Disposal of Dead Production Animals

1988 - 2006

May 2003, Revised November 2006

Jean Larson
Animal Welfare Information Center

U.S. Department of Agriculture
Agricultural Research Service
National Agricultural Library
10301 Baltimore Avenue
Beltsville, MD 20705-2351
Telephone: (301) 504-6212
Fax: (301) 504-7125
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Methods and processes of dealing with dead animals have always been and continue to be a concern in all animal production operations both large and small, slaughter plants, wildlife managers, and other facilities that have animals. In addition to production systems, recent epidemics of exotic New Castle disease in the US, bovine spongiform encephalopathy (mad cow disease) in Europe and in elk in the US, and foot and mouth disease in the United Kingdom and other parts of the world have raised many questions regarding the proper disposal of domestic and wild animals to control animal and human disease epidemics. Carcass disposal is also a concern when there are major disease outbreaks that affect only wildlife. Road kills and injured animals can also create carcass disposal problems. Proper disposal methods/systems are especially important due to the potential for disease transfer to humans and other animals, and the pollution of soil, air and ground water.

The reported research in this document mainly addresses the disposal of cattle, swine, poultry, sheep, goats, fish, and wild birds. Some of the concerns are pathogen control, pollution control, recycling of nutrients, feed potential, etc.

It was with the above concerns in mind, that the following bibliographic resource of scientific information has been compiled. The information is from a variety of sources and covers the dates 1988 to the present.

The document is a list consisting mostly of scientific articles, books, and conference proceedings. The listing is organized by year and alphabetical by author within the year. Most of the papers are in English, but foreign language papers are also referenced. An attempt has been made to provide a translated title for foreign titles. If an English summary is available, that is noted in a “Notes” statement.

Many of the referenced papers are available from the National Agricultural Library. In those instances, an NAL call number is listed with the bibliographic citation. Information on document delivery is available at http://www.nal.usda.gov/services/request.shtml

I hope that the reader will find the information useful. However if there are important papers that are missing from the document, please feel free to contact us at http://www.nal.usda.gov/awic/contact.php

Bendfeldt, E.S.; Peer, R.W.; Flory, G.A. In-house composting as a rapid response to avian influenza. BioCycle. 2006; 47 (5): 38-42. ISSN: 0276-5055.

Descriptors: all birds and bird types, State of Virginia experiences with low-pathogenic avian influenza, 1984-85 and 2002, poultry house structure, in-house composting, preferred and most acceptable method, disease containment, carcass disposal, economics, logistics, poultry manure, waste utilization, poultry litter, Virginia.

Chen, Ten-Hong; Huang, Jiun-Lin. Anaerobic treatment of poultry mortality in a temperature-phased leachbed-UASB system. Bioresource Technology (England). Aug 2006; 97 (12): 1398-410. ISSN: 0960-8524.

Abstract: Anaerobic digestion has been proposed as an alternative to the conventional disposal methods of burial, incineration, rendering and aerobic composting. A temperature-phased system consisting of one UASB (at 55 degrees C) and three leach-bed reactors (at ambient temperatures) was tested for its efficiencies in treating poultry mortality. The thermophilic UASB was difficult to start-up. It also showed signs of inhibited methanogenesis. Chemical parameters such as long chain fatty acids, volatile fatty acids and ammonia concentrations were all very high for the thermophilic UASB. Lowering its temperature to 35 degrees C enhanced its stability and improved its performances. Lowering the pH of the 55 degrees C UASB also improved its chemical oxygen demand (COD) reduction efficiency as well as its methane production rate. The results were compared to that of another similar system where the UASB reactor was maintained at 35 degrees C instead of at 55 degrees C.

Descriptors: poultry mortalities, anaerobic digestion system, temperature phased process of a UASB, leach bed reactors, efficiency, pH levels, bioreactors, waste disposal.

Taylor, S. Emergency on-farm slaughter of animals within the OTMS and OCDS. Veterinary Record. 2006; 158 (1): 31. ISSN: 0042-4900.

Descriptors: cattle, on the farm slaughter, livestock, emergency carcass disposal, food safety, guidelines and regulations, Europe.

Versfeld, M.J. Avian influenza - the role of the veterinarian. Pluimvee Poultry Bulletin. February 2006; 54. ISSN: 0257-201X.

Descriptors: infected poultry, avian influenza, serological surveys, disease surveys, disease control, disease surveys, biosecurity concerns, carcass disposal, hygiene, sanitation, role of veterinarians.

Walker, P.M.; Kelley, T.R.; Simmons, R.J.; Wiegand, B.R. A mobile, spent hen incineration unit. Zootecnica International. 2006; (1): 22-28. ISSN: 0392-0593.

Descriptors: poultry industry, spent hens, carcass disposal, tissues, infection materials, rendering and other wastes, mobile incineration unit project, propane fueled, modified air-curtain technology, minimizes workers and environmental risks.

Boschetti, A. Polizze assicurative in studio per gli allevamenti zootecnici. [Insurance policies in studies of animal husbandry.] Informatore Agrario. 2005; 61 (13): 39-41. ISSN: 0020-0689. Note: In Italian.

Descriptors: dairy cattle, buffalo, beef cattle, compensation payments, animal husbandry, forces slaughter, reduced profits, costs of carcass disposal, planning eradication of bovine tuberculosis, leucosis, brucellosis, non-assisted policies, repeal or suspension of sanitary status, blockades of movement for infections diseases, ban on marketing animal-based products, Italy.

Bush, J.; Phillimore, P.; Pless-Mulloli, T.; Thompson, C. Carcass disposal and siting controversy: risk, dialogue and confrontation in the 2001 foot-and-mouth outbreak. Local Environment. 2005; 10 (6): 649-664. ISSN: 1354-9839. Note: Abstract.

Descriptors: foot and mouth disease of 2001, carcass disposal, policy, 6 million animals, public opposition, two ex-mining sites, mass carcass burial sites, northeast England, local liaison committees to manage dialogue, differences between public and authorities, operation of slaughter policy, cursory public consultation, United Kingdom.

Corradini, E. Quanto costa all'allevatore smaltire le carcasse. [How much does carcass disposal cost the farmer?] Rivista di Suinicoltura. 2005; 46 (9): 26-31. ISSN: 0035-662X. Note: In Italian.

DeRouchey, J.M.; Harner, J.P.; Murphy, J.P. Catastrophic mortality composting: is it safe and effective? Journal of Applied Poultry Research. 2005; 14 (2): 414-416. ISSN: 1056-6171.

Descriptors: poultry mortalities, dead animals, carcass disposal, composting, burial, infectious diseases control, public health hazards, water table, frozen soil, soils, biosecurity, biosafety, literature reviews.

Farrell, M. Composting helps manage avian bird flu outbreak. BioCycle. 2005; 46 (5): 50-54. ISSN: 0276-5055.

Descriptors: avian influenza, poultry mortalities, carcass disposal, composting process, animal manures, disease outbreaks, waste disposal, waste management, British Columbia, Canada.

Gonzalez, J.L.; Sanchez, M. Treatment of poultry mortalities on poultry farms. Compost Science & Utilization. 2005; 13 (2): 136-140. ISSN: 1065-657X.

Descriptors: poultry, dead animals, poultry carcasses, carcass disposal, cardboard, non-marketable eggs, composting, compost quality.

Griffiths, I. Postmortem examination of cattle and sheep. In Practice. 2005; 27 (9): 458-463, 465. ISSN: 0263-841X.

Descriptors: cattle, sheep, clinical examination, postmortem changes, carcass disposal, dead animals, disease diagnosis, veterinary equipment, necropsy, United Kingdom.

Jones, W.E. Dead horse disposal. Journal of Equine Veterinary Science. 2005; 25 (1): 40. ISSN: 0737-0806.

Kains, F. Composting dead pigs. Advances in Pork Production: Proceedings of the Banff Pork Seminar. 2005; 16: 269-278. ISSN: 1489-1395. Note: Seminar held January 18-21, 2005.

Kalbasi, A.; Mukhtar, S.; Hawkins, S.E.; Auvermann, B.W. Carcass composting for management of farm mortalities: a review. Compost Science & Utilization. 2005; 13 (3): 180-193. ISSN: 1065-657X. Note: In English.

Descriptors: carcass disposal, dead animals, livestock mortalities, composting system, meat carcasses, soil pollution, groundwater contamination, literature reviews.

McQuiston, J.H.; Garber, L.P.; Porter-Spalding, B.A.; Hahn, J.W.; Pierson, F.W.; Wainwright, S.H.; Senne, D.A.; Brignole, T.J.; Akey, B.L.; Holt, T.J. Evaluation of risk factors for the spread of low pathogenicity H7N2 avian influenza virus among commercial poultry farms. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association. 2005; 226 (5): 767-772. ISSN: 0003-1488.

Descriptors: poultry mortalities, disposal methods, prevention of disease, risk factors, commercial farms, low pathogenic avian flu virus.

Pozio, Edoardo; Owen, Ifor L.; Marucci, Gianluca; La Rosa, Giuseppe. Inappropriate feeding practice favors the transmission of Trichinella papuae from wild pigs to saltwater crocodiles in Papua New Guinea. Veterinary Parasitology (Netherlands). Feb 28, 2005; 127 (3-4): 245-251. ISSN: 0304-4017.

Abstract: The recent discovery of Trichinella zimbabwensis in farmed crocodiles (Crocodilus niloticus) of Zimbabwe and its ability to infect mammals, and the development of both T. zimbabwensis and Trichinella papuae in experimentally infected reptiles led to an investigation of Trichinella infection in saltwater crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus) and in wild pigs (Sus scrofa) of Papua New Guinea, to see if T. papuae also, is present in both cold- and warm-blooded animals. Of 222 crocodiles examined, 47 animals (21.2%), all from Kikori, Gulf Province, were positive for non-encapsulated larvae in the muscles. The greatest number of larvae was found usually in the biceps, with an average of 7 larvae/g. One isolate from a crocodile infected successfully both laboratory rats and mice. Of 81 wild pigs examined, 9 from Bensbach river area (Western Province) and 1 from Kikori area (Gulf Province) were positive for non-encapsulated larvae in the muscles. Trichinella larvae from both saltwater crocodiles and wild pigs have been identified by multiplex-PCR analysis as T. papuae. The sequence analysis of the region within the large subunit ribosomal DNA, known as the expansion segment V, has shown the presence of a molecular marker distinguishing T. papuae isolates of Bensbach river area from those of Kikori area. This marker could be useful to trace back the geographical origin of the infected animal. The epidemiological investigation carried out in the Kikori area has shown that local people catch young crocodiles in the wild and keep them in holding pens for several months, before sending them to the crocodile farm in Lae (Morobe Province). They feed the crocodiles primarily with wild pig meat bought at the local market and also with fish. These results stress the importance of using artificial digestion for routinely screening of swine and crocodiles, and of adopting measures for preventing the spread of infection, such as the proper disposal of carcasses and the adequate freezing of meat.

Descriptors: alligators, Crocodilus niloticus, Trichinella zimbabwensis, crocodiles, Crocodylus porosus, farmed/captive animals, animal feeds, Trichinella papuae, trichinosis, swine parasite, infected swine used as reptile food, cross species parasite transmission and infection, Sus scrofa, wild pigs as parasite source, improper handing of carcasses, public health concern, Papua, New Guinea.

Rassow, D. Contingency planning and simulation exercises for the control of epizootics. 21st Conference of the OIE Regional Commission for Europe, Avila, Spain, 28 September-1 October 2004. Compendium of Technical Items Presented to the International Committee or to Regional Commissions of the OIE. 2005; 113-130. ISBN: 92-9044-654-4. Note: In English, French and Russian.

Descriptors: contingency planning, domestic infectious animal diseases, stamping out outbreaks of epizootic diseases, animal welfare, culling, disease prevalence, disease transmission, epidemiology, international cooperation, Office International des Epizooties, outbreaks, simulations, zoonoses, Europe.

United States Department of Agriculture. Poultry '04. Part I: Reference of Health and Management of Backyard/Small Production Flocks in the United States, 2004. USDA. APHIS:VS:CEAH NRRC Building B, M.S. 2E7, 2150 Centre Avenue, Fort Collins, CO 80526-8117, USA. August 2005; 85 pp.

Abstract: This report contains information on the management, health and health care, biosecurity, bird movement, carcass and litter disposal, and producer characteristics of backyard/small production flocks in the USA in 2004. Data were collected from owners of backyard flocks in 18 major poultry producing states.

Descriptors: animal health, animal husbandry, animal production, health care, mortality, movement, poultry, United States.

United States. Department of Agriculture. Poultry '04. Part IV: Reference of Health and Management of Backyard/Small Production Flocks and Gamefowl Breeder Flocks in the United States, 2004. Dec. 2005; 41 pp.

Abstract: The health and management of backyard/small production flocks and gamefowl breeder flocks in the US. The information was collected from backyard flock producers and gamefowl breeders. The first section discusses general management, health and health care, biosecurity, bird movement, carcass and litter disposal and producer characteristics. The second section explains methods used for data collection and analysis.

Descriptors: gamefowl breeding, game birds, poultry, animal health, biosecurity, animal housing, carcass waste disposal, farm management, methodology, transport of animals, vaccination, USDA, APHIS, Veterinary services, US.

Yamanishi, T.; Matsumoto, Y.; Kuniyoshi, S.; Matsuda, S. Preventive measures against high-pathogenicity avian influenza virus in Yamaguchi Prefecture. Yamaguchi Journal of Veterinary Medicine. 2005; (32): 31-36. ISSN: 0388-9335.

Descriptors: poultry mortalities, high pathogenic avian influenza, burial of dead birds, 10 days, preventive measures, zoonotic disease potential, recommends development of large scale disposal methods, Yamaguchi Prefecture, Japan.

Yeske, P. Considerations for writing biosecurity protocols for swine herds. In: Large Animal. Proceedings of the North American Veterinary Conference, Orlando, Florida, USA, 8-12 January, 2005. Eastern States Veterinary Association. Gainesville , USA. 2005; 19: 355-358.

Descriptors: swine, developing and writing biosecurity protocols, carcass disposal, potential mass euthanasia and carcass management.

Benbow, S. Mary P. Death and Dying at the Zoo. Journal of Popular Culture. 2004; 37 (3): 379-98.

Descriptors: dead zoo animals, social responses, various options for disposal of carcasses.

Bingham, P. Mass carcass disposal a logistical challenge. Biosecurity. 2004; (55): 8. ISSN: 1174-4618.

Descriptors: livestock mortalities, biosecurity, infectious disease control, transport of animals, slaughter, carcass disposal, burning composting, incineration, burial, heat treatment, rendering, New Zealand.

Carr, J. Lessons learned: what have international experiences in large livestock disease outbreaks taught us? Some personal insights. Journal of Veterinary Medical Education. 2004; 31(4): 387-390. ISSN: 0748-321X.

Descriptors: foot and mouth disease outbreak in 2001, large animal mortalities, social implication, costs, disease prevalence, disease transmission, epidemiology, mass euthanasia programs, veterinary medicine, United Kingdom.

Chen ShuiJen; Hung MingCheng; Huang KuoLin; Hwang WenIng. Emission of heavy metals from animal carcass incinerators in Taiwan. Chemosphere. 2004; 55 (9): 1197. ISSN: 0045-6535.

Descriptors: incineration process, pigs, domestic animals, carcass disposal, three incinerators, variable heavy metal emissions, varying feedstock rate, environmental concerns, ash, cadmium, chromium, iron, lead, nickel, zinc, copper, manganese, Taiwan.

Garavaglia, V.; Guarino, M.; Navarotto, P. La nuova regolamentazione sui rifiuti di origine animale. [The new regulations on waste of animal origin.] Obiettivi e Documenti Veterinari. 2004; 25 (1): 33-37. ISSN: 0392-1913. Note: In Italian.

Descriptors: European Union regulations, animal wastes, carcass disposal, Italy.

Geale, D. Options for carcass disposal explored. Biosecurity. 2004; (49): 14-15. ISSN: 1174-4618.

Descriptors: biosafety, biosecurity, foot and mouth disease, natural disasters, carcass disposal, planning, disposal options, New Zealand.

Goldstein, N. Static piles succeed as "downer" cattle disposal option. BioCycle. 2004; 45 (5): 27-28. ISSN: 0276-5055.

Descriptors: downer cattle, poultry mortalities, livestock production mortalities, carcass disposal, waste management, composting, 21 test piles, 42 tons of carcasses, biosecurity testing, avian vaccine viruses as viability test, inactivation of viruses in 3-4 weeks in cold weather and days in warm weather, covering materials—maize silage, ground cornstalks, dry/moist manure capped with ground straw, 3 year study, Iowa.

Honhold, N.; Taylor, N.M.; Mansley, L.M.; Paterson, A.D. Relationship of speed of slaughter on infected premises and intensity of culling of other premises to the rate of spread of the foot-and-mouth disease epidemic in Great Britain, 2001. Veterinary Record. 2004; 155 (10): 287-294. ISSN: 0042-4900.

Descriptors: foot and mouth disease epidemic, disease control and prevention measures, risks, dangerous contact areas, contiguous and non-contiguous areas, Cambria, Settle/Clitheroe areas, epidemiology, spread of disease, culling of livestock animals, carcass disposal, correlation analysis, regression analysis, geographical distribution, United Kingdom.

Husnjak, M.; Kruselj, M.; Malogorski, L.J.; Zigman, S.; Crnjac, J.; Horvat, B. Procedure and treatment of carcasses in Krapina-Zagorje county. Zbrinjavnje zivotinjskih lesina u Krapinsko-zagorskoj zupaniji. [Procedure and treatment of carcasses in Krapina-Zagorje county.] In: Conference title: Priopcenja 5. Znanstveno strucni skup iz DDD-a s meunarodnim sudjelovanjem. Pouzdan put do zdravlja zivotinja, ljudi i njihova okolisa, Mali Losinj, Hrvatska, 5-8. svibnja 2004. Veterinarski Fakultet Sveucilista u Zagrebu (Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zagreb) Zagreb, Croatia. 2004; 319-322. ISBN: 953-98673-4-7. Note: In Croatian with an English summary.

Descriptors: animal mortalities and waste, carcass disposal, environmental protection, veterinary stations, integrated system, plans for 2-3 collection services, 2-3 cooled collection areas, public health, Croatia.

Lenz, T.R. An overview of acceptable euthanasia procedures, carcass disposal options, and equine slaughter legislation. Proceedings of the 50th Annual Convention of the American Association of Equine Practitioners, Denver, Colorado, USA, 4-8 December, 2004. 2004; 191-195.

Descriptors: horse euthanasia, horse slaughter, guidelines and legislation, welfare aspects, barbiturates, pentobarbital, captive bolts, shooting, carcass disposal, composting.

Madani, A.; Gordon, R.; Stratton, G. Agricultural water quality research. Proceedings of ICID Interregional Conference on Food Production and Water: Social and Economic Issues of Irrigation and Drainage, Moscow, Russia, 5-11 September 2004. International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage (ICID) New Delhi, India. 2004; 2.2.1. Note: An abstract.

Descriptors: pig mortalities, carcass disposal, layered open static piles, assuring subsurface and surface water pollution, coverings, manure, sawdust, solid manure plus tarp, water quality in unlined piles, quality and usefulness as agricultural soil conditioner.

Murari, Prasad. Biosafety and alternatives for sanitary disposal of dead animals and condemned carcasses. Livestock International. 2004; 8 (9): 20-23.

Descriptors: dead animals, condemned carcasses, carcass disposal, incineration, burying/landfill, disinfection surrounding guidelines, segregation by risk, advantages and disadvantages of rendering, India.

Murphy, James P.; Harner, Joseph P.; Strahm, Trent; DeRouchey, Joel. Composting cattle mortalities. ASAE Annual International Meeting 2004 Ottawa, ON, Canada, August 1-August 4, 2004. 2004; E.I Conference No. 66322.

Descriptors: cattle mortalities, composting, efficiency needs to be carefully manages, best management practices, university demonstration, extension visits of cattle operation discussed.

Myer, R.O.; Brendemuhl, J.H.; Leak, F.W.; Hess, J.B. Evaluation of a rendered poultry mortality-soybean meal product as a supplemental protein source for pig diets. Journal of Animal Science. 2004; 82 (4): 1071-1078. ISSN: 0021-8812.

Abstract: Dehydrated/rendered broiler mortality-soybean meal products (DPS) were evaluated in two trials as high-protein feedstuffs for pig diets. Broiler mortalities, collected and frozen on-farm and transported to a central facility, were minced, blended with soybean meal, and dried with a final product temperature of 120 to 130 degrees C. The final DPS products used contained approximately 30 and 45% (DM basis) dried broiler mortality for the first and second trials, respectively (DPS1 and DPS2). The first trial involved 50 young, growing pigs (9 to 26 kg) and the second, 72 growing and finishing pigs (27 to 111 kg). The trials compared corn-based diets containing either soybean meal (SBM; 48%) or DPS products as the supplemental protein source. The DPS products averaged 50% CP and 2.9% total lysine; crude fat content of DPS used in the first trial was 8%, and for the second, 14.6% (as-fed basis). The ADG of pigs fed the DPS diets in either trial was similar to that of pigs fed the SBM control diets. In the second trial, pigs fed DPS2 had an overall average G:F ratio that was 9% better (P < 0.01) than that of pigs fed the SBM control diets. Carcass characteristics and pork quality from pigs of the growing-finishing trial were not affected by dietary treatment. Subjective carcass fat firmness scores indicated slightly softer fat (P < 0.05) from pigs fed DPS2. The mincing, blending with SBM, and dehydration of frozen stored on-farm broiler mortalities produced a safe and nutritious protein feedstuff for pigs, while also offering a viable disposal option.

Descriptors: broiler chicken mortality, carcass disposal, rendering/dehydrated-soybean feed product for swine, process described, composition of final product, swine feeding study, swine carcass characteristics, pork quality, carcass fat firmness, viable carcass disposal option.

National Wildlife Health Center. Chronic Wasting Disease in Deer and Elk. Wildlife Information Network. Atherstone, UK. 2004. ISBN: 0-9547185-4-2. Note: CD ROM, unpaginated.

Descriptors: Cervus elaphus canadensis, elk, deer, life cycles, susceptibility to prion diseases, prion protein, diagnosis, spongiform encephalopathies, case studies, disease detection, disease diagnosis and control, incubation, disease transmission, contaminated animals, culling, necropsy, detection, disinfection, carcass disposal, diversity; education; genetics; geographical distribution, hosts, identification, imports, inactivation, management, mortalitities, pathology, persistence, animal quarantine, treatment, vaccination, UK.

Olivia, Renville County. Minnesota Public Health Assessment for Valadco Confined Livestock Operations (a/k/a/ Valadco Sites). Minnesota Dept. of Health, Minneapolis. 15 Jan 2004. Note: Sponsor: Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, Atlanta, GA. Available in print and one CD-ROM contains 140 page document. NTIS Accession Number: PB2004-105049/XAB. Order this product from NTIS by: phone at 1-800-553-NTIS (U.S. customers); (703)605-6000 (other countries); fax at (703)605-6900; and email at orders@ntis.gov. NTIS is located at 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, VA, 22161, USA.

Abstract: The U.S. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) and the Minnesota Department of Health (MDH) have written a Public Health Assessment of the former ValAdCo livestock feeding facilities (ValAdCo) in Renville County, in response to a citizen petition. The assessment evaluates whether residents living near the facilities have been exposed to harmful substances related to activities at the facility and, if so, whether these exposures may have caused negative health effects. The environmental media that were evaluated for possible exposure were: air; ground water; and surface water. Dead animal disposal was also considered, but no specific information was available to allow for an actual assessment of potential exposures to infectious agents or other toxins associated with dead animals.

Descriptors: dead animal disposal, disease exposure, livestock feeding operation, environmental factors, air quality, waste storage, surface and ground water, land application, public health assessment, former ValAdCo livestock feeding facilities, Minnesota.

Pares, R. La gestion de los cadaveres en las explotaciones porcinas. [The management of cadavers in pig farms.] Albeitar. 2004; (76): 30-32. Note: In Spanish.

Descriptors: swine, pig mortalities, carcass disposal, on the farm disposal, biosecurity, handling, containers, transport, legislation, disposal systems, incineration, European Union.

Prince, M. BABs, BARBs and beyond - a perspective on BSE. State Veterinary Journal. 2004; 14 (1): 11-16. ISSN: 0269-5545.

Descriptors: cattle, calves, BSE, bovine spongiform encephalopathy, prion disease incidence, prevention and control, contaminated carcass disposal, epidemiology, meat and bone meal, regulations, risk factors, United Kingdom.

Reynolds, J. Euthanasia of livestock: why, when and how. In: Large Animal. Proceedings of the North American Veterinary Conference, Orlando, Florida, USA, 17-21 January 2004. Eastern States Veterinary Association, Gainesville, FL. 2004; 18: 60.

Descriptors: livestock, euthanasia, carcass disposal, euthanasia, techniques, situation where euthanasia is appropriate, diseases, conditions.

Saskatchewan. Saskatchewan Agriculture, Food and Rural Revitalization. Managing livestock mortalities. Rev. Oct. 2004. Farm Facts (Regina, Sask.) Saskatchewan Agriculture, Food and Rural Revitalilzation. 2004. 11 p.: ill., maps.

Descriptors: dead animals, livestock mortalities, dead animal disposal, management systems.

Tomasic, A.; Kralj, Z.; Lenic, J. Neskodljivo uklanjanje leseva zivotinja i klaonickog otpada u Republici Sloveniji. [Harmless elimination of animal carcasses and slaughter waste in Republic Slovenia.] In: Priopcenja 5. Znanstveno strucni skup iz DDD-a s meunarodnim sudjelovanjem. Pouzdan put do zdravlja zivotinja, ljudi i njihova okolisa, Mali Losinj, Hrvatska, 5-8. svibnja 2004. Veterinarski Fakultet Sveucilista u Zagrebu (Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zagreb) Zagreb, Croatia. 2004; 301-306. ISBN: 953-98673-4-7. Note: In Croatian with an English summary.

Vos, V. de; Turnbull, P.C.B. Anthrax. In: Coetzer, J.A.W.; Tustin, R.C. (Editors)

Infectious Diseases of Livestock. Volume Three Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.

Descriptors: livestock diseases, anthrax, Bacillus anthracis, clinical aspects, differential, diagnosis, bacterial spores, etiology, antibacterial agents, burning, carcass disposal, clinical aspects, disease prevention and control, disease transmission, disinfection, drug therapy, epidemiology, histopathology, immunization, livestock, microbial contamination, morphology, pathogenesis, quarantine, septicemia, vaccination, vaccines, wild animals, zoonoses.

Vucemilo, M. Zbrinjavanje zivotinjskih leseva i konfiskata. [Disposal of animal carcasses and confiscated material.]. Meso. 2004; 6 (4): 52-57. ISSN: 1332-0025. Note: In Croatian with an English summary.

Descriptors: animal carcass disposal, condemned material, zoonotic diseases, temporary storage, heat treatment, rendering of fats and proteins, waste collection and transport, documentation, ecologically safe, legislation, waste disposal, Croatia.

Wang, FengJehng; Wu ChungHsing. An estimation and models development on the heating value for the sick-and-dead pigs. Journal of Agriculture and Forestry. 2004; 53(4): 317-323. ISSN: 0550-3744.

Descriptors: pigs, carcass disposal, carcasses, physicochemical composition, moisture content, incineration, combustion for destruction of animals, value for heating homes, estimation of heat, mathematical models.

Wilson, J.M.; Robson, S. Blackleg in cattle. Agfact - NSW Agriculture A0.9.22 (3rd Edition) 2004; p. 4. ISSN: 0725-7759.

Descriptors: young cattle, Clostridium chauvoei, C. septicum, Blackleg, fatal bacterial disease, epidemiology, etiology, transmission, clinical signs, proper carcass disposal.

Brstilo, M.; Lojkic, M.; Lamer, D.; Gaspar, A. Legislativa u zbrinjavanju otpada stocarske proizvodnje. [Legislative regulations concerning safe disposal of waste in livestock production.] In: Veterinarski dani 2003, Sibenik, Hotelsko Naselje Solaris, Croatia, 9-12 Listopada 2003. Zbornik Radova. Hrvatska veterinarska komora. Zagreb, Croatia. 2003; 53-61. ISBN: 953-98673-3-9. Note: In Croatian with an English summary.

Descriptors: intensified agricultural production systems, livestock mortalities, disposal of wastes, risk to human health, amendments to existing legislation, EU Regulation 1774/2002, Common Waste Management Strategy in the Republic of Croatia.

de Klerk, P.F. Carcass disposal: lessons from the Netherlands after the foot and mouth disease outbreak of 2001. Revue Scientifique et Technique - Office International des Epizooties. 2003; 21 (3): 789-796. ISSN: 0253-1933. Note: In English with summaries in French and Spanish.

Descriptors: foot and mouth disease, livestock, culling for disease control, carcass disposal, The Netherlands.

Downs, K.M.; Hess, J.B.; Blake, J.P.; Norton, R.A.; Kalinowski, A.; Corzo, A.; Parsons, C.M. Suitability of a dehydrated poultry mortality-soybean meal product for use in broiler chicken diets. Journal of Applied Poultry Research. 2003; 12 (2): 222-228. ISSN: 1056-6171.

Descriptors: poultry mortalities, carcass disposal, efficacy of 60 % dehydrated mortalities-41% soybean oil meal plus a preservative amendment, for use in broiler diets, broiler grow out study, various levels of the experimental diet meal, starter and grower diets, useful as a partial substitution for soybean oil meal, alternative disposal method.

Fonstad, T.A.; Meier, D.E.; Ingram, L.J.; Leonard, J. Evaluation and demonstration of composting as an option for dead animal management in Saskatchewan. [electronic resource] Canadian Biosystems Engineering = Le genie des Biosystemes au Canada : La Revue de la Societe Canadienne de Genie Agroalimentaire et Biologique. 2003; 45. ISSN: 1492-9058. Note: In English with a French summary. Annual cumulative print format also available.

Descriptors: swine, dead animals, carcass disposal, pig manure, straw, mixtures, composting, temperature, oxygen, moisture content, nutrients, volume, composts, compost quality, volume reduction.

Gingerich, Eric N. Waste management: The poultry industry. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association. 2003. 223 (1): 55. ISSN: 0003-1488.

Descriptors: poultry carcasses, animal waste management, air and water pollutants, composting, applied and field techniques, rendering, poultry house emissions.

Haskell, Scott R.R.; Ormond, Carol J. Waste management: equine carcass disposal. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association. 2003; 223(1): 48-9. ISSN: 0003-1488.

Descriptors: horses, carcass disposal method, dead animal waste management, waste products, burial, incineration, animal feeds, United States Environmental Protection Agency, United States.

Johnston, L.J.; Clanton, C.J.; Ajariyakhajorn, C.; Goyal, S.M. Survival of pathogenic indicator organisms in stored swine manure containing ground piglet carcasses during cold temperatures. Applied Engineering in Agriculture. 2003; 19 (4): 491-497. ISSN: 0883-8542.

Descriptors: swine production mortalities, homogenized swine carcasses, liquid swine manure, effects of cold temperature on pathogen survival, liquid/frozen manure/carcass mixtures, inoculums, T SUB 1 coliphage and Salmonella anatum, differing levels of 6%, outdoor storage, Dec-June, Minnesota, microbe survival, seasonal differences.

Jones, G.M. Food safety for animal agriculture: What producers need to know about HACCP and management practices. Journal of Dairy Science. 2003; 86 (Supplement 1): 6. ISSN: 0022-0302. Note: Joint Annual Meeting of the American Dairy Science Association, the American Society of Animal Science and the Mexican Association of Animal Production, Phoenix, Arizona, USA. June 22-26, 2003. Meeting abstract.

Descriptors: livestock production, animal handling and transport, biosecurity, contamination of animal based products, quality assurance program, mortalities, dead animal management.

Kebus, Myron J. Waste management: Aquaculture and fisheries. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association. 2003; 223 (1): 56-57. ISSN: 0003-1488.

Descriptors: fisheries waste, carcass disposal, burial, composting on farm land, disease transmission, water pollution concerns, leaching, odors, animal feeds, landfill, composting.

Kim, W.K.; Patterson, P.H. In situ evaulation of hen mortality meal as a protein supplement for dairy cows. Journal of Dairy Science. 2003; 6(10): 3337-3342. ISSN: 0022-0302.

Abstract: A study was conducted to evaluate the nutritional composition and in situ degradation of hen mortality meals. There were four treatments: control autoclaved hen meal (C-HM), enzyme-treated, fermented, autoclaved hen meal (E-HM), NaOH-treated, fermented, autoclaved hen meal (NaOH-HM), and soybean meal (SBM). For the E-HM or NaOH-HM, hen mortality was treated with a feather digesting enzyme or NaOH to improve digestibility of feathers on the carcass. After the enzyme or NaOH treatment, treated hen mortality was preserved by a fermentation procedure. The crude protein levels of the C-HM and SBM were higher than the E-HM and NaOH-HM, and the concentration of fat in the C-HM was higher than the other treatments. Levels of Lys, Thr, Arg, Ile, Leu, Val, and Phe for the C-HM and SBM were higher than in the E-HM and NaOH-HM. The Met, Cys, and Gly levels in the C-HM were higher than the soybean meal. In situ ruminal degradation data showed that the C-HM had lower dry matter and crude protein degradation than the other treatments, whereas the E-HM or NaOH-HM was more susceptible to ruminal degradation. These results indicate that the C-HM has higher levels of crude protein, amino acids, and resistance to ruminal degradation, whereas the E-HM or NaOH-HM was more digestible to ruminal microorganisms.

Descriptors: dairy cows, cow feeding, poultry offal meal, animal byproducts, spent hens, carcass disposal, animal feeding, protein supplements, feed supplements, forage and feed science, feed processing, enzymatic treatment, alkali treatment, soybean meal, nutritive value, amino acid composition, digestible protein, rumen fermentation.

Koebel, G.; Morris, J.R.; Rafail, A. On-farm composting of livestock and poultry mortalities. Revised edition. Fact Sheet. Agriculture & Rural Division, Guelph, c2003. 39 p. Note: Text in English and French. French edition on the same fiche. Order this product from NTIS by: phone at 1-800-553-NTIS (U.S. customers); (703)605-6000 (other countries); fax at (703)605-6900; and email at orders@ntis.gov. NTIS is located at 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, VA, 22161, USA.

Abstract: This fact sheet provides an overview of the composting process and how it can be applied to the disposal of dead poultry & livestock on the farm. The information presented is based on the bin-type composting unit. Topics covered include the advantages of composting mortalities, planning & sizing the unit, designing & constructing the unit, getting ready to compost, choosing the compost substrate, the composting cycle, and managing the composting process. Appendices include a worksheet for sizing the unit, a table of estimated mortality rates & weight of various animals, and a composting record sheet.

Descriptors: carcass of production animal mortalities, poultry, livestock, bin-type composting, planning, design, construction, system cycle, Canada.

Koebel, G.; Morris, J.R.; Rafail, A. On-farm composting of livestock and poultry mortalities. Fact Sheet. Ontario. Ministry of Agriculture & Food, Guelph. c2003. 20 p. Note: NTIS Accession Number: MIC-104-02361/XAB. Order this product from NTIS by: phone at 1-800-553-NTIS (U.S. customers); (703)605-6000 (other countries); fax at (703)605-6900; and email at orders@ntis.gov. NTIS is located at 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, VA, 22161, USA.

Descriptors: dead animal carcass disposal, mortality composting, planning, design, substrates, system cycle, environmental factors, Canada.

Larson, Jean A. Disposal of Dead Production Animals 1988-2002. Animal Welfare Information Center (U.S.) Beltsville, MD. Animal Welfare Information Center, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, National Agricultural Library, Beltsville MD [2003]. Note: A bibliography.

Abstract: Addresses questions regarding the proper disposal of domestic and wild animals to control animal and human disease epidemics. Proper disposal methods/systems are especially important due to the potential for disease transfer to humans and other animals, and the pollution of soil, air and ground water. The reported research in this document mainly addresses the disposal of cattle, swine, poultry, sheep, goats, fish, and wild birds. Some of the concerns are pathogen control, pollution control, recycling of nutrients, feed potential, etc. The information is from a variety of sources and covers the dates 1988 to the present.

Descriptors: bibliography, disposal of animal carcasses, methods, pathogen control, pollution control, recycling of nutrients, methods, systems.

Richmond, J.Y.; Hill, R.H.; Weyant, R.S.; Nesby-O'Dell, S.L.; Vinson, P.E. What's hot in animal biosafety? ILAR Journal. 2003; 44(1): 20-27. ISSN: 1084-2020.

Descriptors: animal technicians, researchers, biosafety, biosecurity, pathogens, bioterrorism, arthropod-borne diseases, disease control programs, livestock, wild animals, laboratory animals, occupational health and safety, health hazards, risk reduction, toxins, prions, guidelines, carcass disposal, Poliovirus, zoonoses, animal diseases.

Rynk, R. Large animal mortality composting goes mainstream. BioCycle. 2003; 44 (6): 44-50. ISSN: 0276-5055. NAL Call No.: 57.8 C734

Descriptors: large animal mortalities, carcass disposal, composting in bins, splaying and grinding, contained composting system, conventional windrows, Colorado.

Schlenker, Gerd TSE: Stoffkreislaeufe in der Tierproduktion: Arbeitsweise der

Tierkoerperbeseitigungsanstalten. [TSE: tissue cycles in the animal production and mode of operation of carcass disposal plants.] Fleischwirtschaft. 2003; 83 (6): 112-114. ISSN: 0015-363X. In German with an English summary.

Descriptors: BSE/vCJD, spongiform encephalopathies, routes of transmission, animal production systems, processing operations, carcass disposal plants.

Shaikenov, B.S.; Torgerson, P.R.; Usenbayev, A.E.; Baitursynov, K.K.; Rysmukhambetova, A.T.; Abdybekova, A.M.; Karamendin, K.O. The changing epidemiology of echinococcosis in Kazakhstan due to transformation of farming practices. Acta Tropica. 2003; 85(2): 287-93, ISSN: 0001-706X.

Abstract: In recent years there has been a substantial increase in cystic echinococcosis in Kazakhstan. There are several factors that have contributed to this change in the epidemiology of the disease. The primary reason was the degradation of traditional nomadic system of livestock breeding and closing of large collective farms. Small private farms have started to keep stock year round in closer proximity to permanent human habitation. Furthermore, routine anthelmintic prophylaxis of dogs has been abandoned and there is inadequate control over the use and disposal of animal carcasses. Large mechanized slaughterhouses are no longer operational. Now more people (7-8 times) and more dogs (8-10 times) participate in the husbandry of 1000 sheep, than during Soviet administration. Because of the close association of dogs with man there is the potential for a substantial increase in eggs and of Echinococcus in immediate environment of inhabited houses. Soil samples taken from 61% of yards of village homes contained taeniid eggs and from 35% of yards from around farmsteads. During an examination of 1464 village dogs the average rate of infection with Echinococcus granulosus was 5.8%, whilst the prevalence in 607 shepherd dogs was 23.2%. At present, these dogs represent a major source of infection for people with this dangerous parasite. Examination of hospital records suggested that children and people in occupations associated with animal husbandry were at most risk of infection.

Descriptors: infection rates of dogs, sheep husbandry, Echinococcus granulosus, zoonotic parasite, in adequate disposal of animal carcasses, slaughter houses defunct, farm soil sampling show taeniid eggs, public health concern, epidemiology, Kazakhstan.

Straub, O.C. Maul und Klauenseuche: Status quo. Kapitel 8. Konsequenzen fuer die Umwelt. [Foot and mouth disease: The status quo. Chapter 8. Consequences for the environment.] Tieraerztliche Umschau. 2003; 58(1): 637-638. ISSN: 0049-3864. Note: In German.

Descriptors: foot and mouth disease, disease control, carcass disposal after epidemics, infectious diseases, disease mortalities, environmental risks and consequences, prevention of transmission, manure disposal, milk disposal, disinfection of sites, The Netherlands, United Kingdom.

Vucemilo, M.; Vinkovic, B.; Grlic, D.; Grlic, I.; Vrabac, N.; Tofant, A.; Matkovic, K. Uklanjanje animalnog otpada preradom u kafileriji. [Elimination of animal waste by recycling in a rendering plant.] In: Veterinarski dani 2003, Sibenik, Hotelsko Naselje Solaris, Croatia, 9-12 Listopada 2003. Zbornik Radova. Hrvatska Veterinarska Komora. Zagreb, Croatia. 2003; 62-67. ISBN: 953-98673-3-9. Note: In Croatian with an English summary.

Descriptors: animal wastes, carcass disposal, waste utilization, meat and bone meal, rendering plant, recycling, Croatia.

Willis, N.G. Animal carcass disposal. In: Compendium of Technical Items Presented to the International Committee or to Regional Commissions, 2003. Office International des Epizooties Paris, France. 2003; 149-159. ISBN: 92-9044-625-X.

Descriptors: prion diseases, disease outbreaks, laws and regulations, disease control, animal slaughter, animal carcass disposal, composting technology and methods, disease control, review.

Agricultural Engineering Branch. Livestock Engineering Unit, Edmonton. Alberta. Alberta Agriculture, Food & Rural Development. Information Packaging Centre. Livestock Mortality: Burial Techniques. c2002. 11 p. Note: Order MIC-102-05567/XAB from NTIS by: phone at 1-800-553-NTIS (U.S. customers); (703)605-6000 (other countries); fax at (703)605-6900; and email at orders@ntis.gov. NTIS is located at 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, VA, 22161, USA.

Abstract: This publication discusses burial as an option for on-farm disposal of livestock or poultry mortalities. Issues of concern and measures to address those issues are discussed with regard to groundwater contamination, surface water contamination, and the suitability of land for burial. Guidelines are then presented for burial rates, burial site spacing, burial depth & cover, separation distances from wells & other facilities, digging a proper burial hole, and record keeping. The appendix contains a table showing typical mortality rates for different livestock species.

Descriptors: dead animal disposal, farm mortalities, livestock industry, environmental aspect, ground water contamination, surface water pollution, suitability of burial, guidelines for burial site.

Agricultural Engineering Branch. Livestock Engineering Unit, Edmonton. Alberta. Alberta Agriculture, Food & Rural Development. Information Packaging Centre. Livestock Mortality Management (Disposal) c2002. 16 p. Note: Order MIC-102-05566/XAB from NTIS by: phone at 1-800-553-NTIS (U.S. customers); (703)605-6000 (other countries); fax at (703)605-6900; and email at orders@ntis.gov. NTIS is located at 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, VA, 22161, USA.

Abstract: The inevitability of losses (mortality) in livestock production means that producers must face the need to properly dispose of animal carcasses. This document describes options for disposal, including burial, rendering, processing of rendered carcasses, and composting. Advantages & disadvantages of each method are noted. Appendices include a table showing typical rates of mortality of livestock species and an excerpt from relevant Alberta legislation.

Descriptors: livestock mortalities, dead animal disposal, disposal options, burial, rendering, processing of rendered carcasses, composting, pros and cons, Canada.

Agricultural Engineering Branch. Livestock Engineering Unit, Edmonton, Alberta. Alberta Agriculture, Food & Rural Development. Information Packaging Centre. Poultry Mortality Composting c2002. 18 p. Note: Order MIC-102-05501/XAB from NTIS by: phone at 1-800-553-NTIS (U.S. customers); (703)605-6000 (other countries); fax at (703)605-6900; and email at orders@ntis.gov. NTIS is located at 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, VA, 22161, USA.

Abstract: Alberta regulations require disposal of dead animals within 48 hours of death. Composting of livestock mortalities is an option now available as an innovative disposal method that responds to today's environmental concerns. This report provides information on poultry composting. It begins with a chapter reviewing the basics of composting and the factors affecting composting success, such as material mix and temperature. Chapter 2 discusses matters that must be taken into account when planning a composting operation for dead animals, such as location, storage requirements, and facility sizing. The last two chapters describe poultry mortality composter design and compost production management. The appendix contains an excerpt from the Alberta Livestock Diseases Act.

Descriptors: poultry mortalities, dead animal disposal, Alberta regulations, environmental concerns, composting, design, location, storage, management, Canada.

Agricultural Engineering Branch. Livestock Engineering Unit, Edmonton. Alberta. Alberta Agriculture, Food & Rural Development. Information Packaging Centre. Swine Mortality Composting. c2002. 27 p. Note: Order MIC-102-04437/XAB from NTIS by: phone at 1-800-553-NTIS (U.S. customers); (703)605-6000 (other countries); fax at (703)605-6900; and email at orders@ntis.gov. NTIS is located at 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, VA, 22161, USA.

Abstract: Alberta regulations require disposal of dead animals within 48 hours of death. Composting of livestock mortalities is an option now available as an innovative disposal method that responds to today's environmental concerns. This report provides information on two general approaches to livestock composting allowed in Alberta, enclosed or bin systems. It begins with a chapter reviewing the basics of composting and the factors affecting composting success, such as material mix and temperature. Chapter 2 discusses matters that must be taken into account when planning a composting operation for dead animals, such as location, storage requirements, and facility sizing. The last two chapters describe swine mortality composter design and compost production management. Worksheets to assist in composter design are appended.

Descriptors: livestock mortalities, composting of carcasses, basics of composting, planning of composting, location, storage requirements, Alberta legal requirements, pollution control.

Balander, R.; Ocello, P.; Napolitano, N. Disposal of dead poultry by feeding the carcasses to dermestid beetles. Poultry Science. 2002; 81 (Supplement 1): 6. ISSN: 0032-5791. Note: 91st Annual Meeting of the Poultry Science Association, Newark, DE, USA, August 08-11, 2002.

Descriptors: methods, carcass disposal methods, poultry waste management, dermestid beetles.

De Klerk, P.F. Carcass disposal: Lessons from the Netherlands after the foot and mouth disease outbreak of 2001. Revue Scientifique et Technique Office International des Epizooties. December 2002; 21 (3): 789-796. ISSN: 0253-1933.

Abstract: The main logistical problems of the foot and mouth disease (FMD) outbreak that occurred in the Netherlands in 2001 were a lack of culling and rendering capacity. Suppressive vaccination formed the basis for the solution to both problems and was primarily used to halt the possible spread of the virus. This allowed culls to take place on vaccinated farms when sufficient culling capacity eventually became available. In addition, the vaccinated cloven-hoofed animals could be removed alive and then killed in central culling places fourteen or more days after vaccination. Using slaughterhouses as central culling places meant that parts of carcasses could be deep-frozen--which solved the lack of rendering capacity. The deep-frozen carcass parts were destroyed later, when rendering capacity became available. To guarantee that all vaccinated, culled and temporarily deep-frozen cloven-hoofed animals were eventually destroyed, a balanced audit trail, partly based on kilogram records, was vital in this situation.

Descriptors: foot and mouth disease outbreak, carcass disposal of diseased animals, lack of culling and rendering capacity, suppressive vaccination, prevention of virus spread, euthanized at central slaughterhouses, deep freezing of carcasses, later rendering, audit trail, The Netherlands.

Heilemann, M. Entsorgung von Schlachtnebenprodukten, verendeten und getoeteten Tieren. [Disposal of animal byproducts, perished and slaughtered animals.] Deutsche Tieraerztliche Wochenschrift. August, 2002; 109 (8): 354-357. ISSN: 0341-6593. Note: In German with an English summary.

Descriptors: feeds, carcass disposal, diseases animals, public health safety, BSE, bovine spongiform encephalopathy, disease prevention and control, slaughter house waste, ruminants, rendering industry, energy source, legislation, Europe.

Hickman, G.; Hughes, N. Carcass disposal: a major problem of the 2001 FMD outbreak. State Veterinary Journal. 2002; 12 (1): 27-32. ISSN: 0269-5545.

Descriptors: foot and mouth disease epidemic of 2001, livestock, carcass disposal, carcasses, environmental concerns for mortality disposal, public health concerns, United Kingdom.

Kay, R.M. Practical problems of carcass disposal. Proceedings of the Pig Veterinary Society Meeting, Bosworth Park Hotel, Market Bosworth, Warwickshire, 4-5 May 2000. Pig Journal. 2000; 46: 95-103. ISSN: 1352-9740.

Keener, Harold M.; Foster, Stephen S.; Moeller, Steven J.; Elwell, David L. Dealing with dead livestock. Engineering and Technology for Sustainable World. August 2002; 9 (8): 9-10. ISSN: 1076-3333.

Descriptors: carcass disposal, dead livestock, composting, static pile, open piles, enclosed bins, carbon sources from surrounding amendment for microbes and as a biofilter, methods are economical and environmentally sound.

Kitching, P.; Morilla, A.; Yoon, K.J.; Zimmerman, J.J. Swine as the origin of the foot-and-mouth disease in the United Kingdom, 2001. In: Morilla, A.; Yoon, K.J.; Zimmerman, J.J. (Editors). Trends in Emerging Viral Infections of Swine. 2002; 193-196. Iowa State Press; Ames, Iowa, USA. ISBN: 0-8138-0383-7.

Descriptors: pigs, swine, foot and mouth disease, disease origins, epidemics, carcass disposal, control programs, disease transmission concerns, disease epidemiology, outbreaks, vaccination, aphthovirus in pigs, United Kingdom.

Sander, J.E.; Warbington, M.C.; Myers, L.M. Selected methods of animal carcass disposal. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association. Apr. 1, 2002; 220 (7): 1003-1005. ISSN: 0003-1488.

Descriptors: carcasses, dead animal carcass disposal, rendering, composting, burning, pit burial.

Scudamore, J.M.; Pritchard, D.G.; Whitmore, G.M. Comments on the paper: 'animal welfare consequences in England and Wales of the 2001 epidemic of foot and mouth disease'. Revue Scientifique et Technique - Office International des Epizooties. 2002; 21 (3): 869-876. Note: In English with summaries in French and Spanish.

Descriptors: foot and mouth disease, epidemic of 2001, animal welfare, livestock carcass disposal, disease control, Wales, England.

Scudamore, J.M.; Harris, D.M. Control of foot and mouth disease: Lessons from the experience of the outbreak in Great Britain in 2001. Revue Scientifique et Technique Office International des Epizooties. December 2002; 21 (3) 699-710. ISSN: 0253-1933.

Abstract: An epidemic of foot and mouth disease occurred on an unprecedented scale in Great Britain in 2001. This was characterized by widespread dissemination of disease in sheep due to infection being present but unreported for at least three weeks before the first case was identified. As envisaged by the contingency plans, existing procedures dealt rapidly with disease in many parts of the country where outbreaks were reported. Elsewhere, the scale and speed of disease spread was so great that veterinary resources had to be supplemented on the operational front by a large influx of military and administrative support. At the time of writing (June 2002), the United Kingdom Government has already identified a number of key lessons, and will learn further from this experience and from the findings of inquiries, how a future outbreak of this unprecedented nature and extent could be handled. Lessons identified so far relate to the improvement of contingency plans, the wider impact on rural businesses and communities, reassessing the possible use of emergency vaccination, the availability of serological capacity, better animal identification and movement controls, carcass disposal, communications, data handling and management information. The authors present the initial lessons learned and which formed the basis of official submissions to the inquiries. Further lessons will be learned from the findings of those inquiries.

Descriptors: contingency plans, epidemic, disease spread, culling of animals, emergency vaccinations, animal identification, movement controls, carcass disposal, communications, data handling.

Scudamore, J.M.; Trevelyan, G.M.; Tas, M.V.; Varley, E.M.; Hickman, G.A.W. Carcass disposal: Lessons from Great Britain following the foot and mouth disease outbreaks of 2001. Revue Scientifique et Technique Office International des Epizooties. December 2002; 21 (3): 775-787. ISSN: 0253-1933.

Abstract: The foot and mouth disease (FMD) outbreak that occurred in the United Kingdom in 2001 was of an unprecedented scale and severity and presented a massive logistical challenge to Government. Over 6.5 million animals were slaughtered and disposed of, over 4 million as a direct result of disease and a further 2.5 million on welfare grounds. On-farm burial and on-farm burning were the principal routes for disposal at the commencement of the outbreak. On-farm burial was limited by legislation to protect groundwater supplies and pyre burning came increasingly under attack from local communities concerned about health risks from smoke and emissions. Burning also painted a vivid but distressing picture of the war against disease. Increasingly, rendering capacity made an important contribution to disposal. The peak of the outbreak could only be managed by the development of a new disposal route--mass burial in engineered sites and by using licensed landfill where available. During the course of the outbreak, a disposal hierarchy was developed to reflect environmental and public health concerns, namely: rendering and incineration ranked first, licensed landfill next, followed by burning with mass burial or on-farm burial as the least preferred options. However, the campaign against the disease could not have been won without the tactical use of mass burial in addition to all the other available disposal routes. The authors describe the development and deployment of the disposal routes used in the 2001 outbreak.

Descriptors: logistical problems of carcass disposal, over 1 billion animals culled, on-farm burial, on-farm burning, ground water protection legislation, new disposal routes, mass burial in engineered sites, licensed landfills where available, description of development and deployment of disposal routes, 2001 outbreak, United Kingdom.

Simpson, E.H.; Blake, J.P.; Donald, J.O.; Norton, R.A. Evaluation of incineration for disposal of poultry mortalities. Poultry Science. 2002; 81 (Supplement 1): 6. ISSN: 0032-5791. Note: 91st Annual Meeting of the Poultry Science Association, Newark, DE, USA, August 08-11, 2002. Meeting abstract.

Descriptors: poultry mortalities, incineration system, carcass disposal, efficacy, cost efficiencies.

Sterneberg, T.; Choraine, P. Foot and mouth disease. Dansk Veterinaertidsskrift. 2002; 85 (21): 6-11. ISSN: 0106-6854.

Descriptors: foot and mouth disease, outbreaks in livestock, rare breeds, zoo animal, ethics, welfare aspects, effect on bloodlines and pedigrees, social effects, environmental impacts, carcass disposal, movement and monitoring of livestock, veterinary services and resources, public education, international trade, import controls, policies, crisis management, role of the EU in management of the crisis, United Kingdom, The Netherlands, France, Ireland.

Suzuki Fumio; Watanabe Kazuo; Furuya Hiroshi; Shimamura Yuri; Horikita Tetsuya. Case study of nitrate poisoning in fed pigs in a farm. Jui Ekigaku Zasshi = Journal of Veterinary Epidemiology. 2002; 6 (1): 25-28. ISSN: 1343-2583. In Japanese.

Descriptors: nitrate poisoning, fed pigs, intake of aerated disposal excreta water, high nitrite, nitrogen, clinical signs, animal waste management, food poisoning, contaminated meat.

Tromans, S. Silence of the lambs: the foot-and-mouth crisis - litigation and environmental implications. Environmental Law & Management. 2002; 14 (4): 197-207. ISSN: 1067-6058.

Descriptors: foot and mouth disease, epidemic, epidemiology, livestock animals, slaughter, carcass disposal, public health concerns, public health legislation, United Kingdom.

United Kingdom. Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs. Foot and mouth disease. Special edition. State Veterinary Journal. 2002; 12 (1): 40. ISSN: 0269-5545.

Descriptors: issue on foot and mouth disease outbreak 2001, cattle, livestock euthanasia and deaths, carcass disposal articles cover serology, immunodiagnosis, immunological techniques, diagnosis, disease control and prevention, vaccination, animal welfare concerns, United Kingdom.

Wiemer, U. Veterinarrechtliche Schutzmassnahmen im Hinblick auf BSE. [Protective measures taken with regard to BSE under veterinary law.] Berliner und Munchener Tierarztliche Wochenschrift. 2002; 115 (3-4): 134-139. Note: In German with an English summary.

Descriptors: BSE, bovine spongiform encephalopathy, carcass disposal, dead animal management, disease prevention and control, cattle, goats, sheep, slaughtered animals, destruction oa animals, risk assessment, German laws.

British Deer Society. Road traffic accidents/deer carcass disposal: notes on best practice during foot and mouth outbreak. BDS Advice Note released on 5 March 2001. Deer, Journal of the British Deer Society. 2001; 11: 10, 556-557. ISSN: 0141-4259.

Descriptors: carcass disposal, clinical aspects, disease control, foot and mouth disease, FMD, United Kingdom legislation, disease lesions, epidemics, traffic accidents involving diseased animals, deer, aphthovirus, United Kingdom, England, Scotland, Wales.

Damron, B.L.; Ouart, M.D.; Christmas, R.B. Rendered whole-bird layer mortality as an ingredient in layer diets. Journal of Applied Poultry Research. Winter 2001; 10 (4): 371-375. ISSN: 1056-6171.

Descriptors: hen carcasses, waste disposal, rendering for use in feeds, nutritive value, diets, performance as a feed, egg production, feed intake, feed conversion efficiency, egg weight, specific gravity, liveweight.

Elwell, D.; Keener, H.; Moeller, S. Composting animal mortalities. BioCycle. 2001; 42 (5): 67-68. ISSN: 0278-5055.

Descriptors: composting system, moisture control, training farmers, carcass disposal, Ohio.

Garcia Siera, J.; Rozeboom, D.W.; Straw, B.E.; Thacker, B.J.; Granger, L.M.; Fedorka Cray, P.J.; Gray, J.T. Studies on survival of pseudorabies virus, Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae, and Salmonella serovar Choleraesuis in composted swine carcasses. Journal of Swine Health and Production. 2001; 9 (5): 225-231. ISSN: 1066-4963.

Descriptors: experimental infection, composting variable number of days, method feasibility, pig carcass disposal methods, composting, disease control, temperature, Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae, pigs, Salmonella choleraesuis, composting, pathogen survival.

Gloster, J.; Hewson, H.; Mackay, D.; Garland, T.; Donaldson, A.; Mason, I.; Brown, R. Spread of foot-and-mouth disease from the burning of animal carcases on open pyres. Veterinary Record. May 12, 2001; 148 (19): 585-586. ISSN: 0042-4900.

Descriptors: foot and mouth disease, aphthovirus, safe carcass disposal, burning may spread airborne infection.

Gunn, M. Observations on disposal of BSE-infected carcasses. Irish Veterinary Journal. 2001; 54 (4): 192-193. ISSN: 0368-0762.

Descriptors: BSE, bovine spongiform encephalopathy, diseased brain tissue, carcass disposal, livestock carcasses, reviews, risk analysis.

Mul, M.F.; Bokma-Bakker, M.H.; Eijck, I.A.J.M. Risicoanalyse afvoer varkenskadavers lichter dan 40 kg. [Risk analyses of disposal of pig carcasses smaller than 40 kg in the Netherlands.] Lelystad (Netherlands). Rapport Praktijkonderzoek Veehouderij. 2001; 44 p. ISSN: 0169-3689. Note: In Dutch with an English summary. Availabile from: PUDOC-DLO, POB 9100, 6700 HA Wageningen, The Netherlands. Email: Bluwpudoc@secr.bib.wau.nl.

Descriptors: carcasses waste disposal, destruction of animals, swine, Netherlands, dead animal disposal, carcasses, risk of disease transmission, disease control.

Shafer, D.J.; Burgess, R.P.; Conrad, K.A.; Prochaska, J.F.; Carey, J.B. Characterization of alkaline hydroxide-preserved whole poultry as a dry byproduct meal. Poultry Science. Nov 2001; 80 (11): 1543-1548. ISSN: 0032-5791.

Abstract: Studies were conducted to examine the chemical preservation of whole broiler carcasses by using aqueous alkaline hydroxide solutions. Conversion of the preserved carcasses and solutions into an acceptable poultry byproduct meal was examined. Carcasses and alkaline solutions at a 1.1 ratio were blended and freeze-dried to produce a high fat whole poultry byproduct meal. The dry meal was analyzed for nutrient composition, true metabolizable energy, and amino acid content. Viable bacteria were not recovered after inoculation of the experimental meal with Salmonella enteritidis. The meal was incorporated at 5 and 10% of chick starter diets. Chicks found the meal-containing diets acceptable. Feed consumption, water consumption, BW, and mortality were not significantly different among the dietary treatments in either of the two feeding trials. Necropsy samples revealed no pathological or histological differences attributable to consumption of the alkaline poultry byproduct and blood serum evaluation found no variation in blood chemistry. Alkaline treatment of whole broiler carcasses was an effective preservation method and acceptable as a dry poultry byproduct meal.

Descriptors: broilers, carcass meal, carcass disposal, estimated costs, alkali-treatment, emulsifying, feed of animal origin, feed formulation, chemical composition, amino acids, chicks, feed intake, water intake, body weight, mortality, production costs.

Anderson, P.L. Composting: a method of dead animal disposal. Innovative Technologies for Planning Animal Feeding Operations Comprehensive Nutrient Management Planning Program and Proceedings the Renaissance Denver Hotel, December 4-5-6, 2000, Denver, Colorado. 2000; 164-166.

Descriptors: composting for carcass disposal, organic fertilizers, application to land, Minnesota.

Blake, J.P.; Roden, R.M.; Scott, J.T.; Conner, D.E. Fermentation as a method for carcass disposal. Proceedings of the Western Poultry Disease Conference. University of California, Davis, CA. 2000; (49th): 71-75. Note: Meeting held on Mar 5-7, 2000, Sacramento, CA.

Chen, T.H. Evaluation of an anaerobic system for treating poultry mortalities. Transactions of the ASAE. Nov/Dec 2000; 43 (6): 1781-1788. ISSN: 0001-2351.

Abstract: An anaerobic digestion system was evaluated as an alternative for poultry mortality disposal. The bench-scale system consisted of an upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) reactor and three leachbeds (LB). The LBs were batch-loaded with dead chickens and sequentially started at an average interval of 50 days. Only one LB was connected to the UASB to form a closed-loop at any one time. Leachate from the LB was fed to the UASB as influent while effluent from the UASB overflowed to the LB to maintain constant liquid volumes in both reactors. The LB-UASB pair initially functioned as a two-phase system, with the LB serving as the hydrolysis/acidification phase and the UASB serving as the methanogenic phase. Through repeated liquid recycle between the LB and the UASB, the LB eventually accumulated enough methanogens to become methanogenic as well. Leachate concentrations from the methanogenic LB dropped rapidly. When the leachate was no longer able to sustain the UASB at high loading rates (LR), the next LB with another dead chicken was connected to the UASB. Digestion of the mortality was considered complete when methane production rate from the off-line LB became marginal. When digestion in an LB was complete, the fermentation fluid in the LB was reused to start up the next LB. The first cycle ended when digestion in the third LB was complete. Two cycles were completed during this study. The system satisfactorily completed treatment of seven consecutive batches of mortalities in 432 days. The average CH4 yield was 0.679 m3 (kg dry)-1 [or 0.254 m3 (kg wet)-1]. However, timings of the start-up of an LB and its subsequent connection to the UASB need to be improved to sustain the system at peak treatment efficiency. Alternatively, the system could include a fourth LB to allow more flexibility in scheduling. Additionally, a fifth LB reactor would simplify restarting of an LB from its preceding LB being terminated. Cost estimates based on systems with one UASB and five LBs ranged from US$118 (10(3) kg live wt sold)-1 for a 10,000 bird poultry farm to US$28 (10(3) kg live wt sold)-1 for a farm with 100,000 chickens.

Descriptors: poultry, anaerobic digestion for carcass disposal, waste disposal, destruction of animals.

Fulhage, C. Composting dead animals. Innovative Technologies for Planning Animal Feeding Operations: Comprehensive Nutrient Management Planning. Program and Proceedings. The Renaissance Denver Hotel, December 4-5-6, 2000, Denver, Colorado. 2000: 167-170.

Descriptors: composting for carcass disposal, pigs, cattle, nitrogen, carbon, sawdust, Missouri.

Gustafsson, B.; Andersson, I.; Svendsen, L.S.; Moore, J.A. Handling of farm mortalities in major emergency situations: an international review. Animal, Agricultural and Food Processing Wastes. Proceedings of the Eighth International Symposium, Des Moines, Iowa, USA, 9-11 October, 2000. 2000; 289-296. Note: Published by the American Society of Agricultural Engineers.

Descriptors: carcass disposal, disaster emergencies, cattle, pigs, sheep, poultry, mortalities, public health concerns, slaughter.

Hofmann, M.E.; Wilson, J.F. What veterinarians should know about pet cemeteries and crematoriums. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association. Mar 15, 2000; 216 (6): 844-847. ISSN: 0003-1488.

Keener, H.M.; Elwell, D.L.; Monnin, M.J. Procedures and equations for sizing of structures and windrows for composting animal mortalities. Applied Engineering in Agriculture. Nov 2000; 16 (6): 681-692. ISSN: 0883-8542.

Descriptors: composting for carcass disposal, calves, poultry, pigs, decomposition, time, equations, windrowing, design, size, sawdust, bins, structures, windrow composting, pile composting, bin composting.

Disposal of Dead Production Animals 1988 - 2006

1988 - 2006

May 2003, Revised November 2006

Bibliography

2006 / 2005 / 2004 / 2003 / 2002 / 2001 / 2000 / 1999 / 1998 / 1997 1996 / 1995 / 1994 / 1993 / 1992 / 1991 / 1990 / 1989 / 1988 / Web Resources

Disposal of Dead Production Animals

1988 - 2006

2006 / 2005 / 2004 / 2003 / 2002 / 2001 / 2000 / 1999 / 1998 / 1997

1996 / 1995 / 1994 / 1993 / 1992 / 1991 / 1990 / 1989 / 1988 / Web Resources