United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service National Agricultural Library Animal Welfare Information Center

Information Resources on the South American Camelids: Llamas, Alpacas, Guanacos, and Vicunas 1943-2006 November 2001 (Updated February 2006) AWIC Resource Series No. 12 Compiled by: Jean Larson Judith Ho Animal Welfare Information Center USDA, ARS, NAL 10301 Baltimore Ave. Beltsville, MD 20705 Contact us : http://www.nal.usda.gov/awic/contact.php PPF Shanghai Silk Photograph courtesy of owner Raccoon Ridge Farm, Mt. Airy, MD

Table of Contents

• Introduction
  
• Acknowledgments
  
• About this Document
  
• Bibliography
  
• Selected Web Resources
  

The Camelidae family consists of a small family of mammalian animals. There are two members of Old World camels living in Africa and Asia--Arabian and the Bactrian, and four members of the New World camels living in South America--the llamas, vicunas, alpacas and guanacos. They are all very well adapted to their respective environments: the camels in harsh deserts of Africa and Asia; and their South American cousins inhabit the high altiplano and bush area of South America. Most of these species have been integrated into, and play very important roles in lives of the indigenous people. They have been traditionally used for transport of people and things, hides and fibers for clothing and other textile articles, and in many cases they supply meat and milk products, etc. The South American species are being raised in non-native countries for a variety of reasons: as pack animals, pets, guard animals for sheep ranges, and for fiber. Their biology, reproduction, disease susceptibility, behavior, and nutrition have not been studied to any great extent until fairly recently. Because there are now fairly high populations of these animals in the United States and some other temperate countries, there has been more interest and need to understand their needs, in order to provide adequate housing, feed and veterinary care as they are moved from their native environments to new climates, etc. It is with these needs in mind, that this information resource has been compiled.

Camelidae Family (see Mason, I.L. 1979 for more taxonomic information and characteristics of these animals.)

Oddly enough, the Camelidae evolved in North America. The early ancestors migrated from North America by a crossing the Alaskan land bridge to Asia and the Panama land connection to South America. They eventually became extinct in North America, but began to thrive in their new lands. At one time camels ranged from Asia to Eastern Europe. After crossing into Africa, they were found across the entire northern region and as far south as northern Tanzania. The South American members of the family found their niche in the cool, dry mountain areas of that continent.

Taxonomy

Camelids are in the taxonomic order Artiodactyla (even toed ungulates), sub order Tylopoda (pad-footed), and Family Camlidae. They are ruminants along with the giraffes, deer, cattle, sheep, goats and antelopes. They have several unique features: they walk on pads not hoofs, do not have horns or antlers, and their red blood cells are oval in shape. The New World camelids include two wild species in the high Andes of South America-- the vicuna (Vicugna vicugna) and the guanaco (Lama guanacoe). The native peoples of the Andes domesticated these animals and though selective breeding developed the llama (Lama glama) and the alpaca (Lama pacos). There seems to be some controversy over the parent species of the alpaca and llama. The evidence suggests that both domestic species were derived from the guanaco. These South American animals have long necks like the camel, but no humps. They also have the ability to survive in harsh dry climates due to their ability to conserve their body water.

Each of the South American camelids has unique qualities, value and can be used as a source of a wide range of services and products useful to humans. Therefore, a short description and use of each of these interesting and quite tractable animals follows. The animals are medium sized, with the males being somewhat larger than the females. Their heads have a straight profile. They have no horns or antlers. They have large eyes and thick lashes. The ears are long and pointed. One obvious feature that is different from camels is the lack of a hump as their backs are straight. Their foot pads are proportionately smaller than a camel's because they need to move securely on rocky trails and gravel mountain slopes. Since they live in cold, dry places, they have very dense, wooly coats. They may kick or spit if threatened.

As mentioned above, there are probably just basically two species. All four types have been found to breed in captivity, so genetic relationships are uncertain. The llamoid or camelid is a common name for this group.

Llamas* (Lama glama)

Llamas are medium sized animals and can weigh up to 300 pounds. Males are somewhat larger than the females. They are used for fiber and as unusual pack animals in many countries around the world. Currently, they are being used for hauling carts and driving, pet therapy with elderly and disabled persons and as guard animals in large free-range sheep operations. They are environmentally sensitive and intelligent. They are also extremely gentle and used as pet therapy because of their calming effect. They seldom bite or butt and they have no horns, hooves, or claws to do injury. They are alert, curious, adaptable, and predictable with docile, disarming temperaments. They are adapted to high altitudes because their hemoglobin, a constituent of red blood cells, can absorb more oxygen than that of other mammals. Their red blood cells also have a longer life span than other mammals, an average of 235 days versus 100 days for humans.

Llamas were also used by the ancient Inca civilization in South America. Archeological evidence indicates that they have been domesticated from the wild guanaco approximately 5,000 years ago. Many llamas and alpacas were sacrificed to the gods every year by the Incan culture. The meat would then be distributed to the crowds. Llamas were also an integral part of the Inca's workforce. As pack animals they contributed vastly to the building of their irrigation systems, roads, and temples. They were also used to carry loads in the Inca's mines.

Llamas are still used today by the indigenous peoples of South America for packing and transporting goods, fibers, and for meat. Mostly the males are used as pack animal. They usually carry up to fifty pound loads. Stallions can carry up to 110-176 pounds for about 19 miles (a day's march for a llama). Male pack animals are not sheared. Their heavy wool coat acts as a saddle blanket by cushioning their loads. It has been suggested that the llamas were selectively bred as pack animals leading to a larger stronger animals than their wild parent. The females are sheared, but llama wool is inferior to the alpacas and is often used to make rope. (The alpaca has probably been selected and breed for wool and not as a pack animal.) Llamas only allow themselves to be loaded when they are part of a group. Llamas provide meat, wool, hides for sandals, and fat for candles. Their dung can be dried and used for fuel. South American herders use most parts of a llama's carcass.

Alpacas+,* domesticated 6-7,000 years ago

Alpaca's roots also go back to the Inca civilization, where alpacas were considered a "prize." Kadwell et al ¹ used mitrochrondial and microsatellite DNA analysis that indicates that the vicuna was the ancestor of the alpaca. Their coats make the finest quality wool. Alpaca fiber was woven into robes used by Inca royalty. They also provided food, fuel, clothing, and transportation for this culture in an otherwise extremely hostile environment. Alpacas still thrive in the harsh climates of the Peruvian, Bolivian, and Chilean highlands where scorching temperatures in the day plummet to sub-freezing at night. They prefer low humidity and altitudes between 13,000 and 16,000 feet. At low altitudes, their wool is often of poorer quality. Nevertheless, they are well suited for conditions in the US and are being bred in at least 44 states (1997 estimates).

Alpacas are small compared to llamas, approximately 36" at the withers. Piebald color patterns are much rarer than in llamas, and alpacas usually have a tuft of hair on their forehead. Their life span is 15 to 25 years. Their weight can range between 100 to 175 pounds (approximately one-half to one-third the size of a llama). Their gestation period is approximately 11.5 months. Their birth weight is between 15 and 19 pounds and the babies (cria) can stand and nurse within 30 minutes to one hour after birth. They also have a very low infant mortality rate.

The males produce approximately eight pounds and the females about five pounds of easily marketable wool fiber from their coats per year. The fiber comes in approximately 22 basic colors with many variations and blends. It has a cellular structure similar to hair and is more resilient and much stronger than Merino sheep wool. It is highly sought after in Britain, Europe, and Japan. The cria fiber is extra fine and lustrous and commands a higher selling price. Their wool quality is only slightly lower than the vicuna. The black coats are usually the heaviest. The Suri breed has finer, thicker, and longer hair and provides up to eleven pounds of wool per year, but the breed has a greater susceptibility to parasites.

In South America, shearings are usually done every two years before the rainy season in November and December. After seven years of age, alpacas are used primarily for meat. In 1972, there were about two million living in Peru and 50,000 in Bolivia.

Alpacas are inexpensive to feed (about $1 per day per alpaca). This is about the same cost as a large dog. They have three stomachs which enable them to be very efficient at digesting what they eat. They are more fastidious feeders than llamas, being very Earth-friendly by grazing meticulously throughout the pasture. They prefer free range pasture to confinement in a stall or barn. They have sensitive feet and prefer soft, moist ground with tender grasses. They also enjoy pools and puddles for wallowing. A lack of adequate ground moisture is thought to lead to a fatal foot disease and rainless years often lead to higher mortality rates. No special food is required for them except in winter or in late pregnancy when all they need is good quality hay and low protein pellets. Alpacas will spit on one another if sufficiently angered, but will rarely spit on people.

One acre will provide ample room for five to ten alpacas, much more economical than most other types of livestock. Any fencing that may be required is usually to keep predators out of the pasture versus keeping the alpacas in. Simple shelters will suffice, usually only requiring a three-sided enclosure or a lean-to. Alpacas usually defecate in fixed areas and avoid grazing there, keeping parasitic infestations low. Their manure also makes an excellent fertilizer.

They have a high world market value between $8,500 and $25,000 per animal; a breeding age female goes for $15,000 to 25,000 (1997 estimates). Some female alpacas are bred as young as 6-12 months of age because breeders are in a hurry to produce young, but it is recommended that the first breeding be at 18-24 months of age to allow full physical and social maturity. In the United States, they can be insured and depreciated from the owner's taxes. Other tax advantages include expense deductions and deferred recognition of accumulating wealth.

There are relatively few of these animals in North America (less than 8,000 in 1996). They were first imported to the US in 1984 and spread quickly to Canada. There have been limited numbers allowed for export from South America for reasons such as restricting their export and animal health problems.

Guanacos*

Guanacos are the larger of the two wild camelid species. They stand about four feet tall at the shoulder and about five feet to the top of the head. They have a body length of up to six feet with an approximately ten-inch long tail. They can weigh up to 210 pounds. Their wooly coat is tawny to brown and their head is usually grey.

Wild guanacos thrive in the plains of northern Peru to southern Patagonia. They often live in the mountains and altiplano areas above 12,000 feet. Usually herds of several females travel with one male; however, leaderless herds of males of up to 200 have been found. The guanaco can run at speeds up to 40 miles per hour and they are also strong swimmers. Their mating season is during August and September. They have a ten to eleven month gestation period. The babies can run soon after birth and are weaned at six to twelve weeks.

Vicunas*

Vicunas are smaller than guanacos and weigh only about 100 pounds. Vicunas thrive in the mountainous regions of Northern Peru and Chile at altitudes above 14,000 feet. They are up to three feet at the shoulder and usually have a light brown coat with a yellow-red bib. They are very social animals. There are male dominated family groups. Non-territorial males form groups of both young and desposed older males. Vicunas are less easy to tame than the guanaco because they are extremely shy, but some South American Jesuits have shown they can be domesticated. These animals are less adaptable to different environments. The native people do harvest the wool of these animals. They drive them into an enclosure, shear them, and release them.

References (*, +- denotes a large portion of this reference was used to create the text below):

Anderson, David E. The Ohio State University College of Veterinary Medicine Presents Camelid Medicine, Surgery and Reproduction, March 22-25, 2000. Ohio State University, College of Veterinary Medicine. Columbus, Ohio. [2000] 348 p., ill. (some col.).
NAL call no.: SF997.5.C3035 2000

*Burton, Maurice; Burton, Robert. Marshall Cavendish Corp. The International Wildlife Encyclopedia. B.P.C. Publishing Limited, New York. 1969; 10: 1329-1331.
NAL call no.: QL9.B82

Burton, Maurice. The World Encyclopedia of Animals. World Publishing Company. New York. 1972.
NAL call no.: QL9.B8

Grzimek, Bernhard; Hutchins, M. (Editor). Camels, guanacos, llamas, alpacas and vicunas. In: D.G. Kleinman; V. Geist; M.C. McDade (Editors). Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia. 2nd edition, Vol. 15, Mammals IV, p. 313-323, 200 3. Thompson, Gale, Farmington Hill, WI. ISBN: 0787653624.

Mason, I.L. Origins, evolution and distribution of domestic camels. In: W. Ross Cockrill (Editor). The Camelid. An All-Purpose Animal. Volume 1. Scandinavian Institute of African Studies, Uppsala. Proceedings of the Khartoum Workshop on Camels, December 1979. p. 16-35.
NAL call no.: SF401.C2K48 1979 v. 1

Rae, M. Alpacas: wooly & wonderful. Small Farm Today. Feb/Mar 1997; 14(1): 27. ISSN: 1079-9729.
NAL call no.: S1.M57

+Sands, J.D. Alpacas: attractive investment attractive lifestyle. AgVentures. June/July 1997; [1(1)?]: 28-32.
NAL call no.: S441.A475

1. Kadwell, Miranda; Fernandez, Matilde; Stanley, Helen F.; Baldi, Ricardo; Wheeler, Jane C.; Rosadio, Raul; Bruford, Michael W. Genetic analysis reveals the wild ancestors of the llama and the alpaca. Proceedings of the Royal Society Biological Sciences. Series B. 2001 Dec; 268(1485): 2575-2584.  ISSN:  0962-8452. 
NAL call no.:  501 L84B

The authors would like to thank Dr. William Franklin and Barbara Buchanan for their help in updating this publication.

Dr. William Franklin, a recognized authority on many aspects of the natural history and characteristics of guanacos, kindly provided his personal list of publications on these animals. Since many of Dr. Franklin’s papers were not in the previous document, their addition has increased the comprehensiveness of the document. Dr. Franklin also suggested several text changes to the introductory material. Needless to say, his interest and willingness to share information is much appreciated.

Barbara Buchanan, webmaster for the AWIC program, spent many hours editing the entire document, correcting errors, standardizing citation formats, adding the many new citations, and converting everything into HTML. Her careful attention to detail helped greatly to provide a consistent, accurate and more readable document.

There have been a number of decisions made regarding the topics that included in this publication. The topical choices include the following: all four animals are covered; the results of science-based research on the biology, physiology and care of these animals in both their native environments, and as transplants to other countries; the management of these animals by the native people as both herd and natural resources; some information on the important products such as fiber and meat; the role and economic value of the animals and animal products in rural communities; disease and disease organisms; veterinary care of diseases, injuries, surgery, genetic conditions, etc. The information sources are books, conference papers, and journal articles. Some credible web site resources are also listed. Abstracts are included when available.

The information in this resource has been extracted primarily from a variety of resources, and the collection of the National Agricultural Library. It is not a comprehensive listing of the Worlds literature available on these animals. However, all the information listed includes the National Agricultural Library call number for ease when requesting photocopies or interlibrary loans. Please see http://www.nal.usda.gov/services/request.shtml for lending and document delivery information.

The bibliographic citations are arranged by publication year and alphabetically by author within each year. Since this is an electronic version, it does not include an index. It is expected that by searching using key words, the user will find what is of interest. Much of the information is in English.

The compiler welcomes additional information from other sources for inclusion or any comments or suggestions. It is desirable to have a comprehensive resource of information about these animals, and collaborators are welcome. If you have or know of science based information that would enhance this publication, please contact me. Note that any information submitted must have the important elements of identification and access i.e author, year, publication information, title, accessibility, etc.

Please send your comments, information, or suggestions to:

The Animal Welfare Information Center
10301 Baltimore Ave.
Beltsville, Maryland, 20705, USA
Contact us: http://www.nal.usda.gov/awic/contact.php
Tel: 301-504-6212
Fax: 301-504-7125

2006

Sarno, Ronald J.; Bank, Michael S.; Stern, Hal S.; Franklin, William L. Effects of age, sex, season, and social dynamics on juvenile guanaco subordinate behavior.  Journal of Mammalogy.  2006; 87(1): 41-47.  ISSN: 1545-1542.
URL: http://www.mammalsociety.org/pubjom/index.html
NAL call no.:  410 J823
Descriptors:  guanacos, juvenile animals, males and females, behavioral tactics, aggression, dispersal, submission, submissive crouch,  sex comparisons, group size and seasonal influences, Torres del Paine National Park, Chile.

2005

Aba, M.A.; Miragaya, M.H.; Chaves, M.G.; Capdevielle, E.F.; Rutter, B.; Aguero, A.  Effect of exogenous progesterone and eCG treatment on ovarian follicular dynamics in vicunas (Vicugna vicugna).  Animal Reproduction Science.  2005; 86(1-2): 153-161.  ISSN:  0378-4320.
NAL call no.: QP251.A5
Descriptors: 12 adult non-pregnant females vicunas, follicular dynamics, exogenous progesterone, testing ability for synchronize ovarian activity, response to eCG treatment, trans-rectal ultrosonography, plasma progesterone and estradiol-17 beta co ncentrations monitored, CIDR® inserted vaginally, effects of various treatments, possibilities for synchronization.

Britt, Lisa G.; Middleton, John R.; Warhover, Terri Tucker; Kreeger, John M.; Branson, Keith R.  Acanthomatous ameloblastoma of the maxilla of an adult alpaca.  Veterinary Radiology and Ultrasound.  2005; 46(1): 65-68.  ISSN:  1058-8183.
NAL call no.:  SF757.8.A4
Descriptors: adult alpaca, maxillary swelling, histological diagnosis, ambeloglastoma, radiation therapy, poor outcome, animal euthanized, case study. 

Cavieres, L.A.; Fajardo, A.  Browsing by guanaco (Lama guanicoe) on Nothofagus pumilio forest gaps in Tierra del Fuego, Chile.  Forest Ecology and Management.  2005 Jan. 17; 204(2-3): 237-248.  ISSN: 0378-1127.
NAL call no.: SD1.F73
Descriptors:  guancos, Lama guanicoe, feeding behavior, Nothofagus pumilio, browsing behavior, forest gap environments, Tierra del Fuego, Chile.

Cebra, Christopher K.; Tornquist, Susan J.  Evaluation of glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity in llama crias.  American Journal of Veterinary Re search.  2005; 66(6): 1013-1017. ISSN:  0002-9645.
NAL call no.:  41.8 AM3A
Descriptors: llama crias, glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity, IV injection of glucose, insulin or NaCl solution after glucose, various time intervals for blood sampling, plasma glucose and insulin concentrations, fractional turnover rates and plasma half-life.

Chavez Velasquez, A.; Alvarez Garcia, G.; Gomez Bautista, A.; Casas Astos, E.; Serrano Martinez, E.; Ortega Mora, L.M. Toxoplasma gondii infection in adult llamas (Lama glama) and vicunas (Vicugna vicugna) in the Peruvian Andean region.  Veterinary Parasitology.  2005; 130(1-2): 93-97.  ISSN:  0304-4017.
NAL call no.:  SF810.4.V4
Descriptors:  43 adult llamas, 200 vicunas, Toxoplasma gondii, serum samples, IFAT to detect titers, western blot, first recorded detection, Peru.

Cristofanelli, S.; Antonini, M.; Torres, D.; Polidori, P.; Renieri, C.  Carcass characteristics of peruvian llama (Lama glama) and alpaca (Lama pacos) reared in the Andean highlands.  Small Ruminant Research.  2005; 58(3): 219-222.  ISSN:  0921-4488.
URL:  http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/09214488
NAL call no.:  SF380.I52
Descriptors: 20 llamas, 40 alpacas, slaughter at 25 months, carcass characteristics, weights, various cuts, full digestive tract heaviest, dressing percentage, comparison, llama more easily bred for meat production, Peru.

D'Alterio, G.L.; Jackson, A.P.; Knowles, T.G.; Foster, A.P.   Comparative study of the efficacy of eprinomectin versus ivermectin, and field efficacy of eprinomectin only, for the treatment of chorioptic mange in alpacas.  Veterinary Parasitology.  2005; 130(3/4): 267-275.  ISSN:  0304-4017.
URL:  http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/03044017
NAL call no.:  SF810.4.V4
Descriptors: alpacas, natural infections of Chorioptes mites, mange mite control, eprinomectin protocol was effective, ivermectin, efficacy of treatments.

D'Alterio, G.L.; Callaghan, C.; Just, C.; Manner-Smith, A.; Foster, A.P.; Knowles, T.G.   Prevalence of Chorioptes sp. mite infestation in alpaca (Lama pacos) in the south-west of England: implications for skin health.  Small Ruminant Research. 2005 Mar; 57(2-3): 221-228.  ISSN: 0921-4488.
URL:  http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/09214488
NAL call no.:  SF380.I52
Descriptors:  llamas, skin health implications, Chorioptes sp., parasitic mite prevalence, England.

Dolk, Edward; van der Vaart, Marcel; Lutje-Hulsik, David; Vriend, Gert; de Haard, Hans; Spinelli, Silvia; Cambillau, Christian; Frenken, Leon; Verrips, Theo.  Isolation of llama antibody fragments for prevention of dandruff by phage display in shampoo.  Applied and Environmental Microbiology.  2005 Jan; 71(1): 442-450.  ISSN: 0099-2240.  
NAL call no.:  448.3 AP5
Descriptors:  dandruff control in humans, llama antibody fragments, cell surface binding in a shampoo, Malassezia furfur, fungus control.
Abstract:  As part of research exploring the feasibility of using antibody fragments to inhibit the growth of organisms implicated in dandruff, we isolated antibody fragments that bind to a cell surface protein of Malassez ia furfur in the presence of shampoo.  We found that phage display of llama single-domain antibody fragments (VHHs) can be extended to very harsh conditions, such as the presence of shampoo containing nonionic and anionic surfactants.  We selected several VHHs that bind to the cell wall protein Malf1 of M. furfur, a fungus implicated in causing dandruff. In addition to high stability in the presence of shampoo, these VHHs are also stable under other de naturing conditions, such as high urea concentrations.  Many of the stable VHHs were found to contain arginine at position 44.  Replacement of the native amino acid at position 44 with arginine in the most stable VHH that lacked this arginine resulted in a dramatic further increase in the stability.  The combination of the unique properties of VHHs together with applied phage display and protein engineering is a powerful method for obtaining highly stable VHHs that can be used in a wide range of applications.

Foster, A.P.; Houlihan, M.; Higgins, R.J.; Errington, J.; Ibata, G.; Wakeley, P.R.  BVD virus in a British alpaca.  Veterinary Record (London).  2005; 156(22): 718-719.  ISSN:  0042-4900.
NAL call no.:  41.8 V641
Descriptors:  alpaca, bovine diarrhea virus, BVD, case report, clinical aspects, diagnosis, diagnostic techniques, disease vectors, postmortem examinations. 

Franklin, William L.; Grigione, Melissa M.  The enigma of guanacos in the Falkland Islands: the legacy of John Hamilton.  Journal of Biogeography.  2005 Apr; 32(4): 661-675.  ISSN:  0305-0270.
URL:  http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/journal.asp?ref=0305-0270&site=1
NAL call no.: QH1.J62
Descriptors:  guanacos, success of transplanted/relocated animals, conservation measures, genetics, inbreeding, population dynamics, social behavior, zoogeography, introduced from Rio Gallegos, Argentina, restricted genetic pool, inbreeding, historical research, John Hamilton, Falkland Islands Government Archives, personal interviews, herd size, distribution on islands, behaviors, animals social structure, Falkland Islands.

Gandolf, A.R.; Papich, M.G.; Bringardner, A.B.; Atkinson, M.W.  Pharmacokinetics after intravenous, subcutaneous, and oral administration of enrofloxacin to alpacas.  American Journal of Veterinary Research.  2005 May; 66(5 ): 767-771.  ISSN: 0002-9645.
NAL call no.:  41.8 AM3A
Descriptors:  llamas, enrofloxacins, pharmacokinetics, 3 routes of administration, intravenous, subcutaneous, oral.

Geurden, T.; Van Hemelrijk, K.  Ivermectin treatment against gastrointestinal nematodes in New World camelids in Belgium.  Small Ruminant Research.  2005; 58(1): 71-73.  ISSN:  0921-4488.
URL:  http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/09214488
NAL call no.:  SF380.I52
Descriptors: South American camelids, gastrointestinal parasites, antihelminths not approved, llamas, alpacas, Trichostrongylus spp. and Oesophagostomum spp., natural infection, ivermectin injections subcutaneous, reduction in fecal egg counts, efficacy of drug, no adverse affects noted.

Grubb, T.L.; Gold, J.R.; Schlipf, J.W.; Craig, A.M.; Walker, K.C.; Riebold, T.W.  Assessment of serum concentrations and sedative effects of fentanyl after transdermal adminstration at three dosages in healthy llamas.  American Journal of Veterinary Research.  2005 May; 66(5): 907-909.  ISSN: 0002-9645.
NAL call no.:  41.8 AM3A
Descriptors:  healthy llamas, sedative effects, serum concentrations, fentanyl transdermal administration, 3 dose levels.

Gustafson, Nancy R.; Severidt, Julie; Van Metre, David C.; Schultheiss, Patricia C.; LaRue, Susan M.; Callan, Robert J.  Radiation therapy for the treatment of urethral sarcoma in a cria.  Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine. 2005; 19(2): 271-274.  ISSN:  0891-6640.
NAL call no.:  SF601.J65
Descriptors: immature female alpaca, Enterobacter sakazakii, antiprotozoal drug, enrofloxacin, sulfamethoxacin, dimethyl sulfoxide, trimethoprim, sulfonamides, renal acting drugs, antiparasitic drug.

Macaldowie, C.; Patterson, I.A.P.; Nettleton, P.F.; Low, H; Buxton, D.  Louping ill in llamas (Lama glama) in the Hebrides.  Veterinary Record (London).  2005; 156(13): 420-421.  ISSN:  0042-4900.
NAL call no.:  41.8 V641
Descriptors:  llamas, louping ill virus, Ixodes ricinus, brain disease, disease vectors, diagnosis, histopathology, clinical aspects, postmortem examinations, viral diseases.

Mason, T.E.; Dowling, B.A.; Dart, A.J.  Surgical repair of a cleft soft palate in an alpaca.  Australian Veterinary Journal.  2005 Mar; 83(3): 145-146.  ISSN:  0005-0423.
NAL call no.:  41.8 AU72
Descriptors:  alpaca, cleft soft palate repair, surgical technique, case report.

McClanahan, S.L.; Malone, E.D.; Anderson, K.L.  Bladder outlet obstruction in a 6-month-old alpaca secondary to pelvic displacement of the urinary bladder.  Canadian Veterinary Journal.  2005; 46(3): 247-249.  ISSN:  0008-5286.  Note: In English with a French summary.
NAL call no.:  41.8 R3224
Descriptors:  young female alpaca, young animal, stranguria, radiographic studies, bladder outlet obstruction, pelvic displacement of the bladder, case report, clinical aspects, cystopexy surgery, uncomplicated recovery.

McKenna, P.B.; Hill, F. I.; Gillett, R.  Sarcoptes scabiei infection on an alpaca (Lama pacos).  New Zealand Veterinary Journal.  2005; 53(3): 213.  ISSN:  0048-0169.
Descriptors: male alpaca, pruritus, alopecia, hyperkeratotic crusts on hind legs, histopathological analysis of skin section, Sarcoptes scabiei, first record in New Zealand.

Moore, D.P. Neosporosis in South America.  Veterinary Parasitology.  2005; 127(2): 87-97.  ISSN:  0304-4017.
NAL call no.:  SF810.4.V4
Descriptors: cattle, goats, sheep, dogs, cats, water buffalo, alpacas, llamas, wild canids, reproductive losses, Neospora caninum, epidemiology, disease control, South America.

Odbileg, Raadan; Lee, Sung Il; Ohashi, Kazuhiko; Onuma, Misao.  Cloning and sequence analysis of llama (Lama glama) Th2 (IL-4, IL-10 and IL-13) cytokines.  Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology.  2005; 104(3-4): 145-153.  ISSN:  0165-2427.
NAL call no.:  SF757.2.V38
Descriptors: llamas, cytokine analysis, interleukin 4, IL-10, IL-13, amplification, specific primers designed from reported bovine cytokine genes, homology analysis, phylogenetic analysis, Artiodactyla, Perissodactyla.

Odbileg, R.; Konnai, S.; Usui, T.; Ohashi, K.; Onuma, M.  Quantification of llama inflammatory cytokine mRNAs by real-time RT-PCR.  Journal of Veterinary Medical Science.  2005; 67(2): 195-198.  ISSN:  0916-7250.
Descriptors: llamas, PCR, complementary DNA, messenger RNA, cytokines, gene expression, immune system, interleukin 1, interleukin 6, lipopolysaccharides, tumor necrosis factor.

Padula, A.M.  Clinical evaluation of caudal epidural anaesthesia for the neutering of alpacas. Veterinary Record (London). 2005; 156(19): 616-617.  ISSN:  0042-4900.
NAL call no.:  41.8 V641
Descriptors: alpacas, neutering of males, castration, surgical procedures, efficacy of caudal epidural anesthesia.

Radi, Z.A.; Miller, D. L.; Liggett, A.D.  Cutaneous melanocytoma in a llama (Lama glama).  Veterinary Research Communications.  2005; 29(2): 137-14 0.  ISSN:  0165-7380.
NAL call no.:  SF601.V38
Descriptors: male llamas, skin tumor, tumor biology, diagnosis, treatment, case study.

Ratto, Marcelo; Berland, Marco; Huanca, Wilfredo; Singh, Jaswant; Adams, Gregg P.  In vitro and in vivo maturation of llama oocytes.  Theriogenology.  2005; 63(9): 2445-2457.  ISSN:  0093-691X.
NAL call no.:  QP251.A1T5
Descriptors: llama oocytes, postmortem collection of ovaries, in vitro culture for 28, 30, 36 hours, incubation conditions, reproductive technologies, FSH and eCG added, COC in metaphase II, in vitro fertilization.

Robinson, T.F.; Roeder, B.L.; Schaalje, G.B.; Hammer, J. D.; Burton, S.; Christensen, M.  Nitrogen balance and blood metabolites of alpaca (Lama pacos) fed three forages of different protein content.  Small Ruminant Research.  2005; 58(2): 123-133.  ISSN:  0921-4488.
NAL call no.:  SF380.I52
Descriptors: male alpacas, 4 age groups, metabolism crates, straw, grass hay alfalfa, water ad libitum, 14 day treatment, effects on N balance and blood metabolites, dietary nitrogen requirements.

Sarno, R.J.; Bank, M.S.; Stern, H.A.; Franklin W.L.  Forced dispersal of juvenile guanacos (Lama guanicoe): causes, variation, and fates of individuals dispersing at different times.  2005 (in press). Submitted to Journal of Mammalogy.  ISSN: 1545-1542.
URL:  http://www.mammalsociety.org/pubjom/index.html
NAL call no.:  410 J823
Descriptors:  guanacos, forced dispersal of young animals, causes, outcomes, seasonal differences.

Shapiro, J.L.; Watson, P.; McEwen, B.; Carman, S.  Highlights of camelid diagnoses from necropsy submissions to the Animal Health Laboratory, University of Guelph, from 1998 to 2004.  Canadian Veterinary Journal.  2005; 46(4): 317-318.  ISSN:  0008-5286.
NAL call no.:  41.8 R3224
Descriptors: llamas, alpacas, camelids, age differences, animal diseases, diagnoses, bacterial diseases, causes of death, diseases of gastrointestinal and nervous systems, liver, neoplasms, postmortem examinations, Ontario, Canad a. 

Smith, Jennifer J.; Dallap, Barbara L.  Splenic torsion in an alpaca.  Veterinary Surgery.  2005; 34(1): 1-4.  ISSN:  0161-3499.
NAL call no.:  SF911.V43
Descriptors: adult female alpaca, spenic torsion, uterine torsion, abdominal discomfort, diagnosis, rectal examination, abdominocentesis, transabdominal ultrasound, surgical procedures, splenectomy, necrotized spleen, treatment s uccessful, favorable prognosis.

Tee, S.Y.; Dowling, B.A.; Dart, A.J.  Treatment of long bone fractures in South American camelids: 5 cases.  Australian Veterinary Journal.   2005; 83(7): 418-420.  ISSN:  0005-0423.
NAL call no.: 41.8 AU72
Descriptors: llama, alpacas, comminuted fracture of metatarsal bones, comminuted fracture of proximal radius, diagnosis with clinical examination and radiographs, treatment, open reduction and internal fixation, lag screws, dynamic compression pl ates, effectiveness of treatments.

Timoteo, O.; Maco, V. Jr.; Maco, V.; Neyra, V.; Yi, P.J.; Leguia, G.; Espinoza, J.R. Characterization of the humoral immune response in alpacas (Lama pacos) experimentally infected with Fasciola hepatica against cysteine proteinases Fas1 and Fas2 and histopathological findings.  Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology.  2005; 106(1-2): 77-86. ISSN:  0165-2427. &nb sp;
NAL call no.:  SF757.2.V38
Descriptors: 6 adult (1-2 year old) alpacas, Lama pacos, liver flukes, experimental infection with 200 metacercariae, Fasciola hepatica, proteinases of Fas1 and Fas2 antigens, immune responses, flukes recovered at necropsy, liver affects, circulating IgG antibodies, titers, ELISA.

Wolf, D.; Schares, G.; Cardenas, O.; Huanca, W.; Cordero, Aida; Baerwald, Andrea; Conraths, F.J.; Gauly, M.; Zahner, H.; Bauer, C.  Detection of specific antibodies to Neospora caninum and Toxoplasma gondii in naturally infected alpacas (Lama pacos), llamas (Lama glama) and vicunas (Lama vicugna) from Peru and Germany.  Veterinary Parasitology.  2005; 130(1-2): 81-87.  ISSN:  0304-4017.
NAL call no.:  SF810.4.V4
Descriptors:  llamas, alpacas, wild vicunas, experimental infection, protozoal parasite, Neospora caninum, Toxoplasma gondii, sera testing, immunoblot, ELISA, IFAT, antibody detection against N. caninum tachyzoites, routes of infection, natural infections in South American camelids, Peru, Germany .

Zarebski, Laura M.; Urrutia, Mariela; Goldbaum, Fernando A.  Llama single domain antibodies as a tool for molecular mimicry.  Journal of Molecular Biology.   2005; 349(4): 814-824.  ISSN:  0022-2836.
Descriptors:  llamas, antibodies, heavy-chain IgGs (hcIgGs), variable region one polypeptide chain suitable for engineering, immunized with anti-DNA mouse mAb develop anti-ld respons e, immuno-stimulant, excellent tool for molecular mimicry.

Zhang, Qiao Ling; Dong, Chang Sheng; He, Jun Ping; He, Xiao Yan; Fan, Rui Wen; Geng, Jian Jun; Ren, Yu Hong.  [Study on the chromosomal karyotype and G-banding of alpacas (Lama pacos).]  Yichuan.  2005; 27(2): 221-226.  ISSN:  0253-9772.  Note: In Chinese with an English summary.
Descriptors: 23 Huacaya alpacas, 3 males, 20 females, genetics, chromosomes and karyotypes, cytogenetic basis for selection, breeding, disease diagnosis, genetic mechanisms of sex determination, lymphocyte culture, trypase-EDTA for G-banding, 74 chromosones, XX, XY, autosomes, X chromosome was metacentric, Y chromosome telocentric.

2004

Al Ani, F.K.  Classification and breeds.  In:  Camel: Management and Diseases.  Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Baghdad University, Baghdad, Iraq.  2004; 61-68.
Descriptors: alpacas, guancos, llamas, vicunas, dromedaries, Bactrian camels, taxonomy, draft animals, riding animals, dual purpose animals, hybrids, breeds, adaptation, anatomy, physiology, milk and meat production. 

Al Ani, F.K.  Domestication, distribution and population.  In:  Camel: Management and Diseases. 2004; 1-24.  Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Baghdad University, Baghdad, Iraq.
Descriptors:  camels, llamas, vicunas, dromedaries, Bactrian camels, domestication, geographical distribution, livestock numbers, population dynamics, Africa, Asia, Australia, Europe, North and South America, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates. 

Al Ani, F.K.; Ababneh, M.M.  South American camelids (SAC).  In:  Camel: Management and Diseases.  Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Baghdad University, Baghdad, Iraq.  2004; 121-136.
Descriptors:  alpacas, guancos, llamas, vicunas, draft animals, riding animals, breeding, crossbreeding, diseases, husbandry, hematology, meat and milk production, reproduction, pregnancy diagnosis, parturition, physiology, surge ry, wool producing animals, South America.

Al Izzi, S.A.; Abdouslam, O.E.; Al Bassam, L.S.; Azwai, S.M.  Haematological parameters in clinically normal llamas (Lama glama).  Praxis Veterinaria Zagreb.  2004; 52(3): 225-232.  ISSN:  0350-4441.  Note: In English with a summary in Croatian. 
Descriptors: llamas, sex and age differences, blood base values, blood composition, proteins, fibrinogen, hemoglobin, prothrombin, thromboplastin, blood cells, basophils, eosinophils, erythrocyte count, leukocyte counts, lymphocytes, monocytes, platelets, reticulocytes.

Alwood, A.J.; Downend, A.B.; Slensky, K.A.; Fox, J.A.; Simpson, S.A.; Donahue, S.M.; Waddell, L.S.; Otto, C.M.  10th international veterinary emergency and critical care symposium, September 8-12, 2004. San Diego, California, USA.  Journal of Veterinary Emergency and Critical Care.  2004; 14(Supplement 1): 18 p.  ISSN:  1534-6935.  Note:  Conference proceedings.
NAL call no.:  SF778.J68
Descriptors:  cats, dogs, donkeys, horses, llamas, Clostridium tetani, Escherichia coli, emergency and intensive care, acepromazine, albumins, anesthesics, anticoagulants, antioxidants, antibiotic resistance, benzodiazepines, blood chemistries, transfusions, cardiac diseases, catheterization convulsion s, diagnostic techniques, disease control, drug resistance, electrocardiography, electroencephalograms, gastric acid, hemolytic anemia, hemorrhage, heparin, hyperkalaemia, ketamine, morphine, ketoacidosis, lithium, naltrexone, neoplasms, neuroleptics, obs tructions, oxygen, respiratory diseases, septicaemia, spinal diseases, tetanus, therapy, transport of animals, troponins, urethra, respiratory distress syndrome, ventilation, seizures, thoracotomy, thromboelastography, thromboembolism, tramadol.

Anderson, D.E.  Common surgical procedures in camelids.   In: Proceedings of the Thirty Seventh Annual Conference, American Association of Bovine Practitioners, Forth Worth, Texas, City, USA, 23-25 September, 2004.  2004: 118-125.   ISSN:  0743-0450.
NAL call no.:  SF961.A5
Descriptors:  alpacas, dromedary camels, llamas, surgical procedures, teeth, tooth diseases, abscesses, bone diseases, castration, digestive tract, limb bones, limbs, postoperative care.

Anderson, D.E.  Comparison of trace mineral concentration in the various lobes of the liver of alpacas and llamas.  Journal of Animal and Veterinary Advances.  2004; 3(3): 162-164.  ISSN:  1680-5593.
Descriptors: alpacas, llamas, postmortem study, site of liver collection, affects on selected trace metals postmortem study, left lobe, right lobe, caudate lobe, analysed via inductively coupled argon plasma emission, spectroscop y, calcium, copper, iron, molybdenum, selenium, zinc, potassium. 

Anderson, D.E.; Silveira, F.; Grubb, T.  Effects of venipuncture and correlation of plasma, serum and saliva cortisol concentration with transportation stress in camelids.  In:  Selected Research on Camelid Physiology and Nutrition.  The Camelid Publishers.  Bikaner, India.  2004: 160-168.  ISBN:  8190114123.
NAL call no.:  SF401.C2S46 2004
Descriptors:  alpacas, dromedary camels, llamas, camels, animal transport related stress effects, blood chemistry, saliva hydrocortisone, effects of venipuncture, intravenous injection, restraint of animals, stress response.

Anderson, D.E.; Rings, D.M.; Kowalski, J.  Infection with Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis in five alpacas.  Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association.  2004 Dec 1; 225(11): 1743-1747.  ISSN: 0003-1488 .
NAL call no.:  41.8 AM3
Descriptors: alpacas, bacterial infection, Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis, case study.

Anderson, D.E.  Liver disease, metabolism and digestion in llamas and alpacas.  In:  Selected Research on Camelid Physiology and Nutrition.  The Camelid Publishers.  Bakaner, India.  2004:. 545-554.  ISBN:  8190114123.
NAL call no.:  SF401.C2S46 2004
Descriptors:  llamas, alpacas, liver disease, hepatitis, lipidosis, diagnosis, etiology, clinical aspects, therapy, digestion, disease prevalence surveys, disease prevention, energy requirements, epidemiology, metabolism, neoplas ms, poisoning, therapy, toxicity.

Antonini, M.; Gonzales, M.; Valbonesi, A.  Relationship between age and postnatal skin follicular development in three types of South American domestic camelids.  Livestock Production Science.  2004; 90(2-3): 241-246.  ISSN:  0301-6226.
NAL call no.:  SF1.L5
Descriptors: 15 alpaca kids, (10 huacaya and 5 suri types), 10 llama kids (chaku type), age of secondary follicle maturity, skin follicular structure, difference in types, fiber study, shearing recommendation, "Alpaquero" Develop ing Centre of Toccra, Arequipa Plateau, Caylloma Province, Peru.

Baldi, Ricardo; Pelliza-Sbriller, Alicia; Elston, David; Albon, Steve.  High potential for competition between guanacos and sheep in Patagonia.  Journal of Wildlife Management.  2004; 68(4): 924-938.  ISSN:  0022-541X.
NAL call no.:  410 J827
Descriptors: guanacos, sheep, diets in sympatric conditions, interspecific competition, fecal sampling, potential species comparison of diet at 9 sites and 2 seasons, diet plants overlap, competition with sheep may have played a role in guanaco populations, arid zones, impact on current management practices, Patagonia.

Bird, K.E.; Parker, J.E.; Andreasen, C.B.; Watrous, B.J.; Heidel, J.R.  Keratinizing ameloblastoma in a 9-month-old llama (Lama glama).  Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation.  2004; 16(1): 89-92.  ISSN:  1040-6387.
NAL call no.:  SF774.J68
Descriptors: 9 month old llama, odontogenic disease, destruction of bony structure, epithelial neoplasms, mass on face, clinical aspects, differential diagnosis, keratinizing ameloblastoma, treatment was surgical excision at early stage, case report, Oregon, United States.

Burkholder, Tanya H.; Jensen, James; Chen, Hong; Junkins, Katherine; Chatfield, Jenifer; Boothe, Dawn.  Plasma evaluation for ivermectin in llamas (Lama glama) after standard subcutaneous dosing.  Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine.  2004; 35(3): 395-396.  ISSN:  1042-7260. 
Descriptors:  5 llamas, pesticide levels, ivermectin, Parelaphostrongylus tenuis, brainworm nematode, meningeal worm, 200 micrograms/kg s.c. injections pharmacokinetics, plasma levels after 4 weeks post injection, dosage not adequate for therapeutic concentration, pharmacokinetics.  

Buttolph, Lita P.; Coppock, D. Layne.  Influence of deferred grazing on vegetation dynamics and livestock productivity in an Andean pastoral system.  Journal of Applied Ecology.  2004; 41(4): 664-674.  ISSN:  0021-8901.
NAL call no.:  410 J828
Descriptors: sheep, llamas, alpacas, rangeland management, range degradation, livestock productivity, equilibrium and non-equilibrium theory, key grazing resources, Andean pastoral ecosystem, fencing of bofedal and gramadal (wet and dry meado ws) seasonally deferred grazing practices, peak standing crop, plant species, enclosures increased survival of young alpacas and sheep, different finding for meadow systems, negative effects of privitizing communal resources, Bolivia.

Cafrune, M.M.; Aguirre, D.H.; Freytes, I.  Fasciolosis en vicunas (Vicugna vicugna) en semi-cautiverio de Molinos, Salta, Argentina, con no tas de otros helmintos en este hospedador.  [Fasciolosis in semi-captive vicunas (Vicugna vicugna) from Molinos, Salta, Argentina, with notes of other helminths on this host.]  Veterinaria Argentina.  2004; 21(207): 513-520.  ISSN:  0326-4629.  Note: In Spanish with an English summary.
NAL call no.:  41.8 G112
Descriptors: semi-captive vicunas, liver flukes, Fasciola hepatica, Trichuris sp., concurrent infections, diagnosis, disease prevalence and control, fascioliasis, infectivity, outbreaks, consecutive treatments with closantel and triclabendazole, probable source of flukes, Molinos, S alta Province, Argentina.

Castellaro G., G.; Ullrich R., T.; Wackwitz, B.; Raggi S., A.  Composicion botanica de la dieta de alpacas (Lama pacos L.) y llamas (Lama glama L.) en dos estaciones del ano, en praderas altiplan icas de un sector de la Provincia de Parinacota, Chile.  [Botanical composition of alpaca (Lama pacos) and llama (Lama glama) diets in two seasons of the year on highland ranges of Parinacota Province, Chile.]  Agricultura Tecnica.  2004; 64(4): 353-363.  ISSN:  0365-2807.   Note: In Spanish with an English summary.
Descriptors: alpacas, llamas, botanical composition of diets, grazing, winter dry and summer wet seasons, matter, dry matter, grazing, Deschampsia cespitosa, Agrostis tolucensis, Festuca nardifolia, Festuca orthophylla, Oxychloe, Oxychloe andina, Parastrephia lucida, Ranunculus uniflorus, highland range of Parinacota, Chile.

Cebra, C.K.; Tornquist, S.J.  Assessment of the effects of epinephrine and insulin on plasma and serum biochemical variables in llamas and alpacas.  American Journal of Veterinary Research.  2004 Dec; 65(12): 1692-1696.  ISSN: 0002-9645.
NAL call no.:  41.8 AM3A
Descriptors: llamas, alpacas, blood values, plasma, serum biochemical variables, effects of epinephrine and insulin.

Cebra, C.K.; Tornquist, S.J.; Jester, R.M.; Stelletta, C.  Assessment of the effects of feed restriction and amino acid supplementation on glucose tolerance in llamas.  American Journal of Veterinary Research.  2004 Jul; 65(7): 996-1001.  ISSN: 0002-9645.
NAL call no.:  41.8 AM3A
Descriptors:  llamas, glucose tolerance, effects of feed restriction, amino acid supplementation.

Cebra, C.K.; Tornquist, S.J.; Jester, R.M.; Stelletta, C.  Assessment of the metabolic effects of hydrocortisone on llamas before and after feed restriction.  American Journal of Veterinary Research.  2004 Jul; 65(7): 1002-1005.  ISSN: 0002-9645.
NAL call no.:  41.8 AM3A
Descriptors:  llamas, comparison study, pre and post feed restriction, metabolic effects of hydrocortisone.

Cecchi, Teresa; Cozzali, Claudia; Passamonti, Paolo; Ceccarelli, Piero; Pucciarelli, Filippo; Gargiulo, Anna Maria; Frank, Eduardo-Nargiso; Renieri, Carlo.  Melanins and melanosomes from llama (Lama glama L.).  Pigment Cell Research.  2004; 17(3): 307-311.  ISSN:  0893-5785. 
Descriptors:  adult pigmented Argentine llamas, analysis of melanins and melanosomes, hair and skin samples, eumelanins, pheomelanins, alkali-soluable melanins, eumelanosome shapes, black, reddish brown, dark brown, melanosomes a t stages I, II, III, IV described.

Chavez-Velasquez, A.; Alvarez-Garcia, G.; Collantes-Fernandez, E.; Casas-Astos, E.; Rosadio-Alcantara, R.; Serrano-Martinez, E.; Ortega-Mora, L.M.  First report of Neospora caninum infection in adult alpacas (Vicugna pacos) and llamas (Lama glama).  Journal of Parasitology.  2004 Aug; 90(4): 864-866.  ISSN:  0022-3395.
NAL call no.:  QH547.I55
Descriptors:  Vicugna, alpacas, llamas, Neospora caninum, protozoal disease, neosporosis, new host records, adult animals, seroprevalence, antibody detection, fluorescent antibody technique, immunoblotting, Western blotting, Peru.

Clauss, M.; Lendl, C.; Schramel, P.; Streich, W.J.  Skin lesions in alpacas and llamas with low zinc and copper status - a preliminary report.  Veterinary Journal.  2004; 167(3): 302-305.  ISSN:  1090-0233.
NAL call no.:  SF601.V484
Descriptors: alpacas, llamas, species differences, breed differences, sex differences, 13 llamas, 17 huacaya alpacas, 18 suri alpacas predisposition to skin lesions, dry scaly lesions, dietary deficiencies of copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) deficienc ies, fleece color, non-white colors, wool, Germany.

Coates, W.; Ayerza, R.  Comparison of llama fiber obtained from two production regions of Argentina.  Journal of Arid Environments.  2004 Sep; 58(4): 513-524.  ISSN: 0140-1963.
NAL call no.:  QH541.5.D4J6
Descriptors:  llamas, alpacas, farmed animal species, arid zones, overgrazing, environmental degradation, animal production, animal breeding, fiber differences, fleece, color, fiber quality, selection criteria, sustainable agricu lture, Argentina.

Coates, Wayne; Ayerza, Ricardo.  Fatty acid composition of llama muscle and internal fat in two Argentinian herds.  Small Ruminant Research.  2004; 52(3): 231-238.  ISSN:  0921-4488.
NAL call no.:  SF380.I52
Descriptors: castrated llama male, muscle meat composition, internal fats, fatty acids, cholesterol and fats than beef, higher 3 fatty acid content, castration improves meat quality.

Cristofanelli, S.; Antonini, M.; Torres, D.; Polidori, P.; Renieri, C.  Meat and carcass quality from Peruvian llama (Lama glama) and alpaca (Lama pacos).  Meat Science.  2004 Mar; 66(3): 589-593.  ISSN: 0309-1740.
NAL call no.:  TX373.M4
Descriptors: llamas, alpacas, male animals, alternative livestock, growth, body weight, 25 months old at slaughter, longissimus dorsi, physical and chemical parameters of meat, postmortem changes. pH, nutritional value of meat, carcass quality and weight, dressing percentage, meat quality, moisture content, lipid content, protein content, ash content, cholesterol, water holding capacity, species comparison, Peru.
Abstract:  An experiment based on 20 llama males and 40 alpaca males reared in Peru has been carried out with the aim to evaluate the live growth performances, carcass quality, the nutritional characteristics of meat from animals slaughtered at 25 months of age, and to determine the physica l and chemical parameters of meat obtained from these animals. The live body weights registered during the 25 months of the experiment were significantly lower in alpaca compared with llama. In llama carcasses were significantly h igher both warm and cold carcass weight (P < 0.001) but dressing percentage was higher in alpacas (P < 0.01). The glycolityc fine-course was very similar both in llama and in alpaca muscle Longissimus Thoracis et Lumborum. C hemical composition of muscle Longissimus Thoracis et Lumborum taken from llama and alpaca carcasses was significantly different (P < 0.01) in ash content; cholesterol content was significantly higher (P < 0.001) in llama meat compared with alpaca.

De Nigris, Mariana E.  Guanaco and huemul in Patagonian hunter-gatherers diet.  BAR International Series.  2004; 1298: 11-37. Note: In English with an English and Spanish summary.
Descriptors: guanacos, huemul, Hippocamelus bisulcus, hunter gathers, food animals, South America.

DeWitt, S.F.; Bedenice, D.; Mazan, M.R.  Hemolysis and Heinz body formation associated with ingestion of red maple leaves in two alpacas.  Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association.  2004 Aug 15; 225(4): 578-583.  ISSN: 0003-1488.
NAL call no.:  41.8 AM3
Descriptors: alpacas, eating red maple leaves, toxicity, blood effects, hemolysis, Heinz body formation, case reports.

Dixon, Amy.  Animal management at Auckland Zoo.  1.  Clicker training llamas.  IZN International Zoo News. 2004 Jan-Feb; 51(1): 14-17; no. 330.  ISSN:  0020-9155.
Descriptors: llamas, zoo animals, animal training techniques, care in captivity, clicker conditioning, Auckland Zoo, New Zealand. 

Dong, Chang Sheng; Zhang, Qiao Ling; He, Xiao Yan; He, Jun Ping; Fan, Rui Wen; Geng, Jian Jun.  [Study on the chromosome of alpacas (Lama pacos).]  Acta Veterinaria et Zootechnica Sinica. 2004 Sep; 35(5): 594-596.  ISSN:  0366-6964.  Note: In Chinese with an English summary.
Descriptors:  alpacas, cytogenetics, chromosomes, karyotypes, mutations.

Drew, M.L.; Johnson, L.; Pugh, D.; Navarre, C.B.; Taylor, I.T.; Craigmill, A.L. Pharmacokinetics of ceftiofur in llamas and alpacas.  Journal of Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics.  2004; 27(1): 13-20.  ISSN:  0140-7783.
NAL call no.:  SF915.J63
Descriptors: llamas, alpacas, ceftiofur sodium, pharmacokinetics, antiobiotics, dosages based on other domestic species, disposition studies, intramuscular administration in llamas, intravenous and intramuscular administration in alpacas, ser ial timed blood sampling, similar to values in sheep and goats.

DuBois, W.R.; Prado, T.M.; Ko, J.C.H.; Mandsager, R.E.; Morgan, G.L.  A comparison of two intramuscular doses of xylazine-ketamine combination and tolazoline reversal in llamas.  Veterinary Anaesthesia and Analgesia.  2004; 31(2): 90-9 6.  ISSN:  1467-2987.
NAL call no.:  SF914.V47
Descriptors: llamas, animal restraint, surgery, analgesia, anesthetics, xylazine, tolazoline, ketamine, blood gases, blood pressure, arterial pressure, heart rate, conduction anesthesia, dosage effects, electrocardiograms, animal restraint, hem oglobin, intramuscular injection, respiration, pharmacodynamics, pharmacology.

Dunkel, B.; Del Piero, F.; Wotman, K.L.; Johns, I.C.; Beech, J.; Wilkins, P.A.  Encephalomyelitis from West Nile flavivirus in 3 alpacas.  Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine.  2004 May-June; 18(3): 365-367.  ISSN: 0891-6640.
NAL call no.:  SF601.J65
Descriptors:  alpacas, 3 animals, West Nile virus, viral encephalitis, case studies.

Graziotti, Guillermo H.; Palencia, Pablo; Delhon, Gustavo; Rivero, Jose Luis L. Neuromuscular partitioning, architectural design, and myosin fiber types of the M. vastus lateralis of the llama (Lama glama).  Journal of Morphology.  2004; 262(2): 667-681.  ISSN:  0362-2525.
URL:  http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/109627426/PDFSTART
Descriptors: adult llamas, locomotory muscles, three fast myosin heavy chain isoforms (i.e., IIA, IIX, IIB), morphological and functional skeletal musculature, neuromuscular partitioning, architectural design, myosin fiber types, M. vastus late ralis, description of the muscle, Sihler’s technique, femoral nerve, deep partitions, functional adaptions.

Graziotti, G.H.; Rodriguez-Menendez, J.; Montesano, A.; Jalley, S.; Affricano, N.O.; Victorica, C.L.   Tipos fibrilares en diversos musculos de llama (Lama glama) de interes zootecnico.  [Fibre types in different llama (Lama glama) muscles used as meat source.]  InVet [Investigacion Veterinaria].  2004; 6(1): 21-27.  ISSN:  1514-6634.  Note: In Spanish with an English summary.
URL:  www.fvet.uba.ar/invet/contendos.htm
Descriptors: llamas, muscle fiber types, meat production, meat quality, biceps femoris, gluteus medius, rectus femoris and semitendinosus muscles, staining with myofibrillar adenosine triphosphatase, taste, juicyness, pH postmortem.

Gauly, M.; Erhardt, G; Dzapo,V.  Annual changes in serum levels of thyroid hormones in mal e llamas (Lama glama) and their correlation with reproduction parameters.  In:  Selected Research on Camelid Physiology and Nutrition.  The Camelid Publishers, Bakaner, India.  2004: 186-194.  ISBN:  8190114123.
NAL call no.:  SF401.C2S46 2004
Descriptors:  male llamas, male fertility, factors affecting reproductive efficiency, reproductive performance, blood chemistry, ejaculate volume, semen, spermatozoa, environmental temperature, hormone secretion, seasonal variatio n, thyroid gland, thyroxine, triiodothyronine.

Gauly, M.  Tierschutzaspekte bei der Haltung Neuweltkameliden.  [Aspects of animal welfare in South American Camelids husbandry.]  DTW (Deutsche Tieraerztliche Wochenschrift).  2004; 111(3): 127-130.  ISSN:  0341-6593. Note: In German. 
NAL call no.:  41.8 D482
Descriptors: llamas, alpacas, animal welfare, guidelines development, husbandry, feeding, lack of basic knowledge about requirements, veterinary care, education needed, Germany.

Gonzalez, F.; Smulders, F.J.M.; Paulsen, P.; Skewes, O.; Konig, H.E.  Anatomical investigations on meat cuts of guanacos (Lama guanicoe, Muller, 1776) and chemical composition of selected muscles.  Wiener Tierarztliche Monatsschrift.  2004; 91(3): 77-84.  ISSN:  0043-535X.  Note: In English with a German summary.
NAL call no.:  41.8 T345
Descriptors: 70 young male guanacos, wild animals, animal anatomy, body fat, carcass composition and weight, carcass yield, chemical composition, longissimus dorsi muscle, meat composition, meat cuts, meat quality, meat yield, saturated fatty a cids, Tierra del Fuego, Chile.

Hunter, Robert P.; Isaza, Ramiro; Koch, David E.; Dodd, Charles C.; Goately, Marie A. Moxidectin plasma concentrations following topical administration to llamas (Lama glama) and alpacas (Lama pacos). &n bsp;Small Ruminant Research.  2004; 52(3): 275-279.  ISSN:  0921-4488.
NAL call no.:  SF380.I52
Descriptors: llamas, alpacas, extra label usage of pharmaceuticals, pharmacokinetic parameters between species, study of pour-on moxidectin, clipped along dorsal midline, serial blood sampling post dosing, variability in absorption, moxidectin not well absorbed, no adverse affects, pharmacokinetic parameters not determined. 

Hunter, R.P.; Isaza, R.; Koch, D.E.; Dodd, C.C.; Goatley, M.A.  The pharmacokinetics of topical doramectin in llamas (Lama glama) and alpacas (Lama pacos).  Journal of Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics.  2004; 27(3): 187-189.  ISSN:  0140-7783. 
NAL call no.:  SF915.J63
Descriptors: llamas, alpacas, avermectin, doramectin, avermectin encectocide, milbecycin, moxidectin, plasma concentration, pharmecokinectics, topical treatments.

Janmaat, A.; Choy, J.L.; Currie, B.J.  Melioidosis in an alpaca (Lama pacos).  Australian Veterinary Journal.  2004 Oct.; 82(10): 622-623.  ISSN: 0005-0423.