmentary. The outsides as well as the insides of the walls of the terrariums were also tested for salmonellae several times, but Salmonellae have never been isolated.
Descriptors: amphibians, reptiles, Salmonella, excretion, pattern, vivarium, terrariums, ecosystems, fecal samples.

Phillott, A.D., C.J. Parmenter, and S.C. McKillup (2006). Calcium depletion of eggshell after fungal invasion of sea turtle eggs. Chelonian Conservation and Biology 5(1): 146-149. ISSN: 1071-8443.
Descriptors: reptiles, sea turtle, Caretta caretta, depletion of eggshell, calcium depletion, fungal invasion, Natator depressus, Eretmochelys imbricata, Chelonia mydas, Fusarium solani.

Pospischil, A.S. (2003). Novel chlamydiae in cats and reptiles. Abstracts of the General Meeting of the American Society for Microbiology 103: Z-023. ISSN: 1060-2011.
Descriptors: reptiles, chlamydia infection, cats, PCR assay, meeting abstracts.
Notes: Meeting Information: 103rd American Society for Microbiology General Meeting, Washington, DC, USA; May 18-22, 2003.

Reavill, D.R., M. Melloy, and R.E. Schmidt (2004). Reptile mycotic infections from the literature and 55 cases. Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the Association of Reptilian and Amphibian Veterinarians 11: 62-71. ISSN: 1529-9651.
NAL Call Number: SF996.A77
Descriptors: reptiles, Chelonia, Sauria, Serpentes, mycotic infections, fungal diseases, mycosis, infections, literature review.

Reisen, W.K., A.C. Brault, V.M. Martinez, Y. Fang, K. Simmons, S. Garcia, E. Omi Olsen, and R.S. Lane (2007). Ability of transstadially infected Ixodes pacificus (Acari: Ixodidae) to transmit West Nile virus to song sparrows or western fence lizards. Journal of Medical Entomology 44(2): 320-327. ISSN: 0022-2585.
NAL Call Number: 421 J828
Abstract: The hypothesis that Ixodes pacificus Cooley & Kohls (Acari: Ixodidae) may serve as a reservoir and vector of West Nile virus (family Flaviviridae, genus Flavivirus, WNV) in California was tested by determining the ability of this tick species to become infected with the NY99 strain of WNV while feeding on viremic song sparrows, to maintain the infection transstadially, and then to transmit WNV to recipient naive song sparrows and western fence lizards during the nymphal stage. The percentage of ticks testing positive by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) decreased from 77% of 35 larvae at day 6 after ticks were transferred to donor song sparrows (day of detachment) to 23% of 35 nymphs at 59 d postinfestation (approximately 19 d after molting to the nymphal stage). However, the percentage of ticks positive by RT-PCR from which infectious virus was recovered by Vero cell assay decreased from 59% on day 6 to 12% on day 59, even though there was no statistically significant decrease in the quantity of RNA within positive ticks. Attempts to improve the sensitivity of plaque assays by blind passage through C6/36 cell cultures were unsuccessful. These data indicated that ticks maintained viral RNA but not necessarily infectious virus over time. Nymphs from larvae that fed on song sparrows with peak viremias ranging from 7.2 to 8.5 log10 plaque-forming units (PFU) per ml were used in transmission attempts. From one to seven RNA-positive nymphal ticks engorged and detached from each of four recipient song sparrows or western fence lizards. Blood samples from sparrows and lizards remained negative, indicating that transmission did not occur. An additional four lizards inoculated with 1,500 PFU of WNV developed moderate viremias, ranging from 4.2 to 5.6 log10 PFU/ml. Our data and data from previous studies collectively indicated that ixodid ticks were not able to experimentally transmit WNV and therefore most likely would not be important vectors in WNV transmission cycles.
Descriptors: reptiles, ticks, Ixodes pacificus, West Nile virus, sparrows, western fence lizards, disease reservoir, vector, virus transmission.

Richter, D. and F.R. Matuschka (2006). Perpetuation of the Lyme disease spirochete Borrelia lusitaniae by lizards. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 72(7): 4627-4632. ISSN: 0099-2240.
Online: http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/AEM.00285-06
NAL Call Number: 448.3 Ap5
Abstract: To determine whether the Lyme disease spirochete Borrelia lusitaniae is associated with lizards, we compared the prevalence and genospecies of spirochetes present in rodent- and lizard-associated ticks at a site where this spirochete frequently infects questing ticks. Whereas questing nymphal Ixodes ricinus ticks were infected mainly by Borrelia afzelii, one-half of the infected adult ticks harbored B. lusitaniae at our study site. Lyme disease spirochetes were more prevalent in sand lizards (Lacerta agilis) and common wall lizards (Podarcis muralis) than in small rodents. Although subadult ticks feeding on rodents acquired mainly B. afzelii, subadult ticks feeding on lizards became infected by B. lusitaniae. Genetic analysis confirmed that the spirochetes isolated from ticks feeding on lizards are members of the B. lusitaniae genospecies and resemble type strain PotiB2. At our central European study site, lizards, which were previously considered zooprophylactic for the agent of Lyme disease, appear to perpetuate B. lusitaniae.
Descriptors: reptiles, lizards, Lyme disease, Borrelia lusitaniae, perpetuation, spirochete, rodent, prevalence, ticks.

Rosenthal, K. (2004). A new look at treatment of calcium: Phosphorus disorders in iguanas. In: Small Animal and Exotics. Book two: Pain Management-Zoonosis. Proceedings of the North American Veterinary Conference, Volume 18,January 17, 2004-January 21, 2004, Orlando, Florida, Eastern States Veterinary Association: Gainesville, FL, p. 1348.
NAL Call Number: SF605.N672
Descriptors: reptiles, iguanas, calcium-phosphorus disorders.

Saelinger, C.A., G.A. Lewbart, L.S. Christian, and C.L. Lemons (2006). Prevalence of Salmonella spp in cloacal, fecal, and gastrointestinal mucosal samples from wild North American turtles. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 229(2): 266-268. ISSN: 0003-1488.
NAL Call Number: 41.8 Am3
Abstract: OBJECTIVE: To determine prevalence of Salmonella spp in samples collected from wild North American turtles. ANIMALS: 94 wild North American turtles of 6 species in 2 genera. DESIGN: Prospective microbiologic study. PROCEDURES: A convenience sample of wild North Carolina turtles admitted to a veterinary college was evaluated for Salmonella spp by use of standard techniques via microbiologic culture of cloacal swab and fecal samples. Gastrointestinal mucosa samples were also collected at necropsy from turtles that died or were euthanized. Cloacal swab samples were also collected from wild pond turtles for bacteriologic culture. Controls were established by use of wild-type Salmonella Typhimurium LT2. RESULTS: 94 turtles were tested for Salmonella spp; Salmonella spp were not detected in any sample. By use of a pathogen-prevalence and sample-size table, the true prevalence of Salmonella spp was estimated as < 5%. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Results suggested that wild turtles in central North Carolina may not be active shedders or carriers of Salmonella spp. Despite this 0% prevalence of infection, proper hygiene practices should be followed when handling wild turtles.
Descriptors: cloaca microbiology, feces, intestinal mucosa, Salmonella infections, turtles microbiology, disease reservoirs, prevalence.

Sand, M.A., K.S. Latimer, C.R. Gregory, P.M. Rakich, E. Jacobson, and K.E. Pennick (2004). Molecular diagnosis of paramyxovirus infection in snakes using reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction and complementary deoxyribonucleic acid:ribonucleic acid in situ hybridization. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation 16(5): 442-448. ISSN: 1040-6387.
NAL Call Number: SF774.J68
Descriptors: reptiles, snakes, paramyxovirus, infection, molecular diagnosis, reverse transcript polymerase chain reaction, complementary deoxyribonucleic acidribonucleic acid, in situ, hybridization.

Schroter, M., P. Roggentin, J. Hofmann, A. Speicher, R. Laufs, and D. Mack (2004). Pet snakes as a reservoir for Salmonella enterica subsp. diarizonae (serogroup IIIb): A prospective study. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 70(1): 613-615. ISSN: 0099-2240.
Online: http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/AEM.70.1.613-615.2004
NAL Call Number: 448.3 Ap5
Abstract: Reptile-associated Salmonella infections are an increasing problem for humans. We have prospectively screened two breeding groups of 16 pet snakes for colonization with Salmonella species. Various serovars of S. enterica subsp. diarizonae were found in 81% of the snakes. To avoid transmission, strict hygienic precautions should be applied when reptiles are handled.
Descriptors: reptiles, Salmonella enterica subsp. diarizonae, animal pathogenic bacteria, serotypes, isolation, feces, snakes, pets, Viperidae, disease reservoirs, salmonellosis, zoonoses, Bitis nasicornis, Bothriechis schlegelii.

Schroter, M., A. Speicher, J. Hofmann, and P. Roggentin (2006). Analysis of the transmission of Salmonella spp. through generations of pet snakes. Environmental Microbiology 8(3): 556-559. ISSN: print: 1462-2912; online: 1462-2920.
Abstract: Besides the 'classical' animals known as reservoirs for Salmonella spp., like poultry and cattle, reptiles have emerged as a significant source of human Salmonellae infections during the last years. Reptile-associated Salmonellae frequently cause severe clinical courses including fatalities due to septicaemia and meningitis. Therefore, it is of major priority to develop measures which may help preventing cases of reptile-associated Salmonellae. However, as a first step the epidemiology of salmonellae in reptiles must be understood. Therefore, in this study a population analysis of the salmonellae of two female snakes was performed and the pattern of inheritance of Salmonellae to their offspring was investigated. It is demonstrated that adult snakes usually harbour a population of concurrent Salmonellae serovars. Colonization of their offspring during pregnancy and birth is a significant way of transmission causing 65% of the newborn to be positive for Salmonellae. The effectiveness of the transmission does not seem to be due only to the frequency of a certain serovar, because the most prevailing strain of one female snake was not detectable in any of her offspring.
Descriptors: Salmonella isolation and purification, Salmonella infections, animal transmission, snakes microbiology, bacterial typing techniques, disease transmission, vertical veterinary, Salmonella classification, serotyping.

Schumacher, J. (2003). Fungal diseases of reptiles. Veterinary Clinics of North America, Exotic Animal Practice 6(2): 327-335. ISSN: 1094-9194.
NAL Call Number: SF997.5.E95 E97
Abstract: Fungal infections affecting the integumentary system, the upper and lower respiratory system and the gastro-intestinal tract have been reported in many species of captive reptiles. Systemic mycoses are diagnosed rarely in reptiles, and in most cases, they are a postmortem finding. Commonly, immunocompromised reptiles, kept in suboptimal environmental conditions are affected. In many cases, mixed bacterial and fungal infections of opportunistic organisms may be present. A diagnosis of a primary fungal infection is based on proper selection and collection of diagnostic specimens such as biopsies of infected tissues. Treatment of fungal infections in reptiles includes administration of effective antifungal agents and correction of inappropriate environmental conditions such as poor hygiene, too high or too low temperature and humidity, inadequate diet, and stress from overcrowding. Few studies have investigated effective dosages and dosage intervals of antifungal agents in reptiles.
Descriptors: reptiles, fungal diseases, infections, respiratory, upper, lower, mycosis, systemic, gastrointestinal tract, diagnosis.

Selleri, P. and S.J. Hernandez Divers (2006). Renal diseases of reptiles. Veterinary Clinics of North America, Exotic Animal Practice 9(1): 161-174. ISSN: 1094-9194.
NAL Call Number: SF997.5.E95 E97
Abstract: Renal disease is one of the most common problems in reptilian medicine. Herbivorous species seem to be more susceptible than carnivores. The causation may be multifactorial, and the signs are often nonspecific. Prevention is preferred to treatment, and a comprehensive health program, which includes quarantine, routine health screens during annual examinations, and necropsy examinations of all animals that die, is desirable.
Descriptors: kidney pathology, kidney diseases, reptiles, blood chemical analysis, diagnosis, differential, kidney anatomy, histology, physiology, kidney diseases diagnosis, pathology, prevention, control, kidney function tests, species specificity, urinalysis.

Soldati, G., Z.H. Lu, L. Vaughan, A. Polkinghorne, D.R. Zimmermann, J.B. Huder, and A. Pospischil (2004). Detection of mycobacteria and Chlamydiae in granulomatous inflammation of reptiles: A retrospective study. Veterinary Pathology 41(4): 388-397. ISSN: 0300-9858.
Online: http://www.vetpathology.org/cgi/content/abstract/41/4/388
NAL Call Number: 41.8 P27
Abstract: A retrospective study on reptile tissues presenting with granulomatous inflammation was performed to detect the possible presence of mycobacteria and Chlamydiae in these lesions. Ninety cases including 48 snakes, 27 chelonians, and 15 lizards were selected. Mycobacteria were detected by Ziehl-Neelsen (ZN) staining and a broad-range polymerase chain reaction (PCR) followed by DNA sequencing. To detect Chlamydiae, immunohistochemistry with monoclonal antibodies against chlamydial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and a Chlamydiales order-specific PCR and sequencing were applied. Acid-fast bacilli were found in 14 cases (15.6%) by ZN staining and in 23 cases (25.6%) by PCR. Sequence analysis revealed the presence of Mycobacteria other than Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MOTT). Chlamydial LPS antigen was observed within granulomas from five samples (5.6%), whereas the PCR screen revealed 58 positive cases (64.4%). Of these, 9 cases (10%) showed 98-99% similarity to Chlamydophila (Cp.) pneumoniae and 49 cases (54.4%) displayed a high similarity (88-97%) to the newly described "Chlamydia-like" microorganisms Parachlamydia acanthamoebae and Simkania negevensis. Results from this study confirm, on the one hand, that MOTT are probably the most important infectious etiology for granulomatous inflammation in reptiles. On the other hand, they indicate that chlamydia infects reptiles and that Cp. pneumoniae should be considered an etiological agent of granulomatous lesions of reptiles. Because both MOTT and Cp. pneumoniae are human pathogens, the potential of zoonotic transmission from reptiles to humans has to be considered. In contrast, the significance of Chlamydia-like isolates remains completely open, and further studies are needed to evaluate their role.
Descriptors: reptiles, mycobacteria, chlamydia, granulomatous inflammation, retrospective study, snakes, chelonians, lizards.

Stacy, B.A., J.D. Vidal, A. Osofsky, K. Terio, M. Koski, and H.E. De Cock (2004). Ovarian papillary cystadenocarcinomas in a green iguana (Iguana iguana). Journal of Comparative Pathology 130(2-3): 223-228. ISSN: print: 0021-9975; online: 1532-3129.
Abstract: The clinical, gross morphological and histological characteristics of bilateral ovarian papillary cystadenocarcinomas in an adult female green iguana (Iguana iguana) are documented in this report. Histologically, the tumour consisted of an invasive mass of small glandular structures, irregular arboriform papillae and cystic structures arising from the ovarian surface epithelium. Metastatic implants were extensively disseminated along the serosa of the coelomic viscera, mesentery and fat bodies. Tumour morphology and metastatic behaviour indicated a close resemblance to cystadenocarcinoma in other species. Primary ovarian neoplasia is rare in reptiles; documented cases include tumours arising from surface epithelium, germ cells and sex cord stroma.
Descriptors: reptiles, green iguanas, cystadenocarcinoma, ovarian papillary, ovarian neoplasms, pathology, clinical gross morphological characteristics.

Stahl, S.J. (2003). Diseases of the reptile pancreas. Veterinary Clinics of North America, Exotic Animal Practice 6(1): 191-212. ISSN: 1094-9194.
NAL Call Number: SF997.5.E95 E97
Abstract: A great deal of research is still needed to better understand the reptile pancreas especially with regard to diagnosis and treatment. However, vigilant clinicians and pathologists have important roles to play in expanding our knowledge base in this field, and are encouraged to share their findings through publications and presentations.
Descriptors: reptiles, pancreatic diseases, veterinary, diagnosis, treatment.

Steininger, C., J. van Lunzen, I. Sobottka, H. Rohde, M.A. Horstkotte, and H.J. Stellbrink (2005). Mycotic brain abscess caused by opportunistic reptile pathogen. Emerging Infectious Diseases 11(2): 349-350. ISSN: print: 1080-6040; online: 1080-6059.
NAL Call Number: RA648.5.E46
Descriptors: reptile, brain abscess, fungal infections, chrysosporium growth, antifungal agents, therapeutic use, brain abscess diagnosis, drug therapy.

Steinman, A., C. Banet Noach, S. Tal, O. Levi, L. Simanov, S. Perk, M. Malkinson, and N. Shpigel (2003). West Nile virus infection in crocodiles. Emerging Infectious Diseases 9(7): 887-889. ISSN: print: 1080-6040; online: 1080-6059.
NAL Call Number: RA648.5.E46
Descriptors: reptiles, crocodiles, West Nile virus infection, emerging infectious diseases.

Steinman, A., C. Banet Noach, L. Simanov, N. Grinfeld, Z. Aizenberg, O. Levi, D. Lahav, M. Malkinson, S. Perk, and N.Y. Shpigel (2006). Experimental infection of common garter snakes (Thamnophis sirtalis) with west nile virus. Vector Borne and Zoontic Diseases 6(4): 361-368. ISSN: 1530-3667.
NAL Call Number: RA639.5.V43
Descriptors: reptiles, common garter snakes, Thamnophis sirtalis, experimental infection, West Nile virus, subcutaneously, orally, viremic, titers, viral RNA.

Stenos, J., S. Graves, V.L. Popov, and D.H. Walker (2003). Aponomma hydrosauri, the reptile-associated tick reservoir of Rickettsia honei on Flinders Island, Australia. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 69(3): 314-317. ISSN: 0002-9637.
Online: http://www.ajtmh.org
Abstract: Rickettsia honei is the aetiological agent of Flinders Island (Australia) spotted fever. The tick Aponomma hydrosauri is associated with reptiles and is the arthropod reservoir for this rickettsia on Flinders Island. The rickettsia appears to be maintained in the tick via vertical transmission. Of 46 ticks examined, 29 (63%) were positive for spotted fever group rickettsiae by detection of the citrate synthase gene by a polymerase chain reaction (PCR). From the positive tick samples, seven were sequenced and found to be 100% homologous with R. honei. Of 17 reptiles examined, none had evidence of rickettsiae by PCR or culture of blood. Courtesty of CAB Abstracts.
Descriptors: reptiles, tick reservoir, rickettsia, spotted fever, arthropod reservoir, vertical transmission, Australia.

Swanson, K.I. and D.E. Norris (2007). Detection of Borrelia burgdorferi DNA in Lizards from Southern Maryland. Vector Borne and Zoonotic Diseases 7(1): 42-49. ISSN: 1530-3667.
NAL Call Number: RA639.5.V43
Abstract: Lizards serve as hosts for Ixodes ticks in the western and southeastern United States and may affect the transmission cycles of Borrelia burgdorferi in these regions. In Maryland, the role of lizards in the maintenance and transmission cycle of this pathogen has not been examined. We tested 29 lizards (Sceloporus undulatus and Eumeces spp.) and 21 ticks from these lizards for the presence of B. burgdorferi. Eight lizards were positive by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for at least one B. burgdorferi-specific marker. This is the first report of B. burgdorferi sensu stricto detected in lizards in the mid-Atlantic region. Although the viability of the B. burgdorferi in these lizards was unconfirmed, recovery of bacterial DNA in a tail snip suggests that the infections in these lizards were disseminated. This study suggests that some lizards indigenous to the mid-Atlantic region may serve as alternative reservoirs for B. burgdorferi. In areas where lizard densities are high, these less efficient reservoirs may affect the enzootic cycle of this tick-borne pathogen.
Descriptors: wild caught lizards, Lyme disease, vector borne, Borrelia burgdorferi, DNA, reservoirs, mid-atlantic region, USA.

Sykes, J.M. and J.G. Trupkiewicz (2006). Reptile neoplasia at the Philadelphia Zoological Garden, 1901-2002. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 37(1): 11-19. ISSN: 1042-7260.
NAL Call Number: SF601.J6
Descriptors: reptiles, neoplasia, 1901-2002 necropsy reports, slides, veterinary, Philadelphia Zoological Garden.

Tellez, S., V. Briones, S. Gonzalez, F.J. Garcia Pena, J. Altimira, A.I. Vela, M.M. Blanco, C. Ballesteros, J.F. Fernandez Garayzabal, and L. Dominguez (2002). Salmonella septicaemia in a beauty snake (Elaphe taeniura taeniura). Veterinary Record 151(1): 28-29. ISSN: 0042-4900.
NAL Call Number: 41.8 V641
Descriptors: reptiles, Elaphe taeniura taeniura, snakes, Salmonella, salmonellosis, septicemia, histopathology, liver, gall bladder, kidneys, intestines, case studies, clinical aspects, Salmonella enterica, subspecies, houtenae, subspecies, diarizonae.

Thomas, A.D., L. Sigler, S. Peucker, J.H. Norton, and A. Nielan (2002). Chrysosporium anamorph of Nannizziopsis vriesii associated with fatal cutaneous mycoses in the salt-water crocodile (Crocodylus porosus). Medical Mycology Official Publication of the International Society for Human and Animal Mycology 40(2): 143-151. ISSN: print: 1369-3786; online: 1460-2709.
Abstract: The Chrysosporium anamorph of Nannizziopsis vriesii, recently identified as the cause of cutaneous infections in chameleons and brown tree snakes, was associated with skin infections and deaths in salt-water crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) hatchlings on two separate occasions 3 years apart. In all, 48 animals died from the infection. All hatchlings came from the same farm in northern Queensland, Australia.
Descriptors: reptiles, cutaneous mycoses, fatal, saltwater crocodile, chameleons, brown tree snakes, skin infections, Chyrsoporium anamorph, Nannizziopsis vriesii, Australia.

Torrent, A., S. Deniz, A. Ruiz, P. Calabuig, J. Sicilia, and J. Oros (2002). Esophageal diverticulum associated with Aerococcus viridans infection in a loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta). Journal of Wildlife Diseases 38(1): 221-223. ISSN: 0090-3558.
NAL Call Number: 41.9 W64B
Abstract: A juvenile loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta) stranded in Gran Canaria, Spain was necropsied. The turtle was underweight, had sunken eyes, and small amounts of crude oil were in the oral cavity. The most significant lesion was a large esophageal diverticulum at the junction of the esophagus and stomach. The diverticulum was full of gas and green mucoid fluid and a diffuse thick yellow fibrinonecrotic membrane covered the mucosa. The lumen of the diverticulum also contained moderate numbers of cephalopods, crustaceans, and anthropogenic debris including crude oil balls, plastics, and fishing lines. Histologically there was a severe diffuse fibrinonecrotic esophagitis. Aerococcus viridans was isolated from the diverticulum. This is the first report of an esophageal diverticulum in a sea turtle. Although A. viridans is a known pathogen of lobsters and fishes, there are no reports of A. viridans infection in sea turtles.
Descriptors: reptiles, loggerhead sea turtles, Caretta caretta, esophageal diverticulum, Aerococcus viridans, cephalopods, debris, fishing lines.

Tu, Z.C., W. Eisner, B.N. Kreiswirth, and M.J. Blaser (2005). Genetic divergence of Campylobacter fetus strains of mammal and reptile origins. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 43(7): 3334-3340. ISSN: 0095-1137.
Online: http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JCM.43.7.3334-3340.2005
NAL Call Number: QR46.J6
Abstract: Campylobacter fetus is a gram-negative bacterial pathogen of both humans and animals. Two subspecies have been identified, Campylobacter fetus subsp. fetus and Campylobacter fetus subsp. venerealis, and there are two serotypes, A and B. To further investigate the genetic diversity among C. fetus strains of different origins, subspecies, and serotypes, we performed multiple genetic analyses by utilizing random amplification of polymorphic DNA (RAPD), pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE), and DNA-DNA hybridization. All 10 primers used for the RAPD analyses can distinguish C. fetus strains of reptile and mammal origin, five can differentiate between C. fetus subsp. fetus and C. fetus subsp. venerealis strains, and four showed differences between type A and type B isolates from mammals. PFGE with SmaI and SalI digestion showed varied genome patterns among different C. fetus strains, but for mammalian C. fetus isolates, genome size was well conserved (mean, 1.52 +/- 0.06 Mb for SmaI and 1.52 +/- 0.05 Mb for SalI). DNA-DNA hybridization demonstrated substantial genomic-homology differences between strains of mammal and reptile origin. In total, these data suggest that C. fetus subsp fetus strains of reptile and mammal origin have genetic divergence more extensive than that between the two subspecies and that between the type A and type B strains. Combining these studies with sequence data, we conclude that there has been substantial genetic divergence between Campylobacter fetus of reptile and mammal origin. Diagnostic tools have been developed to differentiate among C. fetus isolates for taxonomic and epidemiologic uses.
Descriptors: reptiles, campylobacter infections, microbiology, Campylobacter fetus, cattle, turtles, bacterial analysis.

Tu, Z.C., G. Zeitlin, J.P. Gagner, T. Keo, B.A. Hanna, and M.J. Blaser (2004). Campylobacter fetus of reptile origin as a human pathogen. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 42(9): 4405-4407. ISSN: 0095-1137.
Online: http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JCM.42.9.4405-4407.2004
NAL Call Number: QR46.J6
Abstract: A Campylobacter species was isolated from blood from a febrile patient with precursor T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia, and after antibiotic treatment, a similar bacterium was isolated from blood 37 days later. Although phenotypic testing did not definitively identify the organisms, molecular analysis indicated that they were the same strain of Campylobacter fetus subsp. fetus and were of reptile origin.
Descriptors: reptiles, Campylobacter fetus, blood, human pathogen, reptile origin, molecular analysis, zoonoses.

Turutoglu, H., S. Ercelik, and M. Corlu (2005). Aeromonas hydrophila-associated skin lesions and septicaemia in a Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus). Journal of the South African Veterinary Association 76(1): 40-42. ISSN: 0038-2809.
NAL Call Number: 41.8 So8
Abstract: Aeromonas hydrophila is one of the most common bacteria associated with the aquatic environment. There are, however, limited data on A. hydrophila infection in crocodilians. The aim of this report is to describe a case of skin lesions and septicaemia associated with A. hydrophila in a Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus). A captive male crocodile in the Zoological Park of Antalya (Turkey) was found dead without showing signs of any disease. Gross examination showed brown or red-spotted skin lesions of varying size. These lesions were mostly scattered over the abdomen and occasionally on the tail and feet. At necropsy, numerous white, multifocal and randomly distributed areas were seen on the liver. Gram-stained smears from skin and liver lesions showed Gram-negative bacilli arranged in clusters. Pure cultures of A. hydrophila were recovered from skin, internal organs and blood. Isolates were found to be susceptible to ceftiofur, amoxicillin + clavulanic acid, oxytetracycline, enrofloxacin, danofloxacin, neomycin, gentamicin, and lincomycin + neomycin. A pathogenicity test was performed using this isolate on 4 male 2-year-old New Zealand white rabbits. Local abscesses formed in 2 rabbits injected subcutaneously and the 2 that were injected intraperitoneally died as a result of septicaemia. In conclusion, this report has shown that A. hydrophila may cause skin lesions and even death due to septicaemia in crocodiles/
Descriptors: Aeromonas hydrophila, isolation, purification, captive crocodiles, gram negative bacterial infections, sepsis, fatal outcome, pathology, liver microbiology, liver pathology, skin pathology, Zoological Park of Antalya Turkey.

Vancraeynest, D., F. Pasmans, A. Martel, K. Chiers, G. Meulemans, J. Mast, P. Zwart, and R. Ducatelle (2006). Inclusion body disease in snakes: a review and description of three cases in boa constrictors in Belgium. Veterinary Record 158(22): 757-761. ISSN: 0042-4900.
NAL Call Number: 41.8 V641
Descriptors: reptiles, snakes, Boa constrictor, cytoplasmic inclusions, animal diseases, case studies, inclusion body disease, Belgium.

Vasil'ev, D.B. and I. Solov'ev (2006). [Ganglioneuroblastoma in Yemenite chameleon (Chamaeleo calyptratus): the first recorded case of a tumor of neuroectodermal histogenesis in reptiles]. Arkhiv Patologii 68(4): 45-47. ISSN: 0004-1955.
Abstract: Nerve tissue tumors are rarely encountered in reptiles and mainly represented by some documented cases of malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor (MPNST). The paper is the first to describe a tumor mimicking MPNST by some ultrastructural features of tumor cells; however, significantly differing in the combination of immunohistochemical characteristics. Based on the data of electronic microscopy, immunohistochemistry, cytology, and histology, the tumor was classified as ganglioneuroblastoma. Since this nosological entity, unlike MPNST, cannot be assigned to a group of sarcomatoid tumors, the described pathology should be regarded as the first registered case of neuroectodermal histogenesis of tumors in reptiles.
Descriptors: ganglioneuroblastoma veterinary, lizards, chameleon, Chamaeleo calyptratus, ganglioneuroblastoma ultrastructure, nerve sheath neoplasms ultrastructure, nerve sheath neoplasms, veterinary.
Language of Text: Russian.

Vasilyev, D.B., Y.N. Solovyev, and V.N. Mitin (2003). Bone tumors of reptiles. Voprosy Onkologii 49(1): 81-84. ISSN: 0507-3758.
Descriptors: reptiles, bone tumors, disease.
Language of Text: Russian.

Waiswa, C., K. Picozzi, W. Olaho Mukani, and E. Katunguka Rwakishaya (2003). Monitor lizard (Varanus niloticus, linnaeus, 1766) as a host for tsetse (Glossina fuscipes fuscipes, newstead, 1910) in the sleeping sickness endemic foci of Uganda. African Journal of Ecology 41(4): 349-351. ISSN: 0141-6707.
NAL Call Number: 409.6 Ea7
Descriptors: reptiles, Monitor lizard, Varanus niloticus, diseases, host, tsetse, Glossina fuscipes fuscipes, sleeping sickness, Uganda.

Wellehan, J.F. and A.J. Johnson (2005). Reptile virology. Veterinary Clinics of North America, Exotic Animal Practice 8(1): 27-52. ISSN: 1094-9194.
NAL Call Number: SF997.5.E95 E97
Abstract: Reptiles are hosts to diverse viral infections. This article reviews the viruses that are known to infect reptiles and discusses associated pathology, available diagnostic methods, and management techniques for the reptile clinician.
Descriptors: reptiles, virology, virus diseases, viruses isolation, purification, diagnosis, virus diseases, complications, diagnosis, prevention, control.

Wellehan, J.F., A.J. Johnson, B. Harrach, M. Benko, A.P. Pessier, C.M. Johnson, M.M. Garner, A. Childress, and E.R. Jacobson (2004). Detection and analysis of six lizard adenoviruses by consensus primer PCR provides further evidence of a reptilian origin for the atadenoviruses. Journal of Virology 78(23): 13366-13369. ISSN: 0022-538X.
NAL Call Number: QR360.J6
Abstract: A consensus nested-PCR method was designed for investigation of the DNA polymerase gene of adenoviruses. Gene fragments were amplified and sequenced from six novel adenoviruses from seven lizard species, including four species from which adenoviruses had not previously been reported. Host species included Gila monster, leopard gecko, fat-tail gecko, blue-tongued skink, Tokay gecko, bearded dragon, and mountain chameleon. This is the first sequence information from lizard adenoviruses. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that these viruses belong to the genus Atadenovirus, supporting the reptilian origin of atadenoviruses. This PCR method may be useful for obtaining templates for initial sequencing of novel adenoviruses.
Descriptors: reptiles, lizard, adenoviruses, detection, analysis, consensus primer, PCR, reptilian origin, atadenoviruses, DNA, gecko, Gila monster.

Wellehan, J.F.X., D.K. Nichols, L.L. Li, and V. Kapur (2004). Three novel herpesviruses associated with stomatitis in Sudan plated lizards (Gerrhosaurus major) and a black-lined plated lizard (Gerrhosaurus nigrolineatus). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 35(1): 50-54. ISSN: 1042-7260.
NAL Call Number: SF601.J6
Descriptors: reptiles, lizards, stomatitis, associated herpesviruses, dyspnea.

Wellehan, J.F.X. and C.I. Gunkel (2004). Emergent Diseases in Reptiles. Seminars in Avian and Exotic Pet Medicine 13(3): 160-174. ISSN: 1055-937X.
NAL Call Number: SF994.2.A1S36
Descriptors: reptiles, emergent diseases, review, clinical techniques, renal failure, toxicosis.

Westfall, M.E., D.L. Demcovitz, D.R. Plourde, D.S. Rotstein, and D.R. Brown (2006). In vitro antibiotic susceptibility of Mycoplasma iguanae proposed sp. nov. isolated from vertebral lesions of green iguanas (Iguana iguana). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 37(2): 206-208. ISSN: 1042-7260.
NAL Call Number: SF601.J6
Descriptors: reptiles, green iguana, Iguana iguana, Mycoplaama iguana, amtibiotic susceptibility, in vitro, vertebral lesions, isolated.

Work, T.M. (2005). Cancer in sea turtles. Hawaii Medical Journal 64(1): 23-24. ISSN: 0017-8594.
Descriptors: sea turtles, neoplasms, pathology, papilloma, etiology, pathology, research, Hawaii.

Work, T.M., G.H. Balazs, M. Wolcott, and R. Morris (2003). Bacteraemia in free-ranging Hawaiian green turtles Chelonia mydas with fibropapillomatosis. Diseases of Aquatic Organisms 53(1): 41-46. ISSN: print: 0177-5103; online: 1616-1586.
Online: http://dx.doi.org/10.3354/dao053041
Abstract: Past studies of free-ranging green turtles Chelonia mydas with fibropapillomatosis (FP) in Hawaii have shown that animals become immunosuppressed with increasing severity of this disease. Additionally, preliminary clinical examination of moribund turtles with FP revealed that some animals were also bacteraemic. We tested the hypothesis that bacteraemia in sea turtles is associated with the severity of FP. We captured free-ranging green turtles from areas in Hawaii where FP is absent, and areas where FP has been endemic since the late 1950s. Each turtle was given an FP severity score ranging from 0 (no tumours) to 3 (severely affected). A fifth category included turtles that were stranded ashore and moribund with FP. We found that the percentage of turtles with bacteraemia increased with the severity of FP, and that the majority of bacteria cultured were Vibrio spp. Turtles with severe FP were more susceptible to bactaeremia, probably in part due to immunosuppression. The pattern of bacteraemia in relation to severity of disease strengthens the hypothesis that immunosuppression is a sequel to FP.
Descriptors: reptiles, Hawaiian green turtles, Chelonia mydas, bacteraemia, free ranging, fibropapillomatosis, immunosuppressed, tumors, clinical examination.

Wu, H.x. and J.z. Xue (2004). Pathogens of haemorrhagic intestinal necrosis in soft-shelled turtle (Trionyx sinensis) and their drug sensitivity. Chinese Journal of Veterinary Science 24(4): 343-345 Sum No 112. ISSN: 1005-4545.
NAL Call Number: SF604.C58
Descriptors: reptiles, soft shelled turtle, Trionyx sinensis, pathogens, haemorrhagic intestinal necrosis, drug sensitivity.
Language of Text: Chinese; Summary in Chinese and English.

Xia, T.s., J.l. Zhu, and M. Shao (2006). Relationship between temperature and diseases occurrence of Chinese alligator during hibernation. Sichuan Journal of Zoology 25(2): 400-402. ISSN: 1000-7083.
Descriptors: reptiles, Chinese alligator, temperature, diseases occurrence, relationship.
Language of Text: Chinese; Summary in Chinese and English.

Zhu, L. (2005). The common diseases found in cultured loggerhead turtle. Fisheries Science Liaoning 24(3): 24-26. ISSN: 1003-1111.
Descriptors: reptiles, loggerhead turtle, common diseases, cultured, captivity.
Language of Text: Chinese.

Zotti, A., P. Selleri, P. Carnier, M. Morgante, and D. Bernardini (2004). Relationship between metabolic bone disease and bone mineral density measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry in the green iguana (Iguana iguana). Veterinary Radiology and Ultrasound 45(1): 10-16. ISSN: 1058-8183.
NAL Call Number: SF757.8.A4
Abstract: The aim of our work was to study the feasibility of using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry to obtain reference bone density values in relation to body weight, gender, and metabolic bone disease in the green iguana. The study was performed on 28 animals. The weight, age, and gender of each iguana were recorded. Each lizard was carefully examined and radiographed to detect signs of metabolic bone disease. Blood samples were collected from each animal to evaluate Ca/P and total protein. All animals, both affected (group B; n = 11) and unaffected (group A; n = 17) by metabolic bone disease, were individually scanned using an X-ray densitometer. The regions of interest were the head, lumbar spine, right, and left femur. Statistical analysis was performed separately for each region of interest. Body weight had the strongest relationship with bone density (P < 0.01). Within regions of interest, for iguanas of average weight (710 g), statistically significant differences between healthy and sick animals were found: head (0.140 vs. 0.090 g/cm2; P < 0.01); lumbar spine (0.164 vs. 0.107 g/cm2; P < 0.01); right femur (0.103 vs. 0.076 g/cm2; P < 0.01); left femur (0.103 vs. 0.078 g/cm2; P < 0.01). Regression equations to obtain reference values of bone density as a function of body weight for animals affected and not affected by metabolic bone disease are provided. Our data indicate that X-ray bone densitometry is an additional tool for studying bone pathophysiology in reptiles.
Descriptors: reptiles, iguana, metabolic bone disease, bone mineral density, relationship, duel-energy X-ray absorptiometry, body weight.