Introduction
Rodents, non-human primates, dogs, cats, and
farm animals have long been the preferred animal models in biomedical research.
their behavioral repertoire and physiological responses to stimuli are more
similar to human systems than are lower organisms. However, as amphibians, fish
and reptiles become better understood in the field and laboratory, their
advantages as alternative animal models are being revealed.
While there are about 4,000 known species of
mammals, there are over 4,000 species of amphibian, 6,000 species of reptiles,
and more than 20,000 species of fish. Such diversity allows for a wide range of
research on specific organs, tissues, and systems that are similar in function,
but often less complex than in mammals. Due to differential rates of ova
maturation and numbers of gametes produced, elasmobranchs (sharks, skates,
rays) are used to study fetal nutrition and toxicology as well as
gametogenesis. The monkfish is an important insulin resource for researchers
since it contains 20 to 40 times more insulin-producing tissue than the
laboratory rat.
Reptiles and amphibians contribute to studies
in genetics, embryology, developmental biology, ethology, endocrinology, and
immunology. Salamanders and newts are models for limb regeneration. Fetal heart
cells of the axolotl (Mexican salamander) will divide and beat in vitro.
Frogs have played a major role in the development of communication theory. The
common anole lizard is used in behavioral studies and can be induced to produce
the symptoms of Parkinson=s disease. Typical reptile and amphibian studies include aggression,
stress physiology, reproductive cycles and dysfunction, and the effects of
neurotoxins.
In contrast to mammals and birds which are
endothermic (their body temperature is regulated and maintained internally),
reptiles, amphibians, and fish are ectothermic with body temperature primarily
regulated by ambient temperatures. Since metabolism is driven by body
temperature, the rate of normal body functions in these species may be
artificially increased or decreased. Thus endocrine, immunological,
inflammation, cell physiology, and many other pathways can be easily
manipulated.
A major concern to those who might use these
species is the necessity of providing a suitable laboratory environment. Unlike
mammals and birds, reptiles, amphibians and fish require very specific
micro environments. For reptiles and amphibians, basking sites, water source and
water temperature, relative humidity, photo period and type of lighting, ambient
temperature, group density, cover, method of food preparation and presentation
are all factors that influence whether or not the animals will function
normally in the laboratory. Fish live in a totally aqueous environment. Type of
water (fresh, salt, brackish), pH, salinity, school density, cover, dissolved
oxygen, lighting, and filtration are necessary considerations that require
monitoring. The animal=s
needs are often species-specific and failure to meet them results in
stress-induced diseases, low growth rate, poor feed efficiency, cannibalism,
and failure to reproduce.
Information Resources on Amphibians, Fish
& Reptiles Used in Biomedical Research is an attempt to collect in a single volume much of the current
information regarding the care and use of these alternative animal models. It
is intended only as an introduction to these species as comprehensive coverage
would fill several volumes. The authors have selected sample articles that
typify recent research. Each animal group has a section of articles and books
pertaining to its use in biomedical research followed by a section on its care
and use. The latter section highlights not only husbandry and maintenance of
particular species, but also regulations, guidelines, and veterinary aspects
such as appropriate anesthesia or euthanasia. Because several citations cross
phyla, general sections are provided. A final section provides information
resources with names and addresses of organizations and their publications that
can provide further information. If the citation can be found at the National
Agricultural Library (NAL), its call number is given. Information
on how to request materials that are included in the collection of the
National Agricultural Library (NAL) may be found on the Collection Services website at http://www.nal.usda.gov/services/request.shtml. Please read carefully as there are certain
restrictions on media and
document types.
GENERAL
Gene transfer technology in aquaculture. Levy, J.A.; Marins, L.F.; Sanchez, A.,
Hydrobiologia 2000, v. 420 (1), p. 91-94. ISSN: 0018-8158.
NAL call no: 410 H992
Descriptors: Biotechnology, fish culture,
transgenic fish, gene transfer.
Reptiles & amphibians of Australia. 6th
ed. Cogger, Harold G.,
Chatswwod. N.S.W.: Reed, 2000, 808 p., ill. Ref. ISBN: 1876334339.
NAL call no: QL663.A1C63 2000
Descriptors: Reptiles, Amphibians, Australia.
Energetics of free-ranging mammals, reptiles
and birds. Nagy, K.A;
Girard, I.A,; Brown, T.A., Annual Review of Nutrition, 1999, v. 19 p.
247-277. Annual Reviews Inc., Palo Alto, CA. ISSN: 0199-9885.
NAL call no: QP141.A1A63
Descriptors: energy expenditure, species
differences, energy requirements.
Comparison of four monoclonal antibodies reacting
with gastric gland mucous cell-derived mucins of rat and frogs. Kurihara, M.; Ishihara, K.; Ota, H.;
Katsuyama, T.; Nakano, T.; Naito, T.; Hotta, K., 1998, Comparative
Biochemistry and Physiology-B. v. 121B, (3), p. 315-321. ISSN: 0305-0491.
NAL call no: QP501.C6
Descriptors: antibodies, Rana,
immunoprecipitation, biochemical composition.
Encyclopedia of reptiles and amphibians. 2nd ed., Cogger, Harols G.;
Zweifel, Richard George; Kirshner, David. McMahons Point, N.S.W.: Weldon Owen,
1998, 240 p., ill., maps. ISBN: 0121785602.
NAL call no: QL641.E63 1998
Descriptors: reptiles, amphibians,
encyclopedia.
A key to amphibians and reptiles of the
continental United States and Canada. Powell, Robert; Collins, Joseph T.; Hooper, Errol D. Lawrence:
University Press of Kansas, c1998, 131 p., ill., map. ISBN: 0700609296.
NAL call no: QL652.P69 1998
Descriptors: reptiles, identification, United
States, Canada.
Lymphocyte development in fish and
amphibians. Hansen, J.D.;
Zapata, A.G. Immunological Reviews, 1998, v. 166, p. 199-220, 1998.
ISSN: 0105-2896.
NAL call no: QP89.T7
Descriptors: lymphocytes, lymphopoiesis,
transcription factors, blood cells.
Use of explant cultures of peripheral nerves
of adult vertebrates to study axonal regeneration in vitro. Progress in Neurobiology. 1998, v. 54 (4), p. 459-480. ISSN:
0301-0082.
NAL call no: QP361.P7
Descriptors: vertebrates, peripheral nerves,
explant cultures, regeneration.
Advances in herpetoculture. Special publication of the International
Herpetological Symposium, Inc.: no.1 [s.1.]: c1996, xiii, 167 p., ill.
NAL call no: SF515.A38 1996
Descriptors: amphibian, reptile, culture.
Fish and amphibian models used in laboratory
research. Kane. A.S.;
Gonzales, J.F.;
Reimschuessel, R., Lab Animal, 1996, v. 25 (6), p.
33-38. Nature Publishing Co., N.Y., N.Y. ISSN: 0093-7355.
NAL call no: QL55.A1L33
Descriptors: fishes, amphibia, animal models,
laboratory animals.
Setting guidelines for the care of reptiles,
amphibians and fishes. Pough,
F.H., Scientist Center for Animal Welfare (SCAW), Spring 1996, v. 18 (1), p.
3-8. ISSN: 1052-7559.
NAL call no: QL55.N48
Descriptors: reptiles, amphibia, fishes,
guidelines, animal care, husbandry.
Veterinary nutritional management of
amphibians and reptiles. Donoghue,
S. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, June 1, 1996,
v. 208 (11), p. 1816-1820. ISSN: 0003-1488.
NAL call no: 41.8 Am3
Descriptors: amphibia, reptiles, nutrition,
husbandry, metabolism, disorders.
Evaluation of hypothermia for anesthesia in
reptiles and amphibians. Martin,
B.J., Washington, DC: Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources, National
Research Council, v. 37 (4), p. 186-190. 1995. ISSN: 1084-2020.
NAL call no: QL55.A1I43
Descriptors: reptiles, amphibia, anesthesia,
hypothermia, safety, animal welfare.
Self assessment color review of reptiles and
amphibians. Frye, Frederick
L.; Williams, David L., Iowa State University Press, 1995, 192 p. col. Ill.
ISBN: 0813829909.
NAL call no: SF997.5.R4F797 1995
Descriptors: reptiles, amphibians, diseases,
miscellaneous, pictorial works.
Vitellogenin induction by xenobiotic
estrogens in the red-eared turtle and African clawed frog. Palmer, B.D.; Palmer, S.K., Wildlife
Development, 1995, v. 103 (4),
Supp. P. 19-25. Environment and Health Perspectives, NIH 95-218,
v. 103 (4) Supp.
Descriptors: xenobiotics, estrogens,
vitellogenin, pollution detection.
Anesthesia of reptiles and amphibians. Proceedings of the North American Veterinary
Conference, Gainesville, FL:
Eastern States Veterinary Association, 1994, p. 863.
NAL call no: SF605.N672
Descriptors: reptiles, amphibia, anesthesia.
Captive management and conservation of
amphibians and reptiles.
Murphy, James B.; Adler, Kraig; Collins, Joseph T. Contributions to
Herpetology, v. 11: Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles, 1994,
408 p., ill. ISBN: 0916984338.
NAL call no: SF515.C47 1994
Descriptors: captive, amphibians, reptiles,
culture.
The diagnosis and treatment of commonly
observed ophthalmic conditions in fishes and frogs. Proceedings of the North American Veterinary
Conference. Gainesville, FL:
Eastern States Veterinary Association, 1994, p. 782-783.
NAL call no: SF605.N672
Descriptors: fishes, frogs, diagnosis.
Medical herpetology. Grenard, Steve. Pottsville, PA: Reptile
& Amphibian Magazine, 1994, xiii, 139 p. ISBN: 0964103206.
NAL call no: RA1242.S53G74 1994
Descriptors: reptiles, health aspects,
amphibians, poisonous snakes.
Reptiles and amphibians in captivity:
Breeding, longevity and inventory. Current Jan.1, 1994. Slavens, Frank L.; Slavens, Kate, Seattle, WA:
Slaveware, c1994. 532 p. ill.
NAL call no: SF515.S53 1994
Descriptors: reptiles, amphibians, captivity,
breeding collections.
Herpetology: An introductory biology of
amphibians and reptiles. Zug, George R., San Diego: Academic Press,
c1993. xv, 527 p. ill., maps. ISBN: 0127826203.
NAL call no: QL641.Z84 1993
Descriptors: Herpetology.
The reptile and amphibian keeper=s dictionary: An A to Z of herpetology. Wareham, David C. London:
Blandford, 1993, 248 p., ill. ISBN: 0713723181.
NAL call no: SF515.W37 1993
Descriptors: reptile, amphibian, dictionary.
Alternatives to the
use of mammals for pain research. Stevens, C.W. Life Science, v. 50 (13)
p.901-912 (1992).
NAL call no: 442.8 L62
Descriptors:
pharmacology, physiology, biochemistry, ethics, lower vertebrates.
The care of reptiles
and amphibians
in
captivity.
Rev. 3rd ed. Mattison, Christopher. Distributed in the U.S. by
Sterling Pub. Co., 1992, 317 p. 16 p. of plates; ill. ISBN: 0713723386.
NAL call no:
SF459.A45M37 1992
Descriptors: reptiles,
amphibians, captive.
The Care and Use of
Amphibians, Reptiles, and Fish in Research. Schaeffer, D.O.; Kleinow, K.M. and Krulisch, L.
(eds.), Scientists Center for Animal Welfare, Bethesda, MD; 1992, 204 pp.
NAL call no: SF406.C35
1992
Descriptors:
anesthesia, euthanasia, husbandry, nutrition, behavior, disease, medicine.
Environmental
Physiology of the Amphibia. Feder, M.E.
and Burggren, W.A. (eds.), University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL; 1992.
NAL call no:
QL669.2.E58 1992
Descriptors: anatomy,
endocrinology, neurology, immunology.
Live Animal
Regulations. International Air
Transport Association, Montreal-Geneva, 19th edition; 1992, 240
pp.
NAL call no:
HE9788.4.A55I57
Descriptors: fish,
reptiles, amphibians, container requirements, feeding requirements, and
documents.
Recognition and
Alleviation of Pain and Distress in Laboratory Animals. Institute of
Laboratory Animal Resources, National Academy Press, Washington, DC; 1992, 137
pp.
NAL call no:
SF996.5.R43
Descriptors:
euthanasia, anesthesia, recommendations, animal welfare, hypothermia.
Activity-dependent
plasticity in the visual systems of frogs and fish. Cline, H.T. Trends
in Neurosciences, v..14 (3), p.104-111 (1991).
NAL call no: RC321.T74
Descriptors: model,
selective synapse, neurophysiology.
Atlas of Abnormalities.
A Guide for Performance of Fetax. Bantle,
J.A.; Dumont, J.N.; Finch, R.A. and Linder, G.
American Society for Testing and Materials, 1991.
NAL call no:
RA1224.45 A85 1991
Descriptors: Developmental toxicology, animal models, atlases,
teratogenicity testing.
Atlas of diagnostic
radiology of exotic pets: Small mammals, birds, reptiles and amphibians. International
edition. Philadelphia, PA. W.B. Saunders, c1991, 224 p. ill. ISBN: 0721634931.
NAL call no: SF757.8
A84 Ov
Descriptors: veterinary radiology atlases, diseases,
diagnosis.
The care and use of
amphibians, reptiles and fish in research. (Special conference report, part 1) Guttman,
H.N. SCAW Newsletter, v. 13 (2),
p.5-7 (1991).
NAL call no: QL55.N48
Descriptors: IACUC,
husbandry, guidelines.
The care and use of
amphibians, reptiles and fish in research. (Special conference report, part 2) Guttman,
H.N. SCAW Newsletter. v. 13 (3), p.10-11 (1991).
NAL call no: QL55.N48
Descriptors: handling,
nutrition, health.
Energy requirements
for maintenance and growth of wild mammals, birds and reptiles in captivity. Kirkwood, J.K. Journal
of Nutrition, v.121 (11), p.S29-S34 (1991).
NAL call no: 389.8 J82
Descriptors:
nutrition, diet, metabolism, development.
4th International Colloquium on
pathology and medicine of Reptiles and Amphibians. Gabrisch, K.; Schildger, Bernd; Zwart, P.;
German Veterinary Association. Giessen: Deutsche Veterinarmedizinische
Gesellschaft, 1991, 330 p. ill. ISBN: 3924851638.
Language: German, English.
NAL call no: SF997.5.R4I57 1991
Descriptors: reptiles, amphibians, diseases,
congresses, veterinary pathology.
Learning and Memory: A
Biological View. Martinez, J.L. and Kesner,
R.P. (eds.), Academic Press, San Diego, CA; 1991, 563 pp.
NAL call no: QP406.L43
1991
Descriptors:
brain-behavior relations, anatomy, pharmacology, lesions, electrophysiology,
invertebrates, vertebrates.
National Institute on
Aging, NIH, workshop on alternative animal models for research on aging. Anonymous. Experimental
Gerontology, v. 26 (5), p. 411-439 (1991).
NAL call no: QP86.E85
Descriptors: human
aging, birds, mammals, fish, reptiles, invertebrates, cost analysis.
Nutrition of aquaculture species. Lovell, R.T., 1991. Journal of Animal
Science, v. 69 (10), p. 4193-4200, Oct. 1991. American Society of Animal
Science, Champaign, IL. ISSN: 0021-8812.
NAL call no: 49 J82
Descriptors: aquaculture, nutrient
requirements, fishes, energy requirements, food intake.
Ontogeny of cardiovascular and respiratory
physiology in lower vertebrates. Burggren, W.W.; Pinder, A.W., Annual Review of Physiology, 1991,
v. 53, p. 107-135. ISSN: 0066-4278.
NAL call no: 444.8 AN7
Descriptors: lower vertebrates,
cardiovascular, respiratory, physiology, ontogeny.
An overview of animal
cancer registries in the United States and suggestions for improved
applications. Monsein, D.L. Compendium
on Continuing Education for the Practicing Veterinarian Princeton Jct., NJ; v.13 (7), p.1139-1146
(1991).
NAL call no: SF601.C66
Descriptors: fish,
amphibians, reptiles, collection, storage, interpretation of data, data
collecting, computerization.
Production of aquatic animals: Crustaceans,
molluscs, amphibians, and reptiles. World animal science. C. Production system approach. Amsterdam; New
York: Elsevier Science, 1991, xii, 244 p., ill. ISBN: 0444883126.
NAL call no: SH370.P76 1990
Descriptors: culture, shell fish, amphibian,
reptile, aquaculture.
Recommendations for the care of amphibians
and reptiles in academic institutions. ILAR News. Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources, National Research
Council, Fall 1991, v. 33 (4), p. S1-S22. ISSN: 0018-9960.
