EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN THE CARE AND USE OF LABORATORY ANIMALS:Provided by the Animal Welfare
Information Center
|
NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS
2101 Constitution Avenue, NW,
Washington, DC 20418
NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competences and with regard for appropriate balance.
This report has been reviewed by a group other than the authors according to procedures approved by a Report Review Committee consisting of members of the National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and Institute of Medicine.
The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self- perpetuating society of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Frank Press is president of the National Academy of Sciences.
The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government. The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. Robert M. White is president of the National Academy of Engineering.
The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the responsibility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal government and upon its own initiative to identify issues of medical care, research, and education. Dr. Samuel O. Thier is president of the Institute of Medicine.
The National Research Council was established by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy's purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and National Academy of Engineering in the conduct of their services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Frank Press and Dr. Robert M. White are chairman and vice-chairman, respectively, of the National Research Council.
This project was supported by the U.S. Army Medical Research and Development Command (USAMRDC) through grants DAMD17-88-2-8016 and DAMD17-87-G-7021. The views, opinions, and/or findings contained in this report are those of the committee and should not be construed as an official Department of Army position, policy, or decision unless so designated by other documentation.
Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals:
A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs / Committee on
Educational Programs in Laboratory Animal Science, Institute of
Laboratory Animal Resources, Commission on Life Sciences,
National Research Council.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references.
1. Laboratory animals. 2. Animal welfare. I.
Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources (U.S.). Committee on
Educational Programs in Laboratory Animal Science.
SF406.E38 1990
636.088þ5þdc20 90-49571
CIP
ISBN 0- 309-04382-4
Copyright þ 1991 by the National Academy of Sciences
Permission for limited reproduction of portions of this book for
educational purposes, but not for sale, may be granted on receipt
of a written request to the National Academy Press, 2101
Constitution Avenue, Washington, DC 20418.
Printed in the United States of America
Gale D. Taylor (Chairman), Program in Laboratory Animal Medicine, University of Illinois, Urbana
Lynn C. Anderson, Laboratory Animal Resources, Merck Sharp Dohme Research Laboratories, Rahway, New Jersey
David A. Blake, The Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
Lynn Dahm, Health Sciences Center for Educational Resources, University of Washington, Seattle
Thomas E. Darby, Lab Products, Inc., Maywood, New Jersey
John E. Harkness, Mississippi State University, College of Veterinary Medicine, Mississippi State
James F. Harwell, National Center for Research Resources, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
Steven P. Pakes (Chairman), The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas
June R. Aprille, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts
Melvin W. Balk, Charles River Laboratories, Inc., Wilmington, Massachusetts
Douglas M. Bowden, University of Washington, Seattle
Lester M. Crawford, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.
Thomas J. Gill III, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Alan M. Goldberg, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland
Jon W. Gordon, Mt. Sinai School of Medicine, New York, New York
Margaret Z. Jones, Michigan State University, East Lansing
Michael D. Kastello, Merck Sharp & Dohme Research Laboratories, Rahway, New Jersey
Robert H. Purcell, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Bethesda, Maryland
J. Wesley Robb, School of Medicine University of Southern California, Los Angeles
John L. VandeBerg, Southwest Foundation for Biomedical Research, San Antonio, Texas
COMMISSION ON LIFE SCIENCES
Bruce M. Alberts (Chairman), University of California, San Francisco
Bruce N. Ames, University of California, Berkeley
Francisco J. Ayala, University of California, Irvine
J. Michael Bishop, University of California Medical Center, San Francisco
Michael T. Clegg, University of California, Riverside
Glenn A. Crosby, Washington State University, Pullman
Freeman J. Dyson, The Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton, New Jersey
Leroy E. Hood, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena
Donald F. Hornig, Harvard University School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts
Marian E. Koshland, University of California, Berkeley
Richard E. Lenski, University of California, Irvine
Steven P. Pakes, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas
Emil A. Pfitzer, Hoffmann-LaRoche, Inc., Nutley, New Jersey
Thomas D. Pollard, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland
Joseph E. Rall, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
Richard D. Remington, University of Iowa, Iowa City
Paul G. Risser, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque
Harold M. Schmeck, Jr., Armonk, New York
Richard B. Setlow, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, New York
Carla J. Shatz, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California
Torsten N. Wiesel, Rockefeller University, New York, New York
The Committee on Educational Programs in Laboratory Animal Science was appointed in 1988 to "prepare an annotated syllabus [guide] for a course in humane practices of animal care and use to assist institutions in complying with recently enacted federal laws, which mandate that educational programs be provided for personnel who use animals in research, testing, and teaching." The committee met four times between November 1988 and June 1990. During the first meeting, several decisions were made that determined the scope and content of this report. First, to assist the scientific community in meeting its demonstrated commitment to humanely care for and use research animals, it was determined that the report would include more information and in much more depth than is necessary to meet minimal requirements of existing regulations. Second, it was resolved that the intended audience should be anyone who can directly or indirectly influence the well-being of animals. These people include investigators, research technicians, teachers, teaching assistants, people in physical plant maintenance, and administrators and animal care staff, all of whom need an understanding of their responsibilities to make an institution's animal care and use program successful. It was also decided that the report would address primarily the principal species used in biomedical research, with limited inclusion of less commonly used species. The care and use of animals in agricultural research were considered beyond the scope of the committee's charge. The consensus was that the committee would develop a core syllabus appropriate for every institution where animal research is performed. In addition, a number of individual packages would be developed that would allow each institution to adapt this guide to its own unique needs. It was recognized that many of the research facilities that will use this guide are not academic institutions and that some basic guidance on development, presentation, and evaluation of an education and training program should be included.
The committee recognizes that this report reflects only an initial effort to fulfill both the scientific community's need for information and the mandated requirements for education and training in the care and use of laboratory animals. The dynamics of biomedical research and legislation, critical comments by those who use the guide, and the ongoing development of audiovisual programs will almost certainly require that the report be exten- sively revised within a few years. The committee hopes that this guide serves as the first building stone in the development of institutional education and training programs that assist scientists in the conduct of biomedical research, as well as meeting the spirit and intent of federal legislation.
The committee extends its appreciation to Kevin P. Engler and Jean A. Larson of the National Agricultural Library's Animal Welfare Information Center, who prepared the appendix on how to use the center, and to the staff of the Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources, especially Dorothy D. Greenhouse, whose support has made this document possible.
Gale D. Taylor, Chairman
Committee on Educational Programs in
Laboratory Animal Science
HOW TO DEVELOP, DELIVER, AND EVALUATE AN EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM
A. Humane methods of animal maintenance and
experimentation, including:
1. basic needs of each species of animal maintained at
the institution;
2. proper handling and care for various species of
animals used by the facility;
3. proper preprocedural and postprocedural care of
animals; and
4. aseptic surgical methods and procedures.
B. The concept, availability, and use of research or
testing methods that limit the use of animals or minimize animal
distress;
C. Proper use of anesthetics, analgesics, and tranquilizers
or any species of animals used by the facility;
D. Methods whereby deficiencies in animal care and
treatment are reported, including deficiencies in animal care and
treatment reported by any employee of the facility.
E. Utilization of services available to provide
information:
1. on appropriate methods of animal care and use;
2. on alternatives to the use of live animals in
research;
3. that could prevent unintended and unnecessary
duplication of research involving animals; and
4. regarding the intent and requirements of the Act.
PHS policy requires that PHS-funded institutions file an
Animal Welfare Assurance that must include "a synopsis of
training or instruction in the humane practice of animal care and
use, as well as training or instruction in research or testing
methods that minimize the number of animals required to obtain
valid results and minimize animal distress, offered to
scientists, animal technicians, and other personnel involved in
animal care, treatment, or use" (PHS, 1986, p. 4).
The Committee on Educational Programs in Laboratory Animal Science (EPLAS) has prepared this guide to aid institutions in implementing an education and training program that will meet the expectations of the PHS Office of Laboratory Animal Welfare (OLAW), which oversees the PHS policy, and the Regulatory Enforcement and Animal Care (REAC) unit of the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, which regulates the Animal Welfare Act. This guide has been designed to fulfill several purposes. First, it is intended to assist institutional officials and institutional animal care and use committees (IACUCs) in determining the scope and depth of education and training programs that will meet both institutional needs and the requirements of the OPRR and REAC. Second, it is offered as a reference for the person or committee assigned the responsibility for coordinating these programs. Finally, portions of the guide will be useful to those people (content experts) who develop the material to be presented.
The EPLAS committee firmly believes that a strong education program on the care and use of laboratory animals goes beyond the involvement of scientists, research technicians, and animal care personnel. To promote understanding of the scientific process and minimize misunderstandings, the committee suggests that administrators, nonscientific members of IACUCs, support staff, and other nonscientific personnel indirectly involved in activites using live animals be included in the program.
To accomodate the diverse backgrounds and needs of personnel, the committee has developed a multiphase program. Those topics considered essential elements for all personnel have been arranged into a single introductory module (core module). The core module has intentionally been designed as a broad overview that can be presented in 3 to 4 hours. The overall goals are to give personnel an appreciation of the scope and intent of the laws, regulations, and policies and to facilitate compliance by providing them with pertinent information and by directing them to additional skill training and resources.
The IACUC and the course coordinator are responsible for developing clear objectives for each phase of the training program. These objectives must incorporate both federally mandated and institutional requirements. The methods for presenting the material will depend on the audience, the objectives that have been set, the nature of the content, and the resources available.
This committee recognizes that people who provide day-to-day animal care require additional training that goes beyond the scope and content proposed in this document. There is no suggestion that the program proposed in this report should in any way replace existing programs such as those offered by the American Association for Laboratory Animal Science (AALAS).
We also recognize that the approach we have taken will require considerable time and planning by the instructional staff; however, the committee believes that the suggested program provides the necessary information without encumbering scientific personnel with hours of training in species or research techniques inappropriate to their needs. We believe the strategy we have adopted fulfills the requirements of the PHS policy and the regulations of the Animal Welfare Act, while being flexible enough to serve the needs of the wide variety of institutions that must comply with these requirements.
PHS (Public Health Service). 1986. Animal welfare assurance. P. 4 in Public Health Service Policy on Humane Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Copies available from: Office of Laboratory Animal Welfare, Building 31, Room 4B09, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892
2
To fully understand this guide, all of the introductory material in Part I should be read before proceeding to Part II. Part II contains four course modules that can be customized to fit the needs of the institution's education and training program. The first of these, the core module, is intended for all personnel involved both directly and peripherally with laboratory animals used in research, education, and testing, and for some of these people, it will satisfy the total educational requirement. The other three modules are intended for select groups of personnel according to their need to know. Species-specific sessions, with hands-on training, should be provided for all people who will be in direct contact with animals. In addition, the pain management and surgery modules should be offered if they are applicable to the institution's needs.
These modules are hierarchical. The species-specific module builds on introductory material in the core. The pain module builds on both the core and the species-specific modules, while the surgery module requires information and skills presented in all three preceding modules. The modules furnish major topic headings and provide a cross-reference to Part III, which contains detailed outlines of the material contained in the modules. This cross-referencing indicates the depth of presentation within the module. For example, both the Core Module and the Pain-Management Module show anesthetics as a topic and refer to the content outline in chapter 6. However, the Core Module draws primarily from the first point in chapter 6 (i.e., 6.1), while the Pain-Management Module recommends covering the entire outline. Content experts asked to deliver information or teach skills should be provided with both the module outline and the corresponding content outlines from Part III. In addition to guiding the speakers, these outlines can also be used to select alternative (e.g., audiovisual, computer-aided, and independent-study) instructional materials. Some sections might also be useful as handouts. Permission for limited reproduction of portions of this book for educational purposes, but not for sale, may be granted on receipt of a written request to the National Academy Press, 2101 Constitution Avenue, Washington, DC 20418.
Part IV lists audiovisual and computer-aided teaching materials and cites organizations that can furnish information on the topics recommended for presentation. It also includes a bibliography. The references that the committee believes are essential for a minimum institutional library have been designated by an asterisk.
The three chapters that make up Part V may be helpful to some IACUCs and course coordinators. They present very basic material on how to approach the task of education and training, how to plan and deliver a lecture-based program, and how to evaluate the institutional program and individual courses.
Three appendixes provide a set of principles adopted by the federal government for the humane care and use of animals, a description of the Animal Welfare Information Center of the National Agricultural Library, and a series of statements that can be used by course coordinators for developing learning objectives or by participants for self-assessment.
1
The core module is recommended for all personnel involved both directly and peripherally with animals used in research, education, and testing. It has been designed as an introduction that will enable participants to follow through on subjects that relate to their interests.
A lecture/seminar format is recommended for presenting most of the core material, as this format is well suited for communicating the institutional mandate, is appropriate for groups of any size, and makes the most efficient use of resources. If the number of people requiring training within an institution is very small, consideration might be given to participation in a program offered by a larger institution or to the pooling of resources by several small institutions. A session might include several speakers, each of whom is responsible for an assigned topic. Prepackaged video or slide materials can be used effectively for portions of the presentation, particularly when human resources are limited. Handouts are also useful adjuncts to the presentation. Two of the appendixes to this guide are recommended as handouts in the outline below. It is also recommended that written institutional policies applicable to the topics be distributed. Other handouts should be developed to fit the needs of the speakers and the participants.
The topics contained in the outline below are those considered by the EPLAS committee to be essential elements of an introductory education program on the care and use of laboratory animals. The recommended presentation time is 3 to 4 hours. In this amount of time, it will not be possible to deal with the topics in depth; however, it is important to address the legal and ethical aspects of every topic. Although the committee has estimated a presentation time for each topic in the outline, the actual time will depend on the emphasis to be placed on each topic and depth of coverage required to fulfill the needs of the institution and the participants. In addition, significant time should be allotted for participants to ask questions and discuss the issues.
The recommended content of each topic below is cross-referenced to the expanded outlines contained in Part III, Chapters 1-9, of this guide by the numbers in parentheses following each sentence. The number preceding the decimal point indicates the chapter, and the number(s) following the decimal point indicates the place within the chapter that the information appears. Thus, 1.1 indicates the first entry in chapter 1 of part III, and 1.2.1 indicates the first subentry under the second entry in chapter 1.
Laws, Regulations, and Policies That Impact on the Care and Use of Animals Estimated Presentation Time: 10-15 minutes Recommended Handout: Written institutional policies related to the care and use of laboratory animals
Briefly describe federal laws, regulations, and policies that have an impact on the care and use of animals (1.1). Describe the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) and Public Health Service (PHS) methods for ensuring and monitoring compliance, including the consequences of noncompliance to the institution and the individual (1.1). Present in detail the composition and functions of the institutional animal care and use committee (IACUC) (1.2.1). Describe the records that facilities are required to keep (1.2.3). Describe the reports required by animal welfare regulations and PHS policy (1.2.4). Describe state and local laws that have an impact on the care and use of animals, if applicable (1.3). Present the policies of your institution (1.4).
Ethical and Scientific Issues Estimated Presentation Time: 10-15 minutes Recommended Handout: U.S. Government Principles for the Utilization and Care of Vertebrate Animals Used in Testing, Research, and Training (Appendix I)
Define ethics and applied ethics (2.1). Compare the utilitarian and deontological (relating to moral obligation) methods for making decisions (2.2). Compare the position of people who accept the use of animals in research, testing, and education with that of people who oppose such use (2.3-2.4). Discuss the role played by laws, regulations, and policies in ensuring humane care and use of animals (2.5). Present suggested ethical principles for the use of animals (2.6) and encourage participants to develop a personal code of ethics, the emphasizes animal welfare.
Alternatives Estimated Presentation: 10-15 minutes Recommended Handouts: Reprint of The Animal Welfare Information Center, which can be found in Appendix II; list of names and telephone numbers for consulting veterinary staff, statisticians, and others
Define the "3R's" and discuss their relevance (3.1). Present regulatory, ethical, humane, economic, and scientific reasons for considering alternatives (3.2). Provide examples of nonanimal research methods and models (3.3). Review statistical methods used to determine how many animals will be required for a valid experiment (3.3.8). Review factors that influence the selection of animal models (3.4). Familiarize participants with resources and services that provide information on alternatives (3.5).
Responsibilities of the Institution, the Animal Care and Use Committee, and the Research and Veterinary Staffs Estimated Presentation Time: 25-30 minutes
List and describe responsibilities of the institution (4.1). List and describe responsibilities of the IACUC (4.2). List and describe responsibilities of investigators (4.3). List and describe responsibilities of the attending veterinarian (4.4). Pain and Distress Estimated Presentation Time: 10-15 minutes
Define comfort, discomfort, stress, distress, and pain (5.1). Discuss categories of pain (5.2). Discuss perception of pain and methods of assessing it in animals (5.3-5.4). Discuss sources of stress and the value of adaptation to the animal (5.5.1). Discuss sources of distress and describe signs of maladaptive behavior (5.5.2-5.6). Discuss the ethical and legal obligations of the scientific staff to prevent or minimize pain and distress, and describe the role of the IACUC (5.7-5.8). Discuss adequate veterinary care as it relates to this issue (5.9).
Anesthetics, Analgesics, Tranquilizers, and Neuromuscular Blocking Agents Estimated Presentation Time: 20-25 minutes
Briefly define and compare anesthetics, analgesics, tranquilizers, sedatives, and neuromuscular blocking agents, including indicators for the use of each (6.1-6.4). Give examples of chemical agents commonly used to achieve general anesthesia, analgesia, sedation, and immobilization (6.1-6.4). Present factors that modify the response of an animal to these agents (6.1.5, 6.5). Describe the stages of general anesthesia and present methods of determining when an animal is sufficiently anesthetized (6.1.6-6.1.7). Describe the indications of an anesthetic overdose and the steps necessary to overcome it (6.1.8). Discuss safety precautions for storing drugs and requirements for recordkeeping (6.6-6.7). Discuss the function of the attending veterinarian, with an emphasis on involving veterinary care staff in drug selection, administration, and monitoring (6.8).
Survival Surgery and Postsurgical Care Estimated Presentation Time: 10-15 minutes
Define aseptic technique, survival surgery, major survival surgery, and minor surgical procedures (7.1). Discuss the legal requirements related to performing surgery on animals (7.2). Briefly describe how the surgical team should prepare for aseptic surgery, including preparation of the animal (7.3). Briefly discuss complications of surgery and ways to prevent them (7.5-7.6). Discuss the importance of postsurgical care and the equipment needed to monitor and support the patient (7.7-7.8). Describe the records that should be kept (7.9).
Euthanasia Estimated Presentation Time: 20-25 minutes
Define euthanasia (8.1). Present legal requirements (8.2). Present ethical and humane considerations (8.3). Discuss the need for sensitivity when euthanasia is performed, emphasizing the public's concerns, the importance of professional conduct, and the effect euthanasia may have on personnel (8.4). Give an overview of pharmacologic and nonpharmacologic options, and provide criteria for selecting a method (8.5-8.7). Discuss health and safety measures associated with handling animal carcasses, particularly those in which the animal is known to have carried a zoonotic agent or to have been exposed to a substance hazardous to personnel (8.8).
Husbandry, Care, and the Importance of the Environment Estimated Presentation Time: 20-25 minutes
Discuss legal requirements for husbandry and care (9.1). Discuss the importance of proper husbandry and a stable environment (9.2). Discuss environmental variables that can be controlled, giving examples of variables that can affect animal health and research outcomes (9.3). Describe procedures for emergencies such as power failures (9.4).
Resources Estimated Presentation Time: 10-15 minutes Recommended Handout: The Animal Welfare Information Center (Appendix I)
Discuss the services of the Animal Welfare Information Center, National Agricultural Library (Appendix I), and other resources (Part IV, section 1). Discuss technical services, reference texts, and audiovisual material available from the laboratory animal resources unit. Provide or explain the mechanism for obtaining copies of pertinent literature.
2
As in the core module, the recommended content of each topic below is cross-referenced to the expanded outlines contained in Part III. The material will be found primarily in Chapter 10 (Species-Specific Overview), with additional material taken from Chapters 8 (Euthanasia) and 9 (Husbandry, Care, and Importance of the Environment).
Selection and Procurement of Animals
Discuss options in selecting appropriate animals for study (10.1). Give sources of information on suppliers of animals (10.2.1). Discuss in detail any legal requirements and institutional policies that relate to procurement of animals (10.2.2).
Husbandry and Care
Review the importance of proper husbandry and a stable environment to research (9.2). Describe in detail laws, regulations, and policies pertaining to husbandry and care, including environmental enrichment (9.1). Review controllable environmental variables (9.3). Describe the advantages and disadvantages of the different types of caging available in your institution (10.3.1.1). Present acceptable population densities for various types of caging and the effects of overcrowding (10.3.1.2). Discuss the use of special caging (10.3.2). Describe available methods of environmental enrichment (10.4). Describe food- and water-delivery methods and diets available in your institution, including information on administering experimental agents in food or water and carrying out approved studies involving food or water deprivation (10.5-10.6).
Handling and Restraint
Explain the importance of proper handling and demonstrate appropriate handling techniques (10.7.1-10.7.2). Compare various methods of restraining animals and give advantages and disadvantages of each (10.7.3). Discuss the following issues related to prolonged restraint, if applicable to the audience: þ Legal requirements and institutional policies (10.7.4.1). þ Selection of method, conditioning of animals, and prevention or correction of problems (10.7.4.2).
Identification and Records
Present the legal requirements for identifying animals and recordkeeping (10.8.1). Compare methods of identifying individual animals (10.8.2). Describe different methods of recordkeeping (10.8.3).
Animal Health
Provide normal physiologic and biochemical parameters for the given species (10.9.1). Discuss the importance of health surveillance and the role of the research team (10.9.2). Describe gross, physiologic, and behavioral signs of distress and disease (10.9.3). List common naturally occurring and experimentally induced diseases (10.9.4-10.9.5). Discuss procedures for emergency or special care (10.9.6).
Safety and Health Considerations (Zoonoses)
Discuss naturally occurring and experimentally induced zoonotic diseases, including signs and symptoms in animals and in humans (10.10.1-10.10.2). Demonstrate the use of protective clothing and equipment and appropriate techniques for handling high-risk animals (10.10.3). Discuss the importance of and mechanisms for reporting incidents.
Specific Techniques
Describe in detail acceptable methods for performing common procedures such as measurement of vital signs, injections, specimen collection, and blood withdrawal, including type and care of instruments.
Describe signs of accuracy and of error associated with each procedure and specify what would be done in case of error.
Present humane and safety considerations associated with such procedures as restraint for the animal or protective clothing for the handler, need for anesthetics and/or analgesics, acceptable frequencies or amounts, signs of distress associated with the procedures, and remedies.
Euthanasia
Present legal and ethical indications for euthanasia (8.2-8.3). Present chemical and physical options, indicating preferred methods and unacceptable methods (8.5-8.7). Discuss the emotional effects of euthanasia on personnel (8.4). Describe in detail your institution's procedure for carcass disposal, with emphasis on potential hazards to people handling carcasses (8.8).
Skill Building
Allow sufficient time for every participant to:
Demonstrate ability to handle and restrain an animal.
Demonstrate ability to determine an animal's sex.
Take vital signs and assess health.
Prepare a syringe for use (e.g., add a needle of
appropriate gauge for the species and material to be injected).
Locate structures or landmarks used to guide
intraperitoneal, intramuscular, and intravenous injections.
Prepare equipment and locate structures associated with
blood withdrawal.
Select a pharmacologic method of euthanasia and calculate
the required dose.
Perform specific procedures that will be used in the
participant's research.
Demonstrate the appropriate handling technique for sterile
instruments and equipment.
Demonstrate use of protective clothing, as applicable to
the participant's needs.
3
The recommended content of each topic below is cross-referenced to the expanded outlines contained in Part III, as explained in the core module. This module draws on the material in Chapters 5 (Pain and Distress), 6 (Anesthetics, Analgesics, Tranquilizers, and Neuromuscular Blocking Agents), and 8 (Euthanasia).
Definitions, Mechanisms, and Assessment
Review definitions of discomfort, stress, distress, and pain, and discuss categories of pain (5.1-5.2). Explain mechanisms by which pain is perceived and present signs that are used to assess whether an animal is in pain (5.3-5.4). Review sources of stress and the value of adaptation to the animal (5.5.1). Review sources of distress and signs of maladaptive behavior (5.5.2-5.6).
Legal and Ethical Obligations
Present in detail ethical and legal obligations for management of pain (5.7-5.8). Review the function of the attending veterinarian (5.9, 6.8).
Alleviation of Pain or Distress
Present nonpharmacologic interventions (5.9.3). Differentiate between functions of anesthetics, tranquilizers and sedatives, analgesics, and neuromuscular blocking agents (paralytics) (6.1-6.4). Provide examples of one or more pharmacologic agents used for tranquilization, muscle relaxation, and immobilization (6.2-6.4). Provide guidelines for selecting and using each of these agents (6.2-6.4). List and discuss factors that modify responses of these agents (6.5). Review safety precautions and recordkeeping requirements (6.6-6.7).
Anesthesia
Provide examples of agents commonly used for general anesthesia and for pretreating the patient (6.1.3-6.1.4). Present in detail dosage principles (6.1.5). Describe the stages of anesthesia and how to assess the plane of anesthesia (6.1.6-6.1.7). Discuss signs of overdose and recommended actions in such cases (6.1.8-6.1.9).
Euthanasia
Review the definition of euthanasia (8.1). Present legal requirements and institutional policies in detail (8.2). Discuss ethical and humane considerations in performing euthanasia (8.3). Discuss the effects that euthanasia can have on personnel, and describe ways to cope with euthanasia-associated stress (8.4). Present the criteria for selecting a method of euthanasia (8.5). Review acceptable pharmacologic methods of euthanasia and list drugs that should never be used alone for euthanasia (8.6). Review acceptable physical methods of euthanasia (8.7). Discuss appropriate methods for disposing of carcasses (8.8).
Skill Building
Every participant should have the opportunity to:
Select appropriate pain-relieving agents for a specific
animal in a specific case.
Calculate and prepare the correct dose.
Simulate administration.
Simulate monitoring of effectiveness.
4
The recommended content of each topic below is cross-referenced to the expanded outlines contained in Part III, as explained in the core module. This module draws primarily on the material in Chapter 7 (Survival Surgery and Postsurgical Care), with additional material taken from Chapter 8 Euthanasia).
Definitions
Define terms necessary for understanding legal requirements for performing surgery on animals (7.1). Legal Requirements for Survival Surgery Cite the legal requirement for training of personnel performing surgery (7.2.1). Discuss the legal requirement for administration of appropriate pain relieving agents, conditions under which withholding of such agents is acceptable, and legal and institutional requirements for justification for withholding such agents (7.2.2). Discuss legal and institutional requirements for pre- and postsurgical care (7.2.3). Discuss approved areas for performing surgery and the surgical facilities available at your institution (7.2.4). Discuss legal limitations for performing multiple major survival surgeries (7.2.5).
Aseptic Technique
Demonstrate preparation of an animal for aseptic surgery (7.3.1). Demonstrate the preparations of a surgical team for aseptic surgery, including scrubbing, gloving, and gowning (7.3.2). Describe preparation of the surgical instruments (7.3.3). Selection and Administration of Anesthetic Review and discuss the types of anesthetics available (6.1.3) and considerations in selecting an anesthetic agent. Review the procedure for inducing anesthesia (6.1.4-6.1.6). Review the stages of anesthesia and criteria for assessing depth of anesthesia (6.1.7-6.1.8). Review the causes of and procedures for dealing with an anesthetic overdose (6.1.9-6.1.10, 7.5.4).
Surgical Complications
Discuss monitoring and control of body temperature and hydration during surgery (7.5.1-7.5.2). Discuss prevention of excess bleeding and how to control hemorrhage if it occurs (7.5.3).
Surgical Techniques
Review pertinent anatomy relevant to common procedures. Introduce surgical instruments and equipment appropriate to given procedures. Discuss important considerations in suturing (7.6).
Postsurgical Care
Describe in detail the care of animals following surgery (7.7). List equipment items that are useful during surgery and in providing postsurgical care (7.8).
Medical Records
Discuss the importance and contents of the surgical records (7.9).
Terminal Surgeries
Review euthanasia options and selected methods (8.5-8.7). Review carcass disposal (8.8).
Skill Building
Present case problems requiring participants to apply the
above principles and procedures to normal situations and
potential crises.
Provide opportunities to observe and participate in
surgical procedures pertinent to need.
Provide opportunities for participants to gain experience
in postsurgical care and monitoring.
III
This section of the guide contains detailed content outlines of the subjects covered in the recommended modules (Part II). The material in the modules is cross-referenced to appropriate subtopics in this section. The number preceding the decimal point indicates the chapter, and the number(s) following the decimal point indicates the place within the chapter that the information appears. Thus, 1.1 indicates the first entry in chapter 1 of part III, and 1.2.1 indicates the first subentry under the second entry in chapter 1.
Content experts asked to deliver information or teach skills should be provided with both the module outline and the corresponding outlines in this section to determine the intended depth of presentation. These outlines can also be used to select alternative instructional materials (e.g., audiovisual, computer-aided, and independent-study). Some sections can also be used as handouts. Permission for limited reproduction of portions of this book for educational purposes, but not for sale, may be granted on receipt of a written request to the National Academy Press, 2101 Constitution Avenue, Washington, DC 20418.
1.1 Federal Regulations and Policies Affecting the Care and Use
of Animals in Research, Testing, and Education
1.1.1 Animal Welfare Regulations (AWRs)
1.1.1.1 Citation: Code of Federal Regulations, Title 9
(Animals and Animal Products), Subchapter A (Animal Welfare),
Parts 1-4 (9 CFR 1-4)
1.1.1.2 Law implemented: U.S. Code, Title 7, Sections 2131 et
seq. (7 USC 2131 et seq.), popularly called the Animal Welfare
Act; most recently amended in 1985 by Public Law (PL) 99-198
1.1.1.3 Enforcing Agency: U.S. Department of Agriculture
(USDA), Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS),
Regulatory Enforcement and Animal Care (REAC)
1.1.1.4 Research institutions to which AWRs are applicable:
All research facilities that use or intend to use live animals
(as defined by the regulations; see 1.1.1.5) in research,
testing, and education
1.1.1.5 Code of Federal Regulations, Title 9, Part 1:
Definition of Terms
Amended regulations became effective October 30, 1989
Includes in the definition of animal any warmblooded
animal used or intended for use in research, testing, or
education except birds; rats of the genus Rattus and mice of the
genus Mus bred for use in research; and horses and other farm
animals used or intended for use in agricultural research and
production
1.1.1.6 Code of Federal Regulations, Title 9, Part 2
Amended regulations became effective October 30, 1989
Subparts A, B, and D-I set rules for dealers, exhibitors,
and owners of auction sales. Describe requirements for licensing
or registration, identification of animals, and recordkeeping;
detail responsibilities of the attending veterinarian; and
prohibit the purchase, sale, use, or transportation of stolen
animals
Subpart C sets rules for research facilities; requires
compliance with standards in Part 3
1.1.1.7 Code of Federal Regulations, Title 9, Part 3
Establishes minimum standards for animal husbandry, care,
treatment, and transportation
Amended regulations published for guinea pigs, hamsters,
and rabbits (APHIS, 1990a)
Proposed rules published for dogs, cats, and nonhuman
primates (APHIS, 1990b)
þ Revise standards for handling, care, treatment, and
transportation of dogs, cats, and nonhuman primates
þ Set standards for exercise and socialization for dogs
þ Set standards for environment enhancement to promote
psychological well-being of nonhuman primates
1.1.1.8 Penalties
Animal Welfare Act (7 USC 2143f; 2149)
þ The institution can be fined up to $2,500 for each
violation of the Animal Welfare Act or the AWRs
þ An order can be issued that the institution cease and
desist violations of the act or the AWRs
þ REAC can request federal funding agencies to suspend or
revoke funding for research facilities that are in violation of
the act or the AWRs
þ REAC can temporarily suspend the licenses of dealers,
exhibitors, or owners of auction sales in violation of the act or
the AWRs
Code of Federal Regulations, Title 9, Part 4: Rules of
Practice
þ Confers authority for adjudicatory proceedings as defined
in CFR, Title 7, Subtitle A, Part 1, Subpart H
þ Gives additional authority for suspending licenses
1.1.2 Public Health Service (PHS) Policy on Humane Care and Use
of Laboratory Animals (PHS, 1986)
1.1.2.1 Description
Intended to ensure that PHS grantees and contractors care
for and use animals humanely
Has been in existence since 1971; underwent major revision
in 1985 and minor revision in 1986
Implements and supplements the U.S. Government Principles
for the Utilization and Care of Vertebrate Animals Used in
Testing, Research, and Training (see Appendix I)
1.1.2.2 Law implemented: U.S. Code, Title 42, Section 289d
(42 USC 289d); was amended in 1985 to cover the care and use
of animals in research by PL 99-158, the Health Research
Extension Act
1.1.2.3 Oversight by the PHS Office of Laboratory Animal Welfare
(OLAW)
1.1.2.4 Activities to which policy is applicable: All
PHS-conducted or supported activities involving the use of
animals; an animal is defined as "any live, vertebrate animal
used or intended for use in research, research training,
experimentation, or biological testing or for related
purposes"
1.1.2.5 Requirements
Compliance with the AWRs and the Guide for the Care and
Use of Laboratory Animals, which was revised most recently in
1985 (NRC, 1985)
A written statement of Assurance, including
þ A description of the animal care and use program
þ The qualifications, authority, and responsibility of the
program's veterinarian(s)
þ A list of members of the institutional animal care and
usecommittee and procedures these members will follow to fulfill
the requirements of PHS policy
þ A summary description of the institution's educational or
training programs in humane animal care and use
þ An assurrance that the institution is accredited by the
American Association for Accreditation of Laboratory Animal Care
or has been evaluated by the institution
1.1.2.6 Penalty for noncompliance: Revocation of Assurance and
loss of PHS support for entire institution
1.1.3 Good Laboratory Practice (GLP) standards
1.1.3.1 Prescribes good laboratory practice in several sections
of the Code of Federal Regulations
40 CFR 792 concerns studies on health effects, environmental
effects, and chemical fate testing of substances regulated by the
Environmental Protection Agency pursuant to 15 USC 2603 et seq.
(Toxic Substances Control Act)
40 CFR 160 concerns studies that support or are intended to
support applications for research or marketing permits for
pesticides regulated by the Environmental Protection Agency
pursuant to 7 USC 136a, 136c, 136f, 1136q, 136v(c) (Federal
Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act) and 21 USC 346a, 348
(Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act)
21 CFR 58 concerns studies that support or are intended to
support applications for research or marketing permits regulated
by the Food and Drug Administration pursuant to 21 USC 406,
408-409, 502-503, 505-507, 510, 512-516, 518-520, 706, 801
(Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act) and 42 USC 351, 354-360F
(Public Health Service Act)
1.1.3.2 Main concern is with reliability of research results
1.1.3.3 Subpart C of each of the GLPs
Requires separate rooms or areas for separation of species,
isolation of individual projects, quarantine, and routine or
specialized housing
Requires, as appropriate, separate rooms or areas for
diagnosis, treatment, and control of diseases
Requires, as needed, storage areas for feed, bedding,
supplies, and equipment
1.1.3.4 Subpart E of each of the GLPs
Requires written standard operating procedures for housing,
feeding, handling, and care of animals
Requires appropriate identification of animals
þ 21 CFR 58.90, was amended effective May 22, 1989
þ Amendment prohibits toe clipping as a means of
identification
Requires extensive recordkeeping on the environment of the
animal rooms
1.2 Selected Requirements of AWRs and PHS Policy
1.2.1 Institutional animal care and use committee (IACUC)
1.2.1.1 Membership
Must be appointed by institution's chief executive officer
Number of members: Chairman and at least two additional
members (9 CFR 2.31); Chairman and at least four additional
members (PHS, 1986)
At least one member must be a doctor of veterinary medicine
with training or experience in laboratory animal science and
medicine and with direct or delegated program responsibility for
activities involving animals (9 CFR 2.31; PHS, 1986)
At least one member must not be affiliated with the facility
other than as a committee member and must not be a member of the
immediate family of anyone affiliated with the institution (9 CFR
2.31; PHS, 1986)
At least one member must be a practicing scientist with
experience in research involving animals (PHS, 1986)
At least one member must be a nonscientist (PHS, 1986)
1.2.1.2 Functions (see also content outline section 4.2)
Reviews semiannually institutional animal facilities and the
institutional program for humane animal care and use and reports
on these reviews to the institutional official
Reviews and approves protocols and modifications to
protocols
Reviews concerns about care and use of animals
Suspends activities found no longer to be in compliance with
the AWRs and PHS policy
Makes recommendations to the responsible institutional
official concerning the animal care and use program, animal
facilities, or personnel training
1.2.2 Training and Instruction
1.2.2.1 Must be made available to all personnel involved in the
care, treatment, and use of species covered by the AWRs and
PHS policy
1.2.2.2 Must include at least the following areas
Humane methods of animal maintenance and experimentation
Methods that limit the use of animals or minimize distress
Proper use of anesthetics, analgesics, and tranquilizers for
any species used by the facility
Methods for reporting deficiencies in care and treatment
Utilization of services, such as the National Agricultural
Library, that provide information that could prevent unintended
or unnecessary duplication of animal research and details about
appropriate methods of animal care and use, alternatives to the
use of live animals in research, and the intent and requirements
of the Animal Welfare Act
1.2.3 Records that facilities must keep
1.2.3.1 Records of the IACUC
Minutes of meetings
Records of applications
Proposed significant changes in animal care and use and
whether approval was given or withheld
Semiannual reports
1.2.3.2 Records on the description, identification, purchase,
sale, transportation, and previous ownership of live dogs and
cats (AWRs)
1.2.3.3 Records of accrediting body determinations (PHS
policy)
1.2.4 Required reports
1.2.4.1 AWRs (9 CFR 2.31, 2.36)
Requires annual report to REAC made by the facility and
certified by the responsible institutional official or the chief
executive officer
þ Must contain assurance that professionally acceptable
standards were followed in care, treatment, and use; that
principal investigators have considered alternatives to painful
procedures; and that the facility is adhering to the standards
and regulations and has IACUC approval for all exceptions
þ Must state the location of all facilities where animals, as
defined by the AWRs, were housed or used
þ Must give the numbers and common names of animals, as
defined by the AWRs, used in nonpainful or nondistressing
procedures, painful or distressing procedures in which
appropriate pain-relieving or tranquilizing drugs were given, and
painful or distressing procedures in which pain-relieving or
tranquilizing drugs were withheld because they would have
interfered with experimental results
þ Must give the numbers and common names of animals, as
defined by the AWRs, bred for use in research, testing, and
education but not yet used for such purposes
Requires prompt notification, with a full explanation, of
any suspended activity
1.2.4.2 PHS policy (PHS, 1986)
Requires annual report to OPRR by the IACUC through the
institutional official
þ Must note significant changes in the institution's programs,
facilities, or animal care and use program
þ Must list changes in IACUC membership
þ Must provide dates of semiannual IACUC evaluations
Requires prompt notification with a full explanation of
þ Any serious or continuing noncompliance with PHS policy or
the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals
þ Any suspension of activity by the IACUC
1.3 State and Local Regulations Affecting the Care and Use of
Animals in Research, Testing, and Education (if applicable)
1.4 Institutional Policies Affecting the Care and Use of
Animals in Research, Testing, and Education
1.4.1 Policies that affect research protocols
1.4.2 Policy on dealing with alleged misconduct
APHIS (Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service). 1990a. 9 CFR Part 3. Animal welfare; guinea pigs, hamsters, and rabbits. Fed. Regist. 55(136):28879-28884.
APHIS (Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service). 1990b. 9 CRF Part 3. Animal welfare; standards; proposed rule. Fed. Regist. 55(158):33448-33531.
Code of Federal Regulations, Title 9 (Animals and Animal Products), Subchapter A (Animal Welfare), Parts 1-3. Available from: Regulatory Enforcement and Animal Care, APHIS, USDA, Federal Building, Room 268, Hyattsville, MD 20782.
Code of Federal Regulations, Title 9 (Animals and Animal Products), Subchapter A (Animals Welfare), Amendments to Part 3. 1990a. Fed. Regist. 55(136):28879-28884.
Code of Federal Regulations, Title 9 (Animals and Animal Products), Subchapter A (Animals Welfare), Proposed amendments to Part 3. 1990b. Fed. Regist. 55(158):33448-33531.
NRC (National Research Council). 1985. Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. A report of the Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources Committee on Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. NIH Pub. No. 86-23. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 83 pp.
PHS (Public Health Service). 1986. Public Health Service Policy on Humane Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 28 pp. Available from: Office of Laboratory Animal Welfare, Building 31, Room 4B09, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892.
2.1 Definitions
2.1.1 Ethics: A discipline within philosophy concerned with the
examination and establishment of criteria for making judgments
concerning value (good and bad) and judgments concerning
responsibility and duty (right and wrong)
2.1.2 Applied ethics: Ethical reflection, as defined above,
applied to a specific area of concern, e.g., the use of
laboratory animals
2.2 Conceptual Framework for Ethical Decisions (Robb, 1989)
2.2.1 A framework provides a method or formal structure for
making decisions
2.2.2 Utilitarian or teleological ethical approach to decision
making
2.2.2.1 Involves risk/benefit analysis; the best action is
determined by the effects of the action in a particular
circumstance or on the effects on all concerned (the social
utility of the action)
2.2.2.2 Can be used by both animal-rights and animal-use
advocates
2.2.2.3 Is too often based on short-term rather than long-term
effects
2.2.3 Deontological ethical approach to decision making
2.2.3.1 Determines an action by comparison with a highest duty
(e.g., respect for dignity, beneficience, justice) or with
universal moral obligations derived from cultural or religious
principles
2.2.3.2 Is used primarily by animal-rights advocates
2.2.3.3 By definition, ignores the short- and long-term
consequences of an action; however, in actual experience,
moral principles have exceptions. It is important that the
person who presents the issues discussed in this chapter
emphasizes the need for tolerance of differing points of view.
2.3 Arguments Used by Those Advocating the Humane Use of
Animals for Human Purposes (Caplan, 1984)
2.3.1 Research with animals has made possible the advancement
of knowledge in the medical and veterinary sciences in ways
that otherwise would not have been possible (NRC, 1988)
2.3.1.1 Benefits of basic research
2.3.1.2 Benefits to health and welfare of humans and animals
2.3.2 Society accepts the idea of a hierarchy of species in
its attitude toward other animal species (NRC, 1988, p. 16)
2.3.3 Humankind has the moral responsibility to enhance the
well-being of other humans and also the moral duty to use
wisely and prudently all resources that nature provides,
including the use of animals for good purposes
2.4 Arguments Used by Animal-Rights Advocates (Singer, 1975;
Regan, 1983)
2.4.1 Animals are intelligent and sentient beings, with
feelings not too unlike our own
2.4.2 Animals have inherent value and have a right to fulfill
their destiny as independent beings
2.4.3 As independent beings, they are "subjects-of-a-life,"
that is, they have desires and intentions that should be
respected
2.4.4 Therefore, humankind has no right to exploit them for
human purposes because this violates their integrity as
separate species
2.5 The Role of Laws, Regulations, and Policies
2.5.1 Function to prescribe common standards that prevent the
abuse of humane standards for the care of animals
2.5.2 Recent policies and guidelines have refined earlier
standards and have had a salutary effect on the well-being of
laboratory animals
2.6 Suggested Ethical Principles (See U.S. Government
Principles for the Utilization and Care of Vertebrate Animals
Used in Testing, Research, and Training; Appendix I)
2.6.1 Design procedures relevant to the improvement of health,
advancement of knowledge, or good of society (Principle II)
2.6.2 Use appropriate models and consider alternatives
(Principle III)
2.6.3 Avoid or minimize pain and distress (Principle IV)
2.6.4 When painful procedures are necessary, use appropriate
sedation, analgesia, or anesthesia (Principle V)
2.6.5 Humanely kill animals that would suffer severe or chronic
pain (Principle VI)
2.6.6 If an exception to these principles is necessary, it
should be assessed and approved by a review group such as the
institutional animal care and use committee (Principle IX)
Caplan, A.L. 1984. Beastly conduct: Ethical issues in animal experimentation. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 406:159-169.
NRC (National Research Council). 1988. Benefits derived from the use of animals. Pp. 27-37 in Use of Laboratory Animals in Biomedical and Behavioral Research. A report of the Commission on Life Sciences and Institute of Medicine Committee on the Use of Laboratory Animals in Biomedical and Behavioral Research. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Regan, T. 1983. The Case for Animal Rights. Berkeley: University of California Press. 425 pp.
Robb, J.W. 1989. A Medical Ethics Primer. ILAR News 31(4):21-27.
Singer, P. 1975. Animal Liberation. A New Ethics for Our Treatment of Animals. New York: Avon Books. 297 pp.
3.1 Definitions
3.1.1 Alternatives (Russell and Burch, l959)
3.1.1.1 Replacement: Substitution of insentient material for
animals or substitution of a lower species, which might be
less sensitive to pain and distress, for a higher species
3.1.1.2 Reduction: Reduction in the numbers of animals used to
obtain information of a certain amount and precision
3.1.1.3 Refinement: Decrease in the incidence or severity of
pain and distress in those animals that are used
3.1.2 Biomedical model: A surrogate system, either animate or
inanimate, that mimics or is predictive about a biologic
process or condition of interest
3.2 Rationale for Considering Alternatives
3.2.1 Regulatory
3.2.1.1 AWRs (9 CFR 2)
Principal investigators must consider alternatives to any
procedure likely to produce pain or distress
Assurance that alternatives have been considered must be
presented in the institution's annual report and when the
institution is inspected by the USDA
Training must be provided by the institution on research or
testing methods that minimize or eliminate the use of animals or
limit their pain or distress
The National Agricultural Library, in cooperation with the
National Library of Medicine, must provide information that could
prevent unintended duplication of experiments and that could
reduce or replace the use of animals
3.2.1.2 PHS policy: Institutions must give assurances
satisfactory to the director of NIH that they are making
available to scientists, animal technicians, and other
personnel instruction or training on availability and use of
research or testing methods that limit the use of animals or
limit pain and distress (PHS, 1986)
3.2.1.3 Institutional policy
Animal care and use protocol form requirements
Review and approval of protocols by the institutional animal
care and use committee
3.2.2 Ethical
3.2.2.1 Do the potential results of the project justify its
likely effects on the animal? (Tannenbaum, 1989)
3.2.2.2 Is the species endangered or threatened?
3.2.3 Humane (OTA, 1986)
3.2.3.1 Can procedures be modified to prevent or minimize pain
and distress?
3.2.3.2 Can analgesics, anesthetics, tranquilizers, or
sedatives be used to provide relief from pain and distress?
3.2.3.3 Can a less sensitive species be used?
3.2.4 Economic
3.2.4.1 What are the costs to purchase, house, and care for
the animals?
3.2.4.2 What are the costs for equipment and supplies for a
nonanimal model?
3.2.4.3 What is the cost for a noninvasive technique such as
ultrasound or magnetic resonance imaging?
3.2.4.4 Have nonanimal alternatives been used to screen
compounds for efficacy, thus reducing the number of compounds
that require testing in animals?
3.2.5 Scientific
3.2.5.1 Does the model reliably and accurately reproduce the
process or characteristic being studied?
3.2.5.2 Is the model readily available to other researchers?
3.2.5.3 Is the model well characterized in the literature?
3.3 Nonanimal Research Methods and Models
3.3.1 Literature Search
3.3.1.1 Can be used to avoid unnecessary duplication of
research
3.3.1.2 Can provide a scientific basis for choice of model
3.3.2 Epidemiological Research: Can be used to understand the
frequency, distribution, and cause of disease, both infectious
and noninfectious, in a given population
3.3.3 Human Subject Research: If morally and legally
acceptable, safe, noninvasive methods to test human subjects
can replace the use of animals
3.3.4 Cell, tissue, and organ culture systems: Systems derived
from humans or animals and then maintained and propagated
replace the need to experiment on living animals or reduce the
number of animals used
3.3.5 Chemical analysis: Radiological binding assays and
radioimmunoassays can be substituted for bioassays
3.3.6 Microbiological systems
3.3.6.1 Ames mutagenicity/carcinogenicity test, which uses
Salmonella typhi murium
3.3.6.2 Recombinant DNA studies of gene control using
Escherichia coli
3.3.7 Plants: Yeasts, in particular, have been used
extensively to study basic molecular mechanisms of interest to
cellular and molecular biologists and virologists
3.3.8 Mathematical Systems
3.3.8.1 Statistical design
Should be applied to all animal research protocols
Can lead to increases or decreases in the number of animals
required in a protocol
Includes consideration of factors such as statistical power,
randomization, and compounding variables
3.3.8.2 Computer modeling and analysis
Computers can be used to study molecular structure and
activity relationships
Models are based on in vivo data expressed in a mathematical
equation where parameters can be manipulated to simulate a
biological effect
In vivo systems are required to validate conclusions
3.4 Factors Influencing Model Selection
3.4.1 Scientific considerations (Animal Alternatives Study Task
Force, 1988).
3.4.1.1 Relevancy: Models must have one or more features that
resemble the original system
3.4.1.2 Reliability: Models must allow investigators to obtain
consistent, reproducible results
3.4.1.3 Simplicity: Simpler models usually provide fewer
variables than a whole human or animal and reduce the
complexity that can obsure understanding of a specific process
3.4.1.4 Accessibility: Models must be readily available to the
research community and permit manipulation using contemporary
technology
3.4.2 Ethical considerations
3.4.2.1 Safety of research personnel and human subjects
3.4.2.2 Conservation of species
3.4.2.3 Humane care and use of animals
3.4.3 Economic considerations
3.4.3.1 Purchase of animals
3.4.3.2 Animal maintenance (food, caging, labor)
3.4.3.3 Supplies, equipment, facilities, and labor for the
conduct of animal research
3.4.3.4 Time required to perform studies
3.5 Utilization of Services
3.5.1 Extramural
3.5.1.1 National Agricultural Library (see Appendix II)
3.5.1.2 Centers for alternatives
Johns Hopkins Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing (see
Part IV, section 1)
Rockefeller University Laboratory for In Vitro Toxicologic
Assay Development
Fund for the Replacement of Animals in Medical Experiments
(FRAME)
3.5.1.3 Publications on alternatives (see Part IV, section 2)
3.5.2 Intramural
3.5.2.1 Laboratory animal resources staff
3.5.2.2 Library
Animal Alternatives Study Task Force. 1988. Report of the Animal Alternatives Study Task Force. Berkeley, CA: University of California. 54 pp. plus appendixes. Available from: Office of the President, University of California, Berkeley, CA.
Code of Federal Regulations, Title 9 (Animals and Animal Products), Subchapter A (Animal Welfare), Parts 1-3. Copies available from: Animal Care Staff, Regulatory Enforcement and Animal Care, Federal Building, Room 268, Hyattsville, MD 20782.
OTA (Office of Technology Assessment). 1986. Alternatives to Animal Use in Research, Testing, and Education. Publ. No. OTA-BA-273. Washington, DC: U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment. 441 pp.
PHS (Public Health Service). 1986. Public Health Service Policy on Humane Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 28 pp. Copies available from: Office of Laboratory Animal Welfare, Building 31, Room 4B09, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892
Russell, W.M.S. and R.L. Burch. 1959. Principles of Humane Experimental Technique. Springfield, Ill.: Charles C. Thomas. 238 pp.
Tannenbaum, J. 1989. The veterinarian and animal research. Pp. 312-341 in Veterinary Ethics. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins.
4.1 Responsibilities of the Institution
4.1.1 Establishes lines of authority and responsibility
4.1.1.1 Chief executive officer
4.1.1.2 Institutional official, if different from the chief
executive officer (see 9 CFR 1.1; PHS, 1986, part III)
4.1.1.3 Animal resource director, if different from the
attending veterinarian
4.1.1.4 Attending veterinarian (see 9 CFR 1.1, 2.33)
4.1.1.5 Facility manager: Clarify reporting relationship to
institutional official and/or animal resource director
4.1.1.6 Principal investigator
4.1.1.7 Research staff
4.1.1.8 Others, as appropriate to the institution
4.1.2 Establishes and disseminates institutional policy
4.1.2.1 Policy on care and use of animals: Discuss the
institution's commitment to
An environment conducive to high-quality research, humane
treatment of animals, and safety of personnel
Compliance with federal, state, and local laws, regulations,
and policies
4.1.2.2 Policy for dealing with alleged misconduct
4.1.3 Provides appropriate facilities for animal housing and
care
4.1.4 Guarantees sufficient sources of resources to support key
personnel and facilities
4.1.5 Appoints the members of the institutional animal care and
use committee (see also 1.2.1)
4.1.6 Ensures that all scientists, research technicians, animal
care technicians, and other personnel involved in the care and
use of animals are qualified to perform their duties (see 9
CFR 2.32)
4.1.6.1 Provides training in the following areas:
Humane methods of animal care and use
The concept, availability, and use of research or testing
methods that reduce the use of animals or minimize pain and
distress
Proper use of anesthetics, analgesics, and tranquilizers
Mechanisms by which deficiencies in animal care and
treatment should be reported
Use of information services and resources
4.1.6.2 Periodically reviews qualifications of personnel
4.1.7 Endeavors to build public confidence in animal research
4.2 Responsibilities of the Institutional Animal Care and Use
Committee (IACUC)
4.2.1 Reviews and approves activities in which animals will be
used
4.2.1.1 Ensures that experiments are justifiable on a
scientific basis
4.2.1.2 Ensures that new activities and proposed significant
changes in ongoing activities are in compliance with federal
regulations and policies (see 9 CFR 2.31; PHS, 1986, part
IV-C)
Procedures must comply with the requirement to avoid or
minimize pain, discomfort, and distress
Principal investigators must have considered alternatives to
procedures that could cause more than momentary or slight pain or
distress
Principal investigators must provide written assurance that
the activities do not unnecessarily duplicate previous
experiments
Procedures that will cause more than momentary or slight
pain and distress:
þ Must be performed with appropriate sedatives, analgesics, or
anesthetics unless withholding such agents is justified
scientifically
þ Must involve consultation with the attending veterinarian
þ Must not include the use of paralytics without anesthesia
Animals that will experience severe or chronic pain or
distress that cannot be relieved must be painlessly killed at the
end of the procedure or, if it will not interfere with research
results, during the procedure
Living conditions must be appropriate for the species of
animal and contribute to the health and comfort of the animals
Sick animals must receive appropriate medical care provided
by a qualified veterinarian
Personnel conducting procedures on animals must be
appropriately qualified and trained in these procedures
All survival surgery must be performed using aseptic
procedures, and appropriate pre- and postoperative care must be
provided
Major surgical procedures on all animals except rodents must
be performed in facilities intended for that purpose
Animals must not be used in more than one major surgical
procedure from which they are allowed to recover unless such use
is
þ Justified for scientific reasons in writing
þ Required to protect the health or well-being of the animal
as determined by the attending veterinarian
þ A special circumstance approved by the administrator of the
Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, U.S. Department of
Agriculture
Methods of euthanasia must be in compliance with federal
regulations and policies
4.2.1.3 Conducts continuing reviews of ongoing activities at
appropriate intervals, but not less than annually
4.2.1.4 Suspends activities not conducted in accordance with
IACUC-approved protocols
4.2.2 Evaluates the institutional program for humane care and
use of animals and inspects all animal facilities at least
once every 6 months (see 9 CFR 2.31; PHS, 1986, part IV-B)
4.2.2.1 Prepares a report on the findings of each evaluation
and inspection, including all minority opinions, and submits
its report to the institutional official
Points out areas in which the institution does not adhere to
AWRs and distinguishes significant from minor deficiencies
Includes a plan and schedule for correcting the deficiencies
4.2.2.2 Reviews and, if warranted, investigates allegations of
noncompliance
4.2.2.3 Makes recommendations on the animal program, animal
facilities, and personnel training to the institutional
official
4.3 Responsiblities of the Investigator (The term investigator
is used broadly to designate those people responsible for the
scientific aspects of projects that use animals in research,
testing, or teaching)
4.3.1 Designs experiments
4.3.1.1 Selects the appropriate species, model, animal
quality, and source; consults with a statistician to determine
the minimum number of animals required for valid data analysis
4.3.1.2 Considers previous work done in the area of study,
using resources such as databases of the National Agricultural
Library and National Library of Medicine
Considers possible alternatives to living animals as
subjects
Ensures that studies will not unnecessarily duplicate
previous experiments
4.3.1.3 Establishes procedures and environments that minimize
internal and external influences on experimental animals
4.3.1.4 Avoids, prevents, or minimizes animal discomfort,
distress, and pain, consistent with sound scientific practice
4.3.1.5 Uses appropriate endpoints for studies and acceptable
procedures for euthanasia
4.3.1.6 Conducts all research in accordance with protocols
approved by the IACUC
4.3.1.7 Procures all laboratory animals in accordance with
federal and institutional regulations and policies
4.3.1.8 Maintains adequate records
4.3.2 Ensures staff qualifications and training
4.3.2.1 Recruits personnel qualified by background and
temperament to work with animals
4.3.2.2 Orients personnel to the facility and the scientific
study
4.3.2.3 Requires that staff members demonstrate skill with the
techniques and procedures involved; provides training as
needed
4.3.2.4 Ensures that staff members are able to recognize signs
of disease and distress in animals and know to whom to report
any such signs
4.3.2.5 Provides or identifies continuing education programs
for staff and encourages participation in such programs
4.3.3 Provides for health and safety of personnel
4.3.3.1 Ensures that staff have had instruction and training
about zoonotic diseases, allergies to animals, occupational
health programs, and disease prevention
4.3.3.2 Ensures that staff have received detailed instructions
on proper procedures for using hazardous substances, including
the requirement for protective clothing appropriate for the
species of animal and the protocol
4.3.4 Makes provisions for dealing with job-related stress
(see also 8.4)
4.3.4.1 Identifies activities and procedures that might be
stressful to personnel, including euthanasia, long-term
studies, and studies using animals generally regarded as pets
4.3.4.2 Provides opportunities for stress-reduction training
for all employees involved in high-stress activities
4.3.4.3 Gives particular attention to reducing stress in
inexperienced, naive, and highly emotional employees before
and during studies
4.3.5 Maintains a scholarly, sensitive, and respectful
environment and behaves in a professional manner
4.3.6 Endeavors to build public confidence in animal research
4.3.6.1 Provides a lay-language description of studies and
procedures for the IACUC and for other institutional purposes
4.3.6.2 Might participate in community programs to promote
understanding of the need for and role of animals in research,
testing, and teaching
4.4 Responsibilities of the Attending Veterinarian (see 9 CFR
2.33)
4.4.1 If so designated by the institution, directs the housing,
feeding, and nonmedical care of experimental animals
4.4.2 If so appointed by the institution, serves as a voting
member of the IACUC
4.4.3 Ensures the provision of adequate veterinary care for
experimental animals
4.4.3.1 Establishes appropriate programs to prevent, control,
diagnose, and treat diseases and injuries
4.4.3.2 Ensures that appropriate pre- and postprocedural care
will be provided in accordance with established veterinary
medical and nursing procedures
4.4.3.3 Ensures that emergency, weekend, and holiday care will
be provided
4.4.3.4 Ensures that animals will be observed daily to assess
their health and well-being and to ensure that problems are
reported quickly
4.4.4 Provides guidance to principal investigators and other
personnel regarding animal handling, immobilization,
anesthesia, analgesia, tranquilization, and euthanasia
Code of Federal Regulations, Title 9 (Animals and Animal Products), Subchapter A (Animal Welfare), Parts 1-3. Copies available from: Animal Care Staff, Regulatory Enforcement and Animal Care, Federal Building, Room 268, Hyattsville, MD 20782.
PHS (Public Health Service). 1986. Public Health Service Policy on Humane Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 28 pp. Copies available from: Office of Laboratory Animal Welfare, Building 31, Room 4B09, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892
5.1 Definitions
5.1.1 Comfort: A state of physiologic and behavioral
homeostasis in which the animal has adapted to its environment
and shows normal feeding, drinking, and grooming patterns;
social interactions; sleep/wake cycles; and reproductive
activity (NRC, in press)
5.1.2 Discomfort: A minimal change in an animal's adaptive
level or state of homeostasis as a result of changes in its
environment or because of biologic, physical, social, or
psychologic alterations (NRC, in press)
5.1.3 Stress: The effect produced by external (e.g., physical
and environmental) events or internal (e.g., physiologic or
psychologic) factors that are referred to as stressors and
that induce an alteration in an animal's homeostatic or
adaptive state (NRC, in press)
5.1.4 Distress: An inferred aversive state based on a variety
of behavioral, physiologic, and psychologic indices of an
animal's inability to adapt to the effect of stressors and the
attendant stress (NRC, in press)
5.1.5 Pain
5.1.5.1 The sensation (perception) resulting from nerve
impulses reaching the cerebral cortex via specific neural
pathways (nociceptive pathways) (AVMA, 1986)
The term nociceptive is derived from Latin words meaning
"hurtful stimulus"
Noxious stimuli damage or destroy tissue or have the
potential to do so
Noxious stimuli initiate nerve impulses by acting on a
specific set of receptors called nociceptors
Nociceptors respond to excessive mechanical, thermal, or
chemical stimuli
5.1.5.2 An unpleasant sensory or emotional experience
associated with potential or actual tissue damage (Mersky,
1986)
5.2 Categories of Pain (AVMA, 1986)
5.2.1 Sensory-Discriminative: Provides sensory information
about the intensity, duration, and location of a stimulus
causing pain
5.2.2 Motivational-Affective: Provides affective information
about the severity and quality of a stimulus causing pain
5.3 Pain Perception
5.3.1 Range: From pain detection threshold through upper limit
of pain tolerance
5.3.1.1 Pain detection threshold: That point at which pain is
first perceived during noxious stimulation
Minimal pain, not associated with stress or distress (Wolff,
1978)
Same in animals and in humans (Vierck, 1976; Zimmerman,
1984; Kitchell, 1987)
5.3.1.2 Pain tolerance
Limit of tolerance to noxious stimuli
Varies between individuals and between species
5.3.2 Duration
5.3.2.1 Acute pain
Short duration
Occurs after injury or early in illness
Plays protective role, warning the body about injury
5.3.2.2 Chronic pain
Longer duration than acute pain
Does not serve protective role
5.3.3 Pain is perceived only if the cerebral cortex and
subcortical structures are functional; it is not perceived if
these structures are rendered nonfunctional (e.g., by hypoxia,
drugs, electrical shock, concussion, surgical intervention)
5.3.4 Pain can be perceived even though noxious stimuli do not
elicit body movements (e.g., if a muscle-paralyzing drug such
as succinylcholine is administered)
5.4 Assessment of Pain (AVMA, 1986)
5.4.1 Must be based primarily on observations of abnormal
behavioral and physiologic responses that demonstrate anxiety
and fear (e.g., distress vocalization, struggling, stumbling,
escape activity, defensive aggression or freezing, muscular
tremors, pupillary dilation, salivation, reflex urination and
defecation, panting and sweating, tachycardia)
5.4.2 Stimuli that evoke a pain response in a conscious animal
might elicit only reflex responses in an unconscious animal;
therefore, nonpurposeful movements are not reliable indicators
of pain perception
5.5 Stress (NRC, in press)
5.5.1 Stress as an adaptive processs
5.5.1.1 Stress is not always abnormal or harmful to well-being
May result from environmental alterations that are not
harmful and may initiate responses leading to beneficial effects
Stressors are common in the natural environment; a captive
animal that has not experienced some stress is quite different
behaviorally and physiologically from the typical members of its
species
5.5.1.2 Response to short-term stress
Animal attempts to adapt behaviorally and/or physiologically
Usually no long-term effects
Introduction of novel stimuli (e.g., exposure to new
handling techniques) into the laboratory animal's environment may
teach it to adapt more easily to changes that may occasionally
occur
5.5.1.3 Acute stress response
Generally of shorter duration than maladaptive stress
(distress) responses
Causes atypical but not maladaptive behavior under the
circumstances (e.g., chairing an unadapted nonhuman primate)
Important from perspective of both animals and research
5.5.2 Stress as a maladaptive process
5.5.2.1 Stress becomes harmful when an animal cannot adapt to a
stressor
5.5.2.2 Stress leading to maladaptive behavior and distress
Unrelieved pain (e.g., injury, surgery, experimental)
Anxiety and fear
Social deprivation
Boredom
Inappropriate housing or husbandry practices
Experimental design
5.6 Distress (NRC, in press)
5.6.1 The relationship between the presence of stress and the
process by which an animal proceeds from a state of comfort or
discomfort to one of distress poses the same questions that
arise whenever one attempts to relate physiologic processes to
subjective experience
5.6.2 Response to prolonged stress
5.6.2.1 Maladaptive behaviors: Abnormal feeding and
postprandial grooming, inappropriate interaction with cohorts
or handlers (e.g., aggression, passivity, withdrawal),
inefficient reproduction, stereotypic behavior (?)
May become permanent part of animal's behavioral repertoire
Become more maladaptive as the state of distress becomes
more extreme or excessive
5.6.2.2 Pathologic conditions (e.g., gastric and intestinal
lesions, hypertension, immunosuppression)
5.7 Ethical Obligations
5.7.1 Principle of nonmaleficence: Cause no unnecessary pain
or distress
5.7.2 Principle of beneficence: Be kind whenever possible
5.7.3 Procedures selected in designing a study should be based
on predictibility of outcome
5.7.4 To predict outcome, use as comparisons examples with
documented characteristics related to the presence or absence
of pain and/or distress (Ad Hoc Committee on Animal Research,
1988)
5.8 Legal Obligations (Overseen by the Institutional Animal
Care and Use Committee)
5.8.1 Scientific procedures must avoid or minimize discomfort,
distress, and pain (9 CFR 2.31), consistent with sound
research design (PHS, 1986)
5.8.2 Principal investigators must have considered alternatives
to procedures that might cause more than momentary or slight
pain or distress (9 CFR 2.31)
5.8.3 Appropriate sedation, analgesia, or anesthesia must be
used for procedures that can cause more than momentary or
slight pain or distress to the animals, unless withholding
such agents is justified for scientific reasons and those
reasons are stated in writing (9 CFR 2.31; PHS, 1986)
5.8.4 Potentially painful and distressful procedures must be
planned in consultation with the attending veterinarian (9 CFR
2.31)
5.8.5 Neuromuscular blocking agents (paralytics) must not be
used without anesthesia when performing painful or distressful
procedures (9 CFR 2.31, NRC, 1985; PHS, 1986)
5.8.6 Euthanasia must be performed at the end of a procedure
or, if possible, during a procedure in which animals
experience severe or chronic pain or distress that cannot be
relieved (9 CFR 2.31; PHS, 1986)
5.9 Adequate Veterinary Care
5.9.1 Veterinary staff must be able to recognize and advise
scientific staff on signs of pain or distress in animals
5.9.2 Veterinary staff must be familiar with and advise
scientific staff on appropriate interventions for relief of
pain or distress
5.9.2.1 Pharmacologic interventions (pain and pain-induced
distress)
Chemical interventions vary significantly between species,
by dose, and by route of administration
Analgesics temporarily abolish awareness of pain without
loss of consciousness, although their mechanism of action in
animals is not yet clearly defined
Tranquilizers and sedatives can be used to prevent or
diminish distress
Anesthetics block perception of pain
Neurosurgical lesions block perception of pain
5.9.2.2 Nonpharmacologic interventions (distress not induced
by pain)
Rearrangements in social groupings may alleviate stressful
conditions
Addition of bedding material might increase physical comfort
Gentle handling might decrease distress
Adaptation to experimental situation before start of study
might decrease stress
Ad Hoc Committee on Animal Research. 1988. Appendix I: Types of experiments. Pp. Ia-Ic in New York Academy of Sciences Interdisciplinary Principles and Guidelines for the Use of Animals in Research, Testing, and Education. New York: New York Academy of Sciences.
American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA) Panel on Euthanasia. 1986. 1986 Report of the AVMA Panel on Euthanasia. J. Am. Vet. Med Assoc. 188:252-268.
Code of Federal Regulations, Title 9 (Animals and Animal Products), Subchapter A (Animal Welfare), Parts 1-3. Copies available from: Animal Care Staff, Regulatory Enforcement and Animal Care, Federal Building, Room 268, Hyattsville, MD 20782.
Kitchell, R.L. 1987. Problems in defining pain and peripheral mechanisms of pain. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 191:1195-1199.
Mersky, H. 1979. Pain terms: A list with definitions and notes on usage. Pain 6:249-250.
NRC (National Research Council). 1985. Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. A report of the Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources Committee on Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. NIH Pub. No. 86-23. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 83 pp.
NRC (National Research Council). In press. Recognition and Alleviation of Pain and Distress in Laboratory Animals. A report of the Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources Committee on Pain and Distress in Laboratory Animals. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
PHS (Public Health Service). 1986. Public Health Service Policy on Humane Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 28 pp. Copies available from: Office of Laboratory Animal Welfare, Building 31, Room 4B09, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892.
Vierck, C.J. 1976. Extrapolations from the pain research literature to problems of adequate veterinary care. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 168:510-513.
Wolff, B.B. 1978. Behavioural measurement of human pain. Pp. 129-168 in The Psychology of Pain, R.A. Sternbach, ed. New York: Raven Press.
Zimmerman, M. 1984. Neurobiological concepts of pain, its assessment and therapy. Pp. 15-35 in Pain Measurement in Man: Neurophysiological Correlates of Pain, B. Bromm, ed. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
6.1 General Anesthetics (Lumb and Jones, 1984)
6.1.1 Definition: Substances that produce, in a controllable
manner, a drug-induced absence of perception of all sensation
(Marshall and Longnecker, 1990)
6.1.2 Functional Use: To produce unconsciousness, analgesia,
and muscle relaxation sufficient to perform procedures
painlessly
6.1.3 Classification
6.1.3.1 Injectable: Agents such as the barbiturates (e.g.,
sodium pentobarbital)
Effects of these agents cannot be reversed quickly
Drug must be metabolized, excreted, or counteracted by
another drug to terminate anesthetic action
6.1.3.2 Inhalant: Volatile agents (e.g., methoxyflurane,
halothane)
Effects of these agents can be reversed quickly
Animal's expiration eliminates agent when administration is
discontinued
6.1.3.3 Dissociative: Agents that depress the central nervous
system (CNS) and produce a state of catalepsy (e.g., ketamine,
phencyclidine)
Have strong analgesic properties in some species
When used alone, procedures are usually limited to minor
surgery
Most effective when combined with tranquilizers and
sedatives (e.g., xylazine, acetylpromazine maleate, diazepam)
The report of the Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources
Committee on Pain and Distress in Laboratory Animals entitled
Recognition and Alleviation of Pain and Distress in Laboratory
Animals, which is in press, will provide details on drug actions,
drug doses, and species variability.
Produce seizures and clonic tonic muscle contractions in
some species
6.1.4 Pretreatment of patient
6.1.4.1 Anticholinergics such as atropine reduce salivation and
bradycardia
6.1.4.2 Tranquilizers such as acetylpromazine calm the animal
and facilitate restraint
6.1.4.3 Sedatives such as xylazine depress the CNS
6.1.5 Dosage principles for general anesthesia6.1.5.1 Evaluate the physical condition of the animal to
ensure the absence of any disease condition that might
compromise the animal's health during anesthesia
6.1.5.2 Administer to effect
6.1.5.3 Calculate dose by body weight, taking animal's age
into account
6.1.5.4 Allow for variations in response to agent between
species and between individuals of the same species because of
differences that can occur in absorption and biotransformation
6.1.5.5 Pretreat with tranquilizers or sedatives, when
appropriate, to decrease the amount of anesthetic needed
6.1.6 General Considerations
6.1.6.1 When possible, a new anesthetic regimen should be
tested in a limited number of animals before depending on it
for surgical or other painful procedures in a research
protocol
6.1.6.2 The health of animal should be considered in selecting
an anesthetic
6.1.6.3 The level of CNS depression should be the minimum that
is necessary to perform the procedure, compatible with the
animal's welfare
6.1.6.4 The effect of anesthesia on the validity of
experimental results and the interaction of anesthesia with
other drugs in the experimental protocol must be considered
6.1.6.5 Basic equipment to ensure adequate ventilation should
be available
6.1.6.6 Body heat must be conserved, especially in small and
young animals
6.1.6.7 Whenever possible, a warm, balanced electrolyte
solution should be administered by intravenous drip throughout
the surgical procedure to help maintain normal hemodynamics
6.1.6.8 The anesthetist is responsibile for the animal's
welfare until the animal has normal cardiopulmonary function
and is able to maintain itself in sternal recumbency
6.1.6.9 Consideration must be given to the safety of personnel
in the area where anesthetic gases will be administered and,
if necessary, a gas-scavenging system must be provided
6.1.7 Stages of general anesthesia
6.1.7.1 Stage I
Stage of analgesia or voluntary movement
Duration: From onset of administration to loss of
consciousness
6.1.7.2 Stage II
Stage of delirium or involuntary movement
Duration: From loss of consciousness to onset of regular
pattern of breathing
6.1.7.3 Stage III
Stage of surgical anesthesia
Characterized by unconsciousness; a progressive depression
of cardio pulmonary function; a progressive depression of
reflexes, including vomiting and swallowing reflexes; and
muscular relaxation
Divided into planes 1 through 4, where plane 1 is light,
planes 2 and 3 are medium, and plane 4 is deep anesthesia
6.1.7.4 Stage IV
Characterized by extreme CNS depression
Death ensues quickly unless resuscitative steps are taken
6.1.8 Evaluation of effects
6.1.8.1 Test reflexes (e.g., pedal and palpebral reflexes) and
the tone of the jaw and anal sphincter muscles (reflexes are
absent and muscle tone is relaxed during anesthesia)
6.1.8.2 Monitor depth and rate of respiration (increase in
depth and decrease in rate signify anesthesia)
6.1.8.3 Monitor heart rate (slowing indicates anesthesiaþan
increase in rate during the procedure often indicates that the
depth of anesthesia is not adequate and the animal is feeling
pain)
6.1.8.4 Monitor body temperature and maintain at normal levels
(temperature falls in anesthesia, especially in small species)
6.1.9 Indications of anesthetic overdose
6.1.9.1 Pulse is weak to imperceptible
6.1.9.2 Blood pressure is reduced to shock level
6.1.9.3 Cardiac dysrhythmias may occur
6.1.9.4 Capillary refill time progressively slows to 3 or more
seconds
6.1.9.5 Respiration is slow and irregular, becomes
diaphragmatic, or may cease
6.1.9.6 Mucous membrane and skin colors may be pale to
cyanotic
6.1.9.7 Cardiovascular, CNS, musculoskeletal,
gastrointestinal, and ocular reflexes are greatly diminished
or cease
6.1.10 Intervention for anesthetic overdose
6.1.10.1 Mechanically ventilate with oxygen
6.1.10.2 Administer isotonic fluids intravenously or
intraperitoneally
6.1.10.3 Warm animal to increase body temperature
6.1.10.4 Administer antidote, if one exists
6.2 Tranquilizers and Sedatives (Gleed, 1987)
6.2.1 Definition
6.2.1.1 Substances that reduce the anxiety and stress that an
animal may experience when it is handled
6.2.1.2 Distinction between tranquilizers and sedatives is
mainly semantic, except that increased doses of tranquilizers
tend to produce side effects without loss of consciousness,
whereas increased doses of sedatives produce a profound CNS
depression resembling anesthesia
6.2.2 Functional uses
6.2.2.1 Chemical restraint
6.2.2.2 Preanesthetic medication to reduce amount of
anesthetic required
6.2.3 Functional characteristics
6.2.3.1 Except for the thiazine derivatives (e.g., xylazine,
detomidine), there is no significant analgesic activity
6.2.3.2 Increased stimulation (e.g., noise) usually reverses
calming effects
6.2.3.3 When used as preanesthetics:
Ample time should be allowed to achieve the maximum effect
before inducing anesthesia
Recovery from general anesthesia is generally smoother
6.2.3.4 All share the characteristics listed above, but each
drug or group of drugs has its own pharmacologic properties
and contraindications
6.2.4 Classifications of tranquilizers (ataratics or
neuroleptics)
6.2.4.1 Phenothiazines (e.g., acetylpromazine)
6.2.4.2 Butyrophenones (e.g., azaperone, droperidol)
6.2.4.3 Benzodiazepines in lower doses (e.g., diazepam,
zolazepam)
6.2.5 Classifications of sedatives (hypnotics)
6.2.5.1 Barbiturates (e.g., phenobarbital)
6.2.5.2 Benzodiazepines in higher doses (e.g., diazepam,
zolazepam)
6.2.5.3 Chloral derivatives (e.g., chloral hydrate)
6.2.5.4 Thiazine derivatives (e.g., xylazine)
6.2.6 Tranquilizer and sedative effects
6.2.6.1 Phenothiazines
Make animals more tractable
Cause hypotension
Minimally reduce respiratory rate
6.2.6.2 Butyrophenones
Make animals indifferent to their surroundings
Decrease motor activity
Cause hypotension
Slightly increase respiratory rate
6.2.6.3 Benzodiazepines
Cause CNS depression
Have mild cardiovascular depressant effects at low doses
Have little effect on respiration
6.2.6.4 Thiazine derivatives (e.g., xylazine)
Produce dose-related CNS depression
Have little effect on respiration
Cause bradycardia, decreased cardiac output, and increased
central venous pressure
6.2.6.5 Barbituates (e.g., sodium pentobarbital)
High doses produce anesthesia
At lower doses, sodium pentobarbital can be used as a
sedative and premedicant before anesthesia, but a suboptimal (low
dose) may cause involuntary excitement in some species
6.2.6.6 Chloral derivatives (e.g., chloral hydrate)
Is a reliable sedative hypnotic
Has poor analgesic properties, even at anesthetic doses
6.2.7 Indications for use and monitoring of effects
6.2.8 Reversal of tranquilizing and sedative effects
6.2.8.1 No agents available for most tranquilizers and
sedatives
6.2.8.2 Yohimbine can be used to reverse xylazine
6.3 Analgesics
6.3.1 Definition: Substances that temporarily alleviate pain
without causing loss of consciousness
6.3.2 Functional Uses
6.3.2.1 Pain control without the use of anesthetics
6.3.2.2 Preanesthetic to reduce amount of anesthetic required
6.3.2.3 Postoperative pain relief
6.3.3 Classifications
6.3.3.1 Opioids: Term used to designate all endogenous and
exogenous substances that bind to a subset of opioid receptors
and produce analgesia and mild sedation (e.g., morphine,
meperidine, oxymorphone, pentazocine)
6.3.3.2 Opiates: Term no longer used
6.3.3.3 Nonopioids: Drugs such as the alpha-2 agonists that
bind at the adrenoceptor sites (e.g., xylazine, detomidine)
6.3.4 Opioids (Short, 1987a)
6.3.4.1 Actions (may vary significantly between species)
Major effects on the CNS
Effects include analgesia, sedation, respiratory depression,
decreased gastrointestinal motility, nausea, vomiting, and
alterations of endocrine and autonomic nervous system functions
Act as agonists, interacting with binding sites or receptors
in the brain and other tissues
Actions of some compounds have not been determined for some
laboratory animals
Dose may vary significantly between species
6.3.4.2 Antagonists: Drugs (e.g., naloxone) that can prevent
or promptly reverse some or all of the effects of opioids by
competing with them for the same receptor sites
6.3.5 Neuroleptanalgesics: Drugs that produce a state of CNS
depression and analgesia without the use of barbiturates or
volatile anesthetic agents (Short, 1987b)
6.3.5.1 Functional use
Limited applications for minor diagnostic and surgical
procedures that require minimal analgesia and immobilization
(e.g., radiography, minor skin suturing, placement of peripheral
venous catheters)
Often require supplementation with additional anesthetics to
increase analgesia and muscle relaxation
6.3.5.2 Functional characteristics
Combination of a narcotic (fentanyl) and a tranquilizer
(droperidol) such as Innovar-Vet, which produces a state of
analgesia and deep sedation without total unconsciousness
States of deep sedation and analgesia adequate for surgical
intervention have been produced in dogs, rats, and nonhuman
primates
A peculiar characteristic of this state in the dog and rat,
but not in the nonhuman primate, is the capacity to respond to
auditory stimuli (e.g., dropping an object, crumpling paper)
Pedal reflex is absent
Maximum analgesia persists for 30-40 minutes, after which
there may be a reaction to cutaneous stimulation even though
generalized sedation and some analgesia are still evident
6.3.6 Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)
6.3.6.1 Drugs such as phenylbutazone, acetaminophen, and
aspirin can be useful in special cases
6.3.6.2 Aspirin
Most effective for relief of muscular pain
Minimal effect for relief of visceral pain
6.4 Neuromuscular Blocking Agents (Paralytics or Immobilizing
Agents)
6.4.1 Definition: Drugs that reduce muscle tone without the
loss of consciousness by acting on the neuromuscular junction
(e.g., pancuronium) or on spinal synapses (e.g., mephenesin,
guaifenesin)
6.4.2 Functional Use: Adjuvant in surgical anesthesia to
increase muscle relaxation for procedures such as bone
fracture repair in heavily muscled animals
6.4.3 Effects
6.4.3.1 Spinal polysynaptic reflexes are depressed
preferentially over mono synaptic reflexes
6.4.3.2 Muscle paralysis occurs without loss of consciousness
or analgesia; these drugs must never be used without general
anesthesia (9 CFR 2.31; NRC, 1985; PHS, 1986)
6.4.4 Classification
6.4.4.1 Depolarizing agents such as decamethonium and
succinylcholine
6.4.4.2 Nondepolarizing agents such as tubocurarine USP,
gallamine, and pancuronium
6.5 Factors Modifying the Effects of Tranquilizers, Analgesics,
and Neuromuscular Blocking Agents
6.5.1 Species variation
6.5.2 Age of animals: Very young and old animals may require
adjustments in dose
6.5.3 Health status
6.5.3.1 Sick animals may respond differently from healthy
animals
6.5.3.2 Pregnant animals may respond differently from
nonpregnant animals
6.5.4 Route of drug administration
6.5.5 Depth of anesthesia modifies effects of neuromuscular
blocking agents
6.5.6 Others
6.6 Safety Precautions
6.6.1 There must be secure storage for drugs with the potential
for human abuse
6.6.2 Drugs under the control of the Drug Enforcement Agency
must be stored in a locked cabinet in a secure area
6.7 Recordkeeping Requirements
6.7.1 A written record is required when barbiturates and other
drugs under the control of the Drug Enforcement Agency are
used
6.7.2 An inventory list of anesthetics, analgesics,
tranquilizers, sedatives, and other drugs should be kept
6.7.3 Individual clinical records should be annotated to
reflect the use of the agents described above, showing the
date, dose, and any abnormal reactions that occurred
6.8 Functions of the Attending Veterinarian in Pain Management
6.8.1 Provides professional advice on the type of agents that
are appropriate for use and establishes dose ranges for each
6.8.2 Provides or counsels investigators on appropriate
physical facilities and equipment to properly administer
general anesthetics
6.8.3 Recommends ways to monitor the physical condition of an
animal while it is under treatment
6.8.4 Provides the professional expertise to respond
appropriately to medical emergencies if they occur
6.8.5 Monitors procedures to assess degree of pain relief
required
Code of Federal Regulations, Title 9 (Animals and Animal Products), Subchapter A (Animal Welfare), Parts 1-3. Copies available from: Animal Care Staff, Regulatory Enforcement and Animal Care, Federal Building, Room 268, Hyattsville, MD 20782.
Gleed, R.D. 1987. Tranquilizers and sedatives. Pp. 16-27 in Principles and Practices of Veterinary Anesthesia, C.E. Short, ed. Baltimore: Williams & ilkins.
Lumb, W.V., and E.W. Jones. 1984. Veterinary Anesthesia, 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger. 693 pp.
NRC (National Research Council). 1985. Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. A report of the Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources Committee on Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. NIH Pub. No. 86-23. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 83 pp.
Marshall, B.E., and D.E. Longnecker. 1990. General anesthetics. Pp. 285-310 in The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, 8th ed., A.G. Gilman, T.W. Rall, A.S. Nies, and T. Taylor, eds. New York: Pergamon Press.
PHS (Public Health Service). 1986. Public Health Service Policy on Humane Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 28 pp. Copies available from: Office of Laboratory Animal Welfare, Building 31, Room 4B09, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892.
Short, C.E. 1987a. Pain, analgesics, and related medications. Pp. 28-46 in principles and Practices of Veterinary Anesthesia, C.E. Short, ed. Baltimore: illiams & Wilkins.
Short, C.E. 1987b. Neuroleptanalgesia and alpha-adrenergic receptor analgesia. Pp. 47-57 in Principles and Practices of Veterinary Anesthesia, C. E. Short, ed. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins.
7.1 Definitions
7.1.1 Aseptic technique: Surgical technique conducted under
conditions that prevent exposure of the patient to pathogenic
organisms, including wearing of sterile surgical gloves,
gowns, caps, and face masks; use of sterile instruments; and
aseptic preparation of the surgical field (NRC, 1985, p. 37)
7.1.2 Survival surgery: Surgery performed on a live animal
under general anesthesia, from which the animal is expected to
recover
7.1.3 Nonsurvival surgery: The animal is killed at the end of
the surgical procedure before recovering from anesthesia
7.1.4 Major operative procedure (9 CFR 2.31) or major survival
surgery (NRC, 1985, p. 37): Surgical intervention that
penetrates a body cavity or could potentially produce a
permanent handicap in an animal that is expected to recover
7.1.5 Minor surgical procedure: Surgical procedure restricted
to the management of minor problems and injuries (e.g., wound
suturing, peripheral vessel cannulation)
7.2 Legal Requirements (9 CFR 2.31; PHS, 1986)
7.2.1 Surgery must be performed or directly supervised by
trained experienced personnel
7.2.2 Procedures that will cause more than momentary or slight
pain or distress must be performed with appropriate sedatives,
analgesics, or anesthetics, unless withholding such agents is
justified for scientific reasons and that justification is
provided to the institutional animal care and use committee
(IACUC) in writing by the principal investigator
7.2.3 Pre- and postsurgical care must be provided in accordance
with established veterinary medical and nursing practices
7.2.4 Survival surgery
7.2.4.1 AWRs require that aseptic surgical techniques be used
on all regulated animals (9 CFR 2.31)
7.2.4.2 PHS policy requires compliance with the Guide for the
Care and Use of Laboratory Animals, which recommends that
survival surgery on rodents be conducted using sterile
instruments, surgical gloves, and aseptic procedure (NRC, 1985;
PHS, 1986)
7.2.4.3 Major surgical procedures on nonrodents must be
conducted only in facilities that are intended for that purpose
and are maintained under aseptic conditions (9 CFR 2.31; PHS,
1986)
7.2.4.4 Non-major operative procedures, operative procedures
conducted at field sites, and all surgical procedures on
rodents do not require a dedicated facility but must be
performed using aseptic procedures (9 CFR 2.31)
7.2.5 Multiple major surgical procedures on one animal may not
be performed unless one of the following conditions is met:
7.2.5.1 The procedures are justified for scientific reasons and
have been approved by the IACUC; the justification must be
stated in writing by the principal investigator
7.2.5.2 The procedures are necessary to protect the health or
well-being of the animals, as determined by the attending
veterinarian
7.2.5.3 There are special circumstances that have been approved
by the administrator of the Animal and Plant Health Inspection
Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, on an individual basis
7.3 Preparation for Surgery
7.3.1 Animal
7.3.1.1 Hair should be clipped from the surgical site; special
care is necessary when electric clippers are used, because the
skin of most laboratory animals is very thin and easily abraded
by clipper blades
7.3.1.2 The operative site should be thoroughly cleaned with a
skin disinfectant to remove surface bacteria
7.3.1.3 Tape or lightweight strings should be used to secure an
animal's limbs and hold the animal in position on the operative
table or board
7.3.1.4 The animal should be positioned with the head and neck
fully extended to ensure a patent airway, and an endotrachial
tube should be inserted when possible
7.3.1.5 Surgical drapes should be used to cover the animal's
body to prevent contamination of the operative site; if a drape
is used in surgery on rodents and rabbits, the drape must be
small enough to permit visualization of the animal's
respiratory movements and peripheral perfusion to avoid
anesthetic accidents
7.3.2 Surgeon
7.3.2.1 A cap and face mask should be donned first
7.3.2.2 Hands and arms are scrubbed thoroughly with germicidal
soap prior to donning sterile gloves and, when appropriate, a
surgical gown
7.3.3 Surgical instruments
7.3.3.1 All instruments must be wrapped in packs and sterilized
prior to surgery
7.3.3.2 The sterilization date should be written on the outside
of each pack when it is prepared
7.3.3.3 Unused, sterilized instruments in packs should be
resterilized after a period of time appropriate to the type and
thickness of the material in which the instruments are packed
and the method of sterilization
7.4 Anesthesia (see section 6.1)
7.5 Surgical Complications
7.5.1 Hypothermia: Abnormally low body temperature caused by
inadvertent loss of body heat or purposeful chilling of the
animal (Lumb and Jones, 1984)
7.5.1.1 Effects
Can cause a fall in blood pressure due to decreased cardiac
output; however, peripheral resistance increases
Occasionally causes a severe drop in blood pressure due to
depression of the sinoatrial node and bundle of His
Can cause ventricular fibrillation, most frequently when the
temperature of the heart muscle is below 28oC
In dogs, a fall in in body temperature to between 23oC and
15oC can cause a cardiac crisis characterized by cessation of
sinus rhythm, intense bradycardia, ventricular extrasystoles, and
ventricular fibrillation or standstill
Prolongs clotting time
7.5.1.2 Occurrence
Sooner in small rodents and rabbits than in larger animals
þ Small animals have a greater ratio of body surface to body
mass than do larger animals
þ Small animals have efficient heat-dissipation surfaces in
the ears (rabbits) or in the ears, feet, and tail (rodents)
When abdominal or thoracic contents are exposed for
prolonged periods
7.5.1.3 PreventionþRetaining body heat by using the following:
Surgical drapes and a pad of insulation placed between the
animal's body and the surgery table
Circulating hot water pads; safer than electric pads because
they are less likely to cause tissue damage from localized
overheating
Small, readily sanitizable plastic boards to cover steel
table surfaces
Warm, wet lap sponges to cover exposed organs
7.5.2 Dehydration
7.5.2.1 Can occur when abdominal or thoracic contents are
exposed for prolonged periods; therefore, these organs should
be covered with warm, wet lap sheets or sponges throughout the
surgical process
7.5.2.2 Can be controlled by administering isotonic
electrolyte solutions intravenously to maintain body fluid
balance
7.5.3 Hemorrhage
7.5.3.1 Causes
Improper use of or inadequate hemostatic techniques during
surgery (e.g., cautery of small blood vessels or ligatures
applied to larger vessels)
Intercurrent disease
Drugs that prolong bleeding time
7.5.3.2 Prevention: Use of proper surgical techniques
7.5.3.3 Treatment
Locate source of bleeding and properly seal open end of
vessel(s)
If adequate, application of pressure
Agents that enhance clotting (e.g., vitamin K) may be useful
in some cases
Intravenous fluid replacement or blood transfusion may be
indicated when a large amount of blood has been lost
7.5.4 Anesthetic overdose
7.5.4.1 Cause: Improper dose calculations or administration of
drug
7.5.4.2 Prevention
Knowledge of drugs and animals used
Careful monitoring during induction phase
7.5.4.3 Treatment (See 6.1.10)
7.6 Incisions
7.6.1 Closure
7.6.1.1 To facilitate wound healing, it is important to match
both needle size and suture material type and size to the
procedure
7.6.1.2 Multiple layers of sutures placed in an interrupted
pattern are preferred to a continuous pattern to minimize the
risk of dehiscense
7.6.1.3 A subcuticular suture pattern is advantageous for skin
closure in animals that are inclined to chew or otherwise
remove stitches
7.6.1.4 Knots used to join the ends of suture material must be
tied correctly and securely to prevent spontaneous loosening
during the healing process
7.6.1.5 Metal clips can be used in lieu of sutures to close
skin incisions in thin-skinned animals
7.6.2 Dehiscense
7.6.2.1 Causes
Sutures improperly placed
Knots improperly tied
Healing compromised by bacterial infection
7.6.2.2 Prevention: Use of good surgical techniques
7.6.2.3 Treatment
Thorough cleaning of wound, trimming away of unhealthy
tissue, and reapplication of sutures
Use of parenteral antibiotics if infection is present
7.7 Postsurgical Care
7.7.1 Trained personnel should observe the animal from the time
surgery is completed to the time that the animal has recovered
from anesthesia sufficiently to maintain itself in sternal
recumbancy
7.7.2 The animal should be kept warm, quiet, and clean
throughout the immediate postoperative period to facilitate
the metabolism of anesthetic and to maximize healing of the
incision
7.7.3 Supplemental fluids, analgesics, and other drugs should
be scheduled in the protocol and administered as needed
7.7.4 Special diets, housing, and environmental conditions
(e.g., temperature, humidity) should be considered to maximize
the rate of healing
7.7.5 If large volumes of balanced electrolytes or other fluids
are administered subcutaneously, the injections should be made
at multiple sites to prevent tissue damage
7.7.6 Antibiotics should be used only when needed to treat
postoperative infections; they must be carefully selected to
avoid specific species intolerances
7.7.7 Remove sutures at the appropriate time
7.7.8 Notes on daily monitoring of the animal's progress,
administration of medicaments, and management of the surgical
incision up to the time of suture removal should be recorded
on the clinical record
7.7.9 The development of the postoperative care protocol should
be done in consultation with and under the supervision of the
attending veterinarian
7.7.10 A kit containing a variety of drugs and equipment that
may be needed in a medical emergency should be available in
the immediate postoperative care area
7.8 Equipment: Type needed to properly support surgical
procedures is dependent on a number of variables, including
the species of animal used, the nature of the procedure, and
the anesthetic agent used
7.8.1 Circulating water heating pads and heatlamps are helpful
for preventing hypothermia
7.8.2 Nebulized liquids are helpful in relieving pulmonary
congestion
7.8.3 Vacuum (suction) equipment is useful for removing
accumulations of mucus from the respiratory tract and fluid
from body cavities
7.8.4 Oxygen administration facilitates the return of normal
pulmonary function and increases the rate of tissue healing
7.8.5 A mechanical respirator (ventilator) should be available
to support respiration when the animal's system is
compromised, and the animal is unable to breathe normally
7.8.6 A cardiac monitor is essential for evaluating heart rate
and pattern
7.8.7 An electronic thermometer is helpful for monitoring body
temperature
7.8.8 A mechanical gas anesthesia machine or an airtight
chamber is essential for the administration of volatile
anesthetics, and some form of gas-scavenging system should be
provided to remove excess gas from the room
7.8.9 An electrocautery unit is useful for managing hemostasis
during surgery
7.8.10 An esophageal stethoscope is useful for monitoring heart
beat during surgery
7.9 Recordkeeping
7.9.1 A permanent record should be established for each animal
undergoing surgery
7.9.2 The record should be complete, current, and readily
accessible
7.9.3 A brief description of the surgical procedure should be
recorded and should reflect what was approved by the IACUC
7.9.4 Any unexpected or abnormal reaction to anesthetics or
other drugs should be recorded
7.9.5 Any information that might be of value or assistance for
maintaining the animal after surgery should be recorded
7.9.6 All postsurgical care provided should be documented
Code of Federal Regulations, Title 9 (Animals and Animal Products), Subchapter A (Animal Welfare), Parts 1-3. Copies available from: Animal Care Staff, Regulatory Enforcement and Animal Care, Federal Building, Room 268, Hyattsville, MD 20782.
Lumb, W.V., and E.W. Jones. 1984. Veterinary Anesthesia, 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger. 693 pp.
NRC (National Research Council). 1985. Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. A report of the Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources Committee on Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. NIH Pub. No. 86-23. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 83 pp.
PHS (Public Health Service). 1986. Public Health Service Policy on Humane Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 28 pp. Copies available from: Office of Laboratory Animal Welfare, Building 31, Room 4B09, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892.
8.1 Definition
8.1.1 A method of killing an animal that ensures minimal
physical and psychological suffering (AVMA, 1986)
8.1.2 A process of killing that renders the animal unconscious
(and thus insensitive to pain) as rapidly as possible, without
fear and anxiety (CCAC, 1980)
8.2 Legal Requirements
8.2.1 AWRs (9 CFR 1.1, 2.31)
8.2.1.1 Method must produce rapid unconsciousness and subsequent
death without evidence of pain or distress; or
8.2.1.2 Method must utilize anesthesia produced by an agent
that causes painless loss of consciousness and subsequent
death
8.2.2 PHS policy (PHS, 1986)
8.2.2.1 Method must be consistent with the recommendations of
the American Veterinary Medical Association Panel on
Euthanasia (AVMA, 1986, or succeeding revised editions); or
8.2.2.2 If method deviates from AVMA recommendations, the
deviation must be justified scientifically and approved by the
institutional animal care and use committee (IACUC)
8.2.3 Animals that would otherwise experience severe or chronic
pain or distress that cannot be relieved will be painlessly
killed at the end of the procedure, or if appropriate, during
the procedure (9 CFR 2.31; PHS, 1986)
8.2.4 Attending veterinarians are responsible for providing
guidance to principal investigators and other personnel (9 CFR
2.31)
8.2.5 Institutions must ensure that personnel are appropriately
trained and qualified in the methods of euthanasia that will
be used (9 CFR 2.31)
8.3 Ethical and Humane Considerations
8.3.1 Euthanasia should be performed quickly and efficiently in
a nonpublic area but not in rooms in which animals are housed
8.3.2 Criteria should be developed for deciding when the level
of pain and distress is such that euthanasia is warranted, and
the person responsible for making that decision should be
identified in the experimental protocol (Ad Hoc Committee on
Animal Research, 1988; Everitt and Griffin, 1988)
8.3.2.1 Moribund animals: An acceptable endpoint should be
determined, consistent with sound research design, so that
suffering is not prolonged unnecessarily
8.3.2.2 Animals with solid tumors should be killed when
The size of the tumor interferes with normal behavior such
as eating, drinking, and freedom of movement
The tumor ulcerates or develops necrotic areas
Clinical signs such as weight loss, lethargy, and
inappetence appear (for tumors that are not palpable)
8.3.3 Euthanasia-associated pain and distress should be
prevented or minimized in nervous or intractable animals by
skillful handling or by the administration of tranquilizers,
sedatives, or analgesic drugs
8.3.4 A person performing euthanasia should demonstrate
professionalism and sensitivity for the value of animal life
8.3.5 Death should be confirmed by checking for the absence of
a heartbeat; the absence of respiration does not always
indicate death
8.4 Human Considerations
8.4.1 Euthanasia is often a stressor to the person performing
the procedure
8.4.1.1 To many people, the taking of an animal's life is an
awesome task
8.4.1.2 The degree of distress experienced by those people
observing or performing euthanasia or death in any form is
dependent on their backgrounds and on their personal
philosophies and ethical concerns about using animals in
research (Arluke, 1988)
8.4.1.3 Because of the kinship between people and higher
animals, however distant, the unpleasant reaction people have
to human death is often transferred to the death of animals
8.4.1.4 The stress of performing euthanasia is magnified when
there are strong emotional bonds between personnel and
individual animals or when large numbers of animals are killed
on a regular basis
8.4.1.5 The stress experienced by people who regularly perform
euthanasia may cause a strong sense of work dissatisfaction or
alienation, which might be expressed by absenteeism,
belligerence, or careless and callous handling of animals,
along with a high turnover rate of personnel
8.4.2 Coping effectively with euthanasia-associated emotional
stress
8.4.2.1 Supervisory awareness and sensitivity must be
developed
8.4.2.2 Coping skills for employees should be developed
through institutional and other programs in stress management
and coping with death and dying
8.4.2.3 Personnel should be taught the facts about euthanasia
The effects of various agents and methods are subjective and
based on professional judgment, experience, and intuition
Some of the reported disadvantages and controversy about
certain practices are based on sentiment and aesthetic
considerations rather than on sound scientific data
Some physical methods may be aesthetically unpleasant but
quite humane
The choice of a method for euthanasia must be based
primarily on humane concerns rather than on the sensitivities of
the technician who performs or the people who observe the
euthanasia
Involuntary movements and vocalization can occur after an
animal is unconscious and do not necessarily indicate that the
animal is feeling pain
8.5 Criteria for Selection of Method of Euthanasia
8.5.1 Has a rapid, initial depressive action on the central
nervous system so that the animal is quickly rendered
unconscious and insensitive to pain
8.5.2 Is appropriate for the age, species, and health of the
animal
8.5.3 Does not cause fear, anxiety, or panic in the animal
being killed or in other animals in the room
8.5.4 Produces nonreversible effects
8.5.5 Is compatible with the requirements and purpose of a
study and does not interfere with postmortem evaluation
8.5.6 Is safe for operators and observers to use, causes
minimal emotional stress, and has little potential for abuse
8.5.7 Is availabile and economically feasible to use
8.6 Pharmacologic Methods
8.6.1 Inhalant agents
8.6.1.1 General
Mode of action: Air in lungs is displaced by inhalant
agent, and hypoxia of the brain or anesthesia and loss of
consciousness follow
Advantage: Particularly valuable in animals in which
venipuncture is difficult (e.g., birds, rodents, cats, small
dogs) Disadvantages
þ Vapors can be irritating and induce excitement
þ Exposure to vapors can be harmful to personnel and to other
animals (a gas-scavenging system or fume hood is necessary)
þ Newborn animals are accustomed to low oxygen and are more
resistant to inhalant agents
8.6.1.2 Halothane, methoxyflurane, and nitrous oxide
Mode of action: Central nervous system (CNS) depression
Advantage: Nonflammable and nonexplosive under ordinary
environmental conditions
Disadvantage: Relatively expensive; impractical for routine
use
8.6.1.3 Chloroform: Not recommended for use
Mode of action: CNS depression
Disadvantages:
þ Is a potent hepatotoxin and a suspected carcinogen
þ Can produce phosgene gas in the presence of a flame
8.6.1.4 Nitrogen
Mode of action: Displaces oxygen and produces death by
hypoxia
Advantage: Constitutes a minimal hazard to humans because
it mixes easily with room air
Disadvantages
þ Does not kill very young animals rapidly
þ Manner of death may be aesthetically objectionable
8.6.1.5 Carbon monoxide (CO)
Mode of action: Displaces oxygen on hemoglobin and produces
death by hypoxia of the brain
Advantages
þ Induces rapid death without pain or discernible discomfort
þ Acceptable for small animals, including dogs and cats,
provided that precautions are taken as prescribed by the AVMA
Panel on Euthanasia (AVMA, 1986)
Disadvantages
þ If generated by gasoline combustion engines, CO must be
filtered and cooled to prevent discomfort to the animals
þ CO gas is hazardous to personnel
8.6.1.6 Carbon dioxide (CO2): Not approved for euthanasia in
some states
Mode of action: Hypoxia of the brain
Advantages
þ Well accepted and commonly used for euthanasia
þ Discomfort of hypoxia is easily reduced by adding oxygen
(30% O2, 70% CO2)
þ Inexpensive, nonflammable, and nonexplosive
þ Presents minimal hazard to personnel when used with properly
designed equipment
þ Causes no accumulation of chemical residues in tissues
þ Does not distort cellular architecture
þ Is effective for small laboratory animals (e.g., rodents;
small or young dogs, cats, and swine; poultry)
Disadvantages
þ CO2 is heavier than air so incomplete filling of a
euthanasia chamber may permit tall or climbing animals to avoid
exposure to the gas
þ Time for euthanasia may be substantially prolonged in
newborn animals that are more resistant to hypoxia
8.6.1.7 Ether (diethyl ether)
Mode of action: Hypoxia of the brain
Advantage: Quick and efficient
Disadvantages
þ Flammable and explosive
þ Special precautions are required not only while the agent is
being used, but also in disposing of dead animals, whose fur and
tissue retain gas that continues to vaporize and to constitute a
hazard
8.6.2 Noninhalant pharmacologic agents
8.6.2.1 General
Vary widely in chemical composition
Death can be induced by multiple routes
þ Intravenous administration is preferred because the effect
is the most rapid and reliable
þ Intrapulmonic injection should be avoided because of
discomfort to the animals
þ Oral, rectal, and intraperitoneal routes of administration
are inadvisable because of prolonged onset of action, wide range
in lethal doses, and potential irritation of tissues
þ Intracardiac route is not recommended except in anesthetized
or comatose animals
þ Intrathecal route is not recommended except in anesthetized
animals
Excitable and vicious animals should be pretreated with an
opioid analgesic, a tranquilizer, or another depressant
8.6.2.2 Barbiturates
Mode of action: Central nervous system depression
Advantage: Rapid euthanasia with minimal discomfort,
depending on the dose of agent and route of injection
(intravenously is preferred)
Disadvantage: Must be used under supervision of personnel
registered with the U.S. Drug Enforcement Agency
8.6.2.3 Chloral hydrate: Not recommended for use by itself
Mode of action: CNS depression
Disadvantage: Causes aesthetically objectionable animal
movements; therefore, is not recommended for dogs, cats, or other
small animals
8.6.3 Drugs that should never be used alone for euthanasia
8.6.3.1 Magnesium sulfate: Lacks analgesic or anesthetic
effects
8.6.3.2 Potassium chloride: Lacks analgesic or anesthetic
effects
8.6.3.3 Curariform drugs: Animals remain fully conscious
until they suffocate
8.6.4 Drugs that should never be used for euthanasia
8.6.4.1 Strychnine: Excites the central nervous system; animal
remains conscious until it dies from suffocation
8.6.4.2 Nicotine: Produces serious side effects before death
8.6.4.3 Hydrocyanic acid: Extremely hazardous to humans
8.7 Physical Methods
8.7.1 General characteristics
8.7.1.1 Cause immediate loss of consciousness through physical
trauma to the brain or spinal cord
8.7.1.2 Users must be thoroughly trained, because improper
performance of the procedures may cause the animal severe pain
or distress
8.7.1.3 Have a high potential for being aesthetically
displeasing to observers
8.7.1.4 Are most useful when pharmacologic methods would
interfere with the purpose of the experiment
8.7.2 Penetrating captive bolt
8.7.2.1 Irreversibly damages the cerebral hemisphere and
brainstem
8.7.2.2 Advantages
Does not chemically contaminate tissues
Causes immediate unconsciousness
Humane method for use in large animals such as horses,
ruminants, and swine when followed by exsanguination or pithing
8.7.2.3 Disadvantages
Aesthetically displeasing
Improper technique is highly likely to injure the animal and
cause pain
8.7.2.4 Nonpenetrating captive bolt pistols are not recommended
for use
8.7.3 Gunshot
8.7.3.1 Advantage: Death is instantaneous when the method is
performed by a competent person
8.7.3.2 Disadvantages
May be dangerous to personnel
Aesthetically displeasingþshould be used only in
emergencies; under circumstances where other methods might not be
readily usable, such as in field studies; or for farm animals in
rural locations
8.7.4 Stunning
8.7.4.1 Humane only when the procedure is properly performed
8.7.4.2 Must be followed by some other means (e.g.,
exsanguination, decapita tion, thoracotomy) to ensure death
8.7.4.3 Difficult to ensure consistency of effect in rabbits,
rodents, and other small laboratory animals
8.7.4.4 Should be evaluated by the IACUC on a case-by-case
basis
8.7.5 Cervical dislocation
8.7.5.1 When performed properly, it is a humane technique for
euthanasia of poultry, mice, and immature rats and rabbits
8.7.5.2 Recommended that animals be sedated or lightly
anesthetized before hand, because they may not lose
consciousness immediately (AVMA, 1986)
8.7.5.3 Requests to use this method should be reviewed by the
IACUC on a case-by-case basis
8.7.6 Decapitation by guillotine
8.7.6.1 Used most often for euthanasia of rodents and small
rabbits because they can be restrained without undue stress
8.7.6.2 Animals should be sedated or lightly anesthetized
before guillotining or their severed heads should be immersed
immediately in liquid nitrogen because it is not known whether
there is immediate loss of consciousness
8.7.6.3 Advantage: Facilitates collection of brain tissue that
is not contaminated with extraneous chemicals
8.7.7 Pithing
8.7.7.1 Effective for killing some poikilotherms (e.g.,
reptiles, amphibia)
8.7.7.2 Both brain and spinal cord must be pithed
8.7.7.3 Should be conducted only by trained personnel
8.7.8 Exsanguination: Animals should be sedated, stunned, or
anesthetized because of the anxiety associated with extreme
hypovolemia
8.7.9 Focused beam microwave irradiation
8.7.9.1 Humane for small laboratory rodents if done with a
special microwave apparatus that focuses the energy on the
brain to produce immediate unconsciousness
8.7.9.2 Microwave instrument must provide adequate kilowattage
8.7.9.3 Microwave ovens designed for domestic and institutional
kitchens should never be used for euthanasia
8.7.9.4 Advantage: Fixes chemical activity of brain tissue
8.7.10 Rapid freezing by immersion in liquid nitrogen
8.7.10.1 To be used only for animals weighing 40 gms or less
because larger animals are not rendered unconscious rapidly
8.7.10.2 Requires well-trained personnel and appropriate
equipment
8.7.10.3 Advantage: Instantaneously inactivates and fixes
enzymes in brain tissue
8.7.11 Air embolism: Not recommended for routine use
8.7.11.1 Intravenous injection of 5 to 50 ml/kg of air induces
rapid death in rabbits
8.7.11.2 Acceptable method only when animals are anesthetized
8.7.12 Physical methods not recommended for use
8.7.12.1 Decompression (hypoxia): Induces unconsciousness and
death due to cerebral edema
8.7.12.2 Electrocution
Requires special equipment that passes electrical current
directly through the brain to cause immediate loss of
consciousness
Is potentially hazardous to personnel
8.8 Carcass Disposal
8.8.1 Conduct the process in a way that demonstrates respect
for the animal
8.8.2 Occupational hazards
8.8.2.1 Evaluate possible hazards to human handlers when
animals are known to be carrying a zoonotic agent or were
treated with radioisotopes or toxic chemicals
8.8.2.2 Ensure that personnel handling such carcasses take the
necessary precautions to protect themselves and others
8.8.3 Follow institutional guidelines for packaging carcasses
and moving them to the incinerator to ensure proper disposal
Ad Hoc Committee on Animal Research. 1988. Interdisciplinary Principles and Guidelines for the Use of Animals in Research, Testing, and Education. New York: New York Academy of Sciences.
Arluke, A.B. 1988. Sacrificial symbolism in animal experimentation: Object or pet? Anthrozoos 2(2):98-117.
AVMA (American Veterinary Medical Association). 1986. 1986 Report of the AVMA Panel on Euthanasia. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 188:2522-268.
CCAC (Canadian Council on Animal Care). 1980. Euthanasia. Pp. 70-76 in Guide to the Care and Use of Experimental Animals, vol. 1. Ottawa: Canadian Council on Animal Care.
Code of Federal Regulations, Title 9 (Animals and Animal Products), Subchapter A (Animal Welfare), Parts 1-3. Copies available from: Animal Care Staff, Regulatory Enforcement and Animal Care, Federal Building, Room 268, Hyattsville, MD 20782.
Everitt, J.I., and W. Griffon. 1988. Recent laboratory animal legislation and toxicology research and testing. CIIT Activities 8(11):4. Copies available from: Information Services, Chemical Industry Institute of Toxicology, P.O. Box 12137, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709.
PHS (Public Health Service). 1986. Public Health Service Policy on Humane Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 28 pp. Copies available from: Office of Laboratory Animal Welfare, Building 31, Room 4B09, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892.
Husbandry, Care, and the Importance of the Environment
9.1 Legal Requirements for Husbandry and Care
9.1.1 Animals covered
9.1.1.1 AWRs: Any warmblooded animal used or intended for use
in research, testing, or education except birds, rats of the
genus Rattus and mice of the genus Mus bred for use in
research, and horses and other farm animals used or intended
for use in agricultural research and production (see 9
CFR 1.1)
9.1.1.2 PHS Policy: All live vertebrates used in PHS-conducted
or supported activities
9.1.1.3 State and local laws, as applicable
9.1.2 Scope of Coverage
9.1.2.1 Facilities and operating procedures in facilities,
including temperature and humidity, lighting, cage
construction and maintenance, cage size, and waste disposal
9.1.2.2 Animal health and husbandry, including feeding,
watering, sanitation, staffing, classification and separation,
and veterinary care
9.1.2.3 Transportation, including construction, size, and
ventilation of transportation cage; identification of animals;
and care in transit
9.2 Importance of Proper Husbandry and a Stable Environment
9.2.1 Improves validity and reliability of experimental data
9.2.2 Conserves research resources
9.2.2.1 Reduces number of animals necessary
9.2.2.2 Reduces time required to complete experiments
9.2.2.3 Reduces cost
9.2.3 Improves staff morale and community relations
9.3 Environmental Variables That Can Be Controlled
9.3.1 The micro- and macroenvironments
9.3.1.1 Definitions
Microenvironment: The physical environment immediately
surrounding the animal, for example, temperature and humidity in
the cage or primary enclosure (NRC, 1985)
Macroenvironment: The physical conditions in the room or
secondary enclosure (NRC, 1985)
9.3.1.2 Importance of the microenvironment
Profoundly affects metabolism, behavior, and susceptibility
to diseases
May vary greatly from macroenvironment, depending on cage
design (e.g., ammonia levels will be higher in an enclosed cage
than in an open one)
Can be more difficult to monitor and regulate than the
macroenvironment
9.3.2 Examples of variables that can affect animal health and
research outcomes
9.3.2.1 Temperature and humidity
9.3.2.2 Ventilation
9.3.2.3 Population density
9.3.2.4 Illumination
9.3.2.5 Noise (frequency, loudness, suddenness of onset)
9.3.2.6 Food and water
9.3.2.7 Type of bedding
9.3.2.8 Sanitation
9.3.2.9 Handling (age of animal, frequency of handling)
9.4 Dealing with Emergencies (e.g., power failure, flooding,
air-handling failure, heating or cooling failure, fire)
NRC (National Research Council). 1985. Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. A report of the Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources Committee on Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. NIH Pub. No. 86-23. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
10
The following outline is intended as a guide for preparing a series of programs, each designed to provide information on a specific animal (e.g., dogs, nonhuman primates) or group of animals (e.g., rodents). Topics are broken down by animal type only in those instances in which the material to be covered depends on animal type. With the exception of the Specific Techniques section, which is intended to be hands-on training, the material in this section can be presented in a variety of formats, as appropriate to institutional needs and constraints.
10.1 Factors Associated with Selection of Animals
10.1.1 Rodents
10.1.1.1 Types of stocks
Inbred: Each animal of the strain is virtually genetically
identical to all the others of that strain
Hybrid: The first generation offspring of two inbred
strains; known genetic background, but heterozygous at most loci
Mutant: Each animal carries an inherited trait or a
combination of traits that allows the study of a specific
biologic process or disease
Outbred: Genetics unknown; very heterogeneous
Other specialized stocks (e.g., transgenic animals)
10.1.1.2 Standardized nomenclature
Importance of using standardized nomenclature
Sources for rules of standardized nomenclature
(International Committee on Laboratory Animals, 1972; Lyon and
Searle, 1989; Greenhouse, in press)
10.1.1.3 Microbiologic status
Effects of clinical and subclinical infections on research
outcomes (NRC, in press a,b)
Definitions of terms describing microbial status (NRC, in
press a)
þ Germfree: A hysterectomy-derived animal that has been
reared and maintained in an isolator by germfree techniques and
demonstrated free of associated forms of life, including viruses,
bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and other saprophytic or parasitic
forms
þ Gnotobiote: A hysterectomy-derived animal that has been
reared and maintained in an isolator by germfree techniques and
that has one or more associated nonpathogenic agents, all of
which are known
þ Defined flora: A germfree animal that has been
intentionally associated with one or more microorganisms and
maintained continuously in an isolator to prevent contamination
by other agents (term may be used synonymously with gnotobiote)
þ Pathogen free: An animal free of all demonstrable
pathogens; proper usage of the term requires that the
pathogen-free status be supported by current results from a
battery of tests appropriate for all pathogens of a specific
species (term differs little from specific pathogen free)
þ Specific pathogen free (SPF) or barrier maintained: An
animal free of a specified list of pathogens; proper usage of the
term requires that the absence of the specified pathogens be
supported by current test results from a battery of tests
appropriate for those pathogens
þ Virus antibody free: An animal free of antibodies to viral
pathogens; proper usage requires that the absence of viral
pathogens be supported by current test results from a battery of
appropriate serologic tests
þ Clean conventional: An animal housed in a low-security
barrier and demonstrated to be free of major pathogens
þ Conventional: An animal whose microbial burden is not known
and not controlled; the animal is generally housed in open rooms
with unrestricted access
Animal resource policy
10.1.2 Rabbits
10.1.2.1 Breeds
10.1.2.2 Microbiologic status
10.1.3 Dogs and cats
10.1.3.1 Breeds
Purebred
Mixed breed
10.1.3.2 Purpose bred or random source
Availability
Health and vaccination history
10.1.4 Nonhuman primates
10.1.4.1 Genus and species
10.1.4.2 Colony-born, wild-caught, or previously used in
experimentation
Availability
History (e.g., date of birth)
Health records
Previous experimental procedures
10.1.5 Other animals (as appropriate to the audience)
10.2 Procurement of Animals
10.2.1 Information on sources of animals
10.2.1.1 Institutional animal resource
10.2.1.2 Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources
10.2.1.3 Primate Information Clearing House
10.2.2 Requirements for purchasing animals
10.2.2.1 Legal requirements
Dogs and cats
Threatened or endangered species
10.2.2.2 Institutional requirements
Requirement for purchasing only from USDA-licensed dealers,
if applicable
Microbiologic status
Health records
Quarantine and stabilization
10.3 Caging
10.3.1 Types of caging regularly available in the institution
10.3.1.1 Advantages and disadvantages
Species needs
Safety (people and animals)
Security
Visibility
Accessibility
Disease control
Sanitation
10.3.1.2 Maximum population density permitted
Size of individuals
Age of individuals
Aggressive animals
Physiologic and metabolic signs of overcrowding
þ Increased corticosterone levels
þ Loss of fertility
Behavioral effects of overcrowding
þ Aggression
þ Cannibalism
þ Self-mutilation
10.3.2 Special caging
10.3.2.1 Metabolic
10.3.2.2 Intensive care or therapy
10.3.2.3 Special construction
10.4 Environmental Enrichment
10.4.1 Legal requirements
10.4.1.1 Dogs
10.4.1.2 Nonhuman primates
10.4.2 Institutional policies
10.4.3 Group housing and socialization
10.4.4 Special equipment
10.5 Food
10.5.1 Advantages and disadvantages of food-delivery methods
available
10.5.1.1 Appropriateness for age of animal
10.5.1.2 Appropriateness for health status of animal
10.5.1.3 Adequate availability for all individuals in a social
group (subordinates are not food deprived)
10.5.2 Nutrition
10.5.2.1 Supplementation of standard diets available
10.5.2.2 Diet control
Batch date
Frequent content assessment
10.5.2.3 Special dietary needs
Unusual amounts of food, such as for pregnant and nursing
animals
Special types of food
Caloric restriction
10.5.2.4 Availability and sources of experimental diets
10.5.3 Delivery of experimental agents
10.5.4 Food deprivation carried out under approved experimental
protocol
10.6 Water
10.6.1 Advantantages and disadvantages of available water
delivery methods
10.6.2 Delivery of experimental agents
10.6.3 Water deprivation carried out under approved
experimental protocol
10.7 Handling and Restraint
10.7.1 Regulations and policies
10.7.2 Importance of proper handling (cite examples)
10.7.2.1 Avoid injury to animals
10.7.2.2 Avoid injury to personnel
10.7.2.3 Minimize stress
10.7.2.4 Aesthetics
10.7.3 Techniques for handling
10.7.4 Methods of restraint
10.7.4.1 Physical
10.7.4.2 Chemical
10.7.4.3 Mechanical
10.7.5 Prolonged restraint
10.7.5.1 Regulations and policies
10.7.5.2 Procedures to reduce stress
Selection of the least restrictive system compatible with
research objectives
Selection of the minimal restraint time needed to accomplish
the research objectives
Conditioning of animals to restraint devices before
beginning research
Prevention or treatment of problems resulting from
restraint, including contusions, decubital ulcers, dependent
edema, weight loss, and traumatic injury
10.8 Identification and Records
10.8.1 Legal requirements
10.8.1.1 PHS policy (Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory
Animals) (NRC, 1985)
10.8.1.2 Animal welfare regulations (9 CRF 2.35): Dogs and
cats
10.8.1.3 Good Laboratory Practices (21 CFR 58.90)
10.1.2 Advantages and disadvantages of identification methods:
Tattoos, color or dye markings, natural markings, ear punch,
toe clipping, ear tags, collars
10.8.3 Recordkeeping
10.8.3.1 Cage card: Species and strain of animals, sex,
weights, source, identification number, responsible
investigator, other pertinent data
10.8.3.2 Individual identification: Species and strain or
breed of animal, source
10.9 Animal Health
10.9.1 Normal parameters
10.9.1.1 Life cycle
10.9.1.2 Behavior patterns, including reproduction
10.9.1.3 Physiologic parameters
10.9.1.4 Clinical chemistry
10.9.2 Health surveillance
10.9.2.1 Importance of the health-surveillance program
Minimizes pain and discomfort associated with disease,
injury, or distress
Reduces number of animals required by minimizing loss
Improves the reliability and validity of experimental data
Enables early intervention in cases of disease and injury
Reduces probability of spread of disease
10.9.2.2 Role of the research team
Assists in detection of distress and disease through
frequent observation
Reports signs of distress and disease to veterinary staff
and consults on plan of action
10.9.3 Signs of distress and disease
10.9.3.1 Gross signs
Cutaneous: Alopecia, cutaneous or subcutaneous swelling,
dermatitis, abnormal hair coat, necrosis, discoloration
Gastrointestinal: Diarrhea, constipation, cramping (hunched
posture), anorexia, ptyalism, rectal prolapse, pendulous abdomen
Respiratory: Dyspnea, abnormal respiratory sounds, nasal
and ocular discharges
Urinary: Polydipsia, excessive or reduced volume, content
or color abnormalities, unusual odor, straining to urinate
Neuromuscular and skeletal: Paresis or paralysis, seizures,
torticollis, incoordination, lameness
Reproductive: Infertility, abortions, discharges, still
births, litter desertion, orchitis, mastitis
Miscellaneous: Unexpected deaths, loss of appendages,
weight loss, anemia, eye lesions
10.9.3.2 Physiologic signs
Blood: Anemia; cell size, count, or type
Urinary: Abnormalities in specific gravity, color, content,
chemistry, volume, odor
Decreased or elevated body temperature, pulse or respiratory
rate
Miscellaneous: Changes in synovial or cerebrospinal fluids,
nerve impulse transmission, bone density, liver and pancreatic
function, endocrine function, mineral and pH balance
10.9.3.3 Behavioral signs
Inappetance
High or low levels of activity
Withdrawal to a cage corner
Inter- or intraspecies aggression
Unusual or repetitive movement patterns
Excessive self grooming
Sexual and maternal abnormalities
Self-mutilation
10.9.4 Common diseases
10.9.4.1 Rodents
Mice: Acariasis, pneumonias, abscesses, mammary neoplasia,
subclinical viral infections such as MHV and Sendai
Rats: Incisor malocclusion, chronic respiratory disease,
mammary (benign) neoplasia, nephrosis, sialodacryoademitis,
chromodacryorrhea, moist dermatitis
Guinea pigs: Pneumonia, enteropathies, dermatophytosis,
hypovitaminosis C, premolar malocclusion, mastitis, pregnancy
toxemia, pediculosis, urolithiasis, limb fractures
Hamsters: Demodecosis, renal amyloidosis, limb fractures,
enteropathies, cutaneous and adrenal neoplasia
10.9.4.2 Rabbits: Otic acariasis, coccidiosis, enteropathies,
malocclusion, lumbar fracture, moist dermatitis,
pasteurellosis, ulcerative pododermatitis
10.9.4.3 Dogs: Bordetella infection; distemper; parvovirus
infection; herpesvirus infection; heartworms; intestinal and
cutaneous parasitism; hepatitis, adenovirus, and parainfluenza
infections; neoplasia
10.9.4.4 Cats: Infectious peritonitis, panleukopenia,
respiratory disorders, toxoplasmosis, parasitism, leukemia,
urologic syndrome, otic acariasis
10.9.4.5 Nonhuman primates: Enteropathies, tuberculosis,
trauma, caloric insufficiency, hypovitaminosis C or D3,
herpesvirus infections
10.9.4.6 Other animals: Include as appropriate to audience
10.9.5 Experimentally produced disorders: Physical,
electrophysiologic, microbiologic, or chemical alteration of
any part so as to produce an abnormal sign; must be
differentiated (based on history) from signs associated with
spontaneous diseases
10.9.6 Institutional procedures for emergency or special care
10.10 Zoonoses (Describe signs and symptoms in animals and
humans)
10.10.1 Types
10.10.1.1 Naturally occurring
Rodents: Lymphocytic choriomeningitis, rat-bite fever,
Korean hemorrhagic fever and related diseases (animals imported
from Europe and Asia)
Dogs: Rabies, brucellosis, ringworm, endoparasite-induced
disease
Cats: Cat-scratch fever, toxoplasmosis,
endoparasite-induced disease
Nonhuman primates: Tuberculosis, herpesvirus B infection,
Marburg disease, infectious hepatitis, monkeypox
Ungulates: Encephalomyelitis, Q fever, leptospirosis,
tetanus, contagious ecthyma, cowpox
Birds: Psitticosis (ornithosis), salmonellosis,
encephalomyelitis
Wild rodents/racoons: Rat bite fever, tularemia, plague,
rabies
10.10.1.2 Experimentally produced (any agent injected, fed, or
introduced by biotechnology)
10.10.2 Techniques for handling animals carrying or at high
risk for carrying zoonotic agents
10.11 Specific Techniques: Hands-on training in techniques
such as blood withdrawal, injections, specimen collection,
measurement of vital signs, and euthanasia
Code of Federal Regulations, Title 9 (Animals and Animal Products), Subchapter A (Animal Welfare), Parts 1-3. Copies available from: Animal Care Staff, Regulatory Enforcement and Animal Care, Federal Building, Room 268, Hyattsville, MD 20782.
Greenhouse, D.D., M.F.W. Festing, S. Hasan, and A.L. Cohen. In press. Inbred strains of rats. In Genetic Monitoring of Inbred Strains of Rats. A Manual on Colony Management, Basic Monitoring techniques, and Genetic Variants of the Laboratory Rat, H.J. Hedrich, ed. Stuttgart: Gustav Fischer Verlag.
International Committee on Laboratory Animals (now known as the International Council for Laboratory Animal Science or ICLAS). 1972. International standardized nomenclature for outbred stocks of laboratory animals. A report of the Working Party to prepare an International Nomenclature System for Outbred Animals. ICLA Bull. 30:4-17. Copies available from: Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources, National Research Council, 2101 Constitution Avenue, Washington, DC 20418.
Lyon, M.F., and A.G. Searle, eds. 1989. Genetic Variants and Strains of the Laboratory Mouse, 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 876 pp.
NRC (National Research Council). 1985. Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. A report of the Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources Committee on Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. NIH Pub. No. 86-23. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.
NRC (National Research Council). In press. Infectious Diseases of Mice and Rats. A report of the ILAR Committee on Infectious Diseases of Mice and Rats. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
NRC (National Research Council). In press. Companion Guide to Infectious Diseases of Mice and Rats. A report of the ILAR Committee on Infectious Diseases of Mice and Rats. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
The following organizations are useful resources for course coordinators, content experts, and participants.
Animal Welfare Information Center
See Appendix II. Contact: Animal Welfare Information Center, National Agricultural Library, 10301 Baltimore Blvd., Room 205, Beltsville, MD 20705 (301-504-6212).
National Library of Medicine
Maintains an extensive collection of published source materials and reference works on basic veterinary sciences and clinical veterinary medicine, emphasizing those areas most closely related to human health and health research. Publishes Current Bibliographies in Medicine, including those dealing with pain, anesthesia, and analgesia in laboratory animals; care and use of animals; and laboratory animal welfare. Contact: National Library of Medicine, Coordinator of Veterinary Affairs, Bethesda, MD 20892 (301-496-6308).
Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources
Provides information on sources of laboratory animals and appropriate animal models for studying physiologic and pathologic processes. Prepares guidelines for the care and use of laboratory animals. Contact: Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources, National Research Council, 2101 Constitution Avenue, Washington, DC 20418 (202-334-2590).
Foundation for Biomedical Research Provides information for the scientific community and the general public on the use of animals in research, testing, and education. Provides a handbook and training materials. Contact: Foundation for Biomedical Research, 818 Connecticut Avenue, NW, Suite 303, Washington, DC 20006 (202-457-0654).
Center for Alternatives
Disseminates information on alternatives to the use of animals in product safety testing. Publishes a newsletter three times per year on progress in in vitro toxicology, distributes reprints of scientific articles by the director and associate director, and provides technical reports in in vitro toxicology. Contact: Center for Alternatives, The Johns Hopkins University School of Hygiene and Public Health, Baltimore, MD 21205 (301-955-3343).
Center for Animals and Public Policy
Analyzes technical and public policy issues relating to the development and application of alternatives to laboratory animals in toxicity testing. Provides a bimonthly technical newsletter containing news and analysis on the latest developments in the search for alternatives; the relevant policy issues; and the roles of government, industry, and the public. Conducts and provides reports of workshops for various interest groups involved with the alternatives issue. Contact: Center for Animals and Public Policy, Tufts University School of Veterinary Medicine, 200 Westboro Road, North Grafton, MA 81536 (508-839-5302, Ext. 4750).
The following selected bibliography is provided to assist those who present course topics in preparing their material. It can also be used as a resource for participants. The references that the committee believes are essential for a minimum institutional library have been designated by an asterisk.
A publication that summarizes many of the areas covered in this program is as follows:
*Essentials for Animal Research. A Primer for Research Personnel. B.T. Bennett, M.J. Brown, and J.C. Schofield. 1990. Beltsville, MD: National Agricultural Library. 126 pp.
*Animal Welfare Act. 1985. U.S. Code, Title 7, Sections 2131-2157. (Available from: Regulatory Enforcement and Animal Care, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Federal Building, Room 268, Hyattsville, MD 20872.)
*Animal Welfare Regulations. Code of Federal Regulations, Title 9 (Animals and Animal Products), Subchapter A (Animal Welfare), Parts 1-3 (9 CFR 1-3) (Available from: Regulatory Enforcement and Animal Care, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Federal Building, Room 268, Hyattsville, MD 20872.)
*Good Laboratory Practices Regulations. a. Code of Federal Regulations, Title 21 (Food and Drugs), Part 58 (Good Laboratory Practice for Nonclinical Laboratory Studies), Subparts A-K.
b. Code of Federal Regulations, Title 40 (Protection of Environment), Part 160 (Good Laboratory Practice Standards), Subparts A-J.
c. Code of Federal Regulations, Title 40 (Protection of Environment), Part 792 (Good Laboratory Practice Standards), Subparts A-L.
*Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. National Research Council. 1985. A report of the Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources Committee on Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. NIH Pub. No. 86-23. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 83 pp.
*Public Health Service Policy on Humane Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. Public Health Service. 1986. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 28 pp. (Available from: Office of Laboratory Animal Welfare, Building 31, Room 4B09, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892.)
Animal Liberation. A New Ethics for Our Treatment of Animals. P. Singer. 1975. New York: Avon Books. 297 pp.
Animal Research and Ethical Conflict. An Analysis of the Scientific Literature: 1966-1986. M.T. Phillips and J.A. Sechzer. 1989. New York: Springer-Verlag. 251 pp.
The animal rights movement: A research perspective. H.A. Pincus, T. Fine, H. Pardes, and F.K. Goodwin. 1986. Am. J. Psychiat. 143:1585-1586 editorial).
Animal welfare considerations in neuroscience research. W. Hodos. 1983. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 406:119-127.
The Case for Animal Rights. T. Regan. 1983. Berkeley: University of California Press. 425 pp.
The enduring animal issue. L. Horton. 1989. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 81:736-743.
Ethics of animal welfare in research: The institution's attempt to achieve appropriate social balance. E.E. Prentice, I.H. Zucker, and A. Jameton. 1986. Physiologist 28:19-20.
The Experimental Animal in Biomedical Research. Vol. I: A Survey of Scientific and Ethical Issues for Investigators. B.E. Rollin, ed. 1990. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. 464 pp.
Guidelines for Ethical Conduct in the Care and Use of Animals. American Psychological Association. 1985. Washington, DC: The American Psychological Association. 8 pp. (Available from: APA, Order Department, 1400 North Uhle Street, Arlington, VA 22201.)
The Importance of Animal Experimentation for Safety and Biomedical Research. S. Garattini and D.W. van Bekkum, eds. 1990. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers. 246 pp.
Of Mice, Models, & Men: A Critical Evaluation of Animal Research. A.N. Rowan. 1984. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. 323 pp.
The role of animals in biomedical research. J.A. Sechzer, ed. 1983. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 406:1-227.
Science and Animals: Addressing Contemporary Issues. H.N. Guttman, J.A. Mench, and R.C. Simmonds, eds. 1989. Bethesda, MD: Scientists Center for Animal Welfare. 149 pp. (Available from: SCAW, 4805 St. Elmo Avenue, Bethesda, MD 20814.)
Use of Animals in Biomedical Research. The Challenge and Response. American Medical Association White Paper. 1988. Chicago: American Medical Association. 36 pp. (Available from: AMA, 515 North State Street, Chicago, IL 60610.)
*Veterinary Ethics. J. Tannenbaum. 1989. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins. 358 pp.
Animals and Alternatives in Toxicity Testing. M. Balls, R.J. Riddell, and A.N. Worden, eds. 1983. London: Academic Press. 550 pp.
Alternatives to animals in toxicity testing. A.M. Goldberg and J.M. Frazier. 1989. Sci. Am. 261(2):24-30.
Alternatives to the use of live vertebrates in biomedical research and testing: Second annual annotated bibliography. Compiled by G.J. Cosmides, R. S. Stafford, and P.Y. Lu. 1990. ILAR News 32(1):A1-A18.
Laboratory Animals in Vaccine Production and Control: Replacement, Reduction and Refinement. C.F.M. Hendriksen and J.C. Petricciani. 1988. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers. 158 pp.
*Models for Biomedical Research. A New Perspective. National Research Council. 1985. A report of the Board on Basic Biology Committee on Models for Biomedical Research. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. 180 pp.
Nonmammalian Animal Models for Biomedical Research. A.D. Woodhead, ed. 1989. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. 393 pp.
Principles of Humane Experimental Technique. W.M.S. Russell and R.L. Burch. 1959. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas. 238 pp.
A statistical approach for calculating the minimum number of animals needed in research. H.N. Erb. 1990. ILAR News 32(1):11-16.
The Use of Alternatives in Drug Research. A.N. Rowan and C.J. Stratmann, eds. 1980. New York: Macmillan. 190 pp.
Utilization of alternative species for toxicity testing: An overview. L.B. Gross and T.D. Sabourin. 1985. J. Appl. Toxicol. 5:193-219.
*Recommendations for Governance and Management of Institutional Animal Resources. AAMC-AAU Ad Hoc Committee on the Governance and Management of Institutional Animal Resources. 1985. Washington, DC: Association of American Medical Colleges-Association of American Universities. 10 pp. (Available from: AAMC, Division of Biomedical Research, 1 Dupont Circle, NW, #200, Washington, DC 20036.)
Science and Animals: Addressing Contemporary Issues. H.N. Guttman, J.A. Mench, and R.C. Simmonds, eds. 1989. Bethesda, MD: Scientists Center for Animal Welfare. 149 pp. (Available from: SCAW, 4805 St. Elmo Avenue, Bethesda, MD 20814.)
Scientific Perspectives on Animal Welfare. W.J. Dodds and F.B. Orlans, eds. 1982. New York: Academic Press. 131 pp.
Effective animal care and use committees. Scientists Center for Animal Welfare. 1987. Lab. Anim. Sci. 37(Special Issue):1-178.
Alternatives to Pain in Experiments on Animals. D. Pratt. 1980. New York: Argus Archives. 283 pp.
Analgesia and behavioral effects of butorphanol, nalbuphine, and pentazocine in the cat. D.C. Sawyer. 1987. J. Am. Anim. Hosp. Assoc. 23:438-446.
Anesthesia. Canadian Council on Animal Care. 1980. Pp. 62-76 in Guide to the Care and Use of Experimental Animals, Vol. 1. Ottawa, Ontario: Canadian Council on Animal Care. (Available from: CCAC, 1105-151 Slater Street, Ottawa, Ontario K1P 5H3, Canada.)
Anesthesia and surgery of laboratory animals. W.J. White and K.J. Field. 1987. Vet. Clin. N. Am. 17:989-1017.
Anesthesia for rabbits and rodents. C.J. Sedgewick. 1980. Pp. 706-710 in Current Veterinary Therapy VII, R.W. Kirk, ed. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders.
Animal Anesthesia. C.J. Green. 1979. Laboratory Animal Handbooks 8. London: Laboratory Animals Ltd. 300 pp.
*Animal Pain. Perception and Alleviation. R.L. Kitchell and H.H. Erickson, eds. 1983. Bethesda, MD: American Physiological Society. 221 pp.
Animal Stress. G.P. Moberg, ed. 1985. New York: Oxford University Press. 332 pp.
Assessment of animal pain in experimental animals. L.R. Soma. 1987. Lab. Anim. Sci. 37:71-74.
Assessment of pain and stress. Canadian Council on Animal Care. 1980. P. 70 in Guide to the Care and Use of Experimental Animals, Vol. 1. Ottawa, Ontario: Canadian Council on Animal Care.
*Assessment of pain in animals. R.L. Kitchell and R.D. Johnson. 1985. Pp. 113-140 in Animal Stress, G. Moberg, ed. Bethesda, MD: American Physiological Society.
The challenge of balancing experimental variables: Pain, distress, analgesia, and anesthesia. F.M. Loew. 1987. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 191:1193-1194.
Control of animal pain and distress in antibody production and infectious disease studies. H.L. Amyx. 1987. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 191:1287-1289.
Control of stress using non-drug approaches. T.L. Wolfle. 1987. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 191:1219-1221.
Extrapolations for the pain research literature to problems of adequate veterinary care. C.J. Vierck. 1976. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 168:510-513.
Guidelines for the recognition and assessment of pain in animals. J. Sanford, R. Ewbank, V. Molony, W.D. Tavernor, and O. Uvarov. 1986. Vet. Rec. 118:334-338.
Guidelines for the use of tranquilizers, anesthetics, and analgesics in laboratory animals. H.C. Hughes, W.J. White, and C.M. Lang. 1975. Vet. Anesth. 2:19-23.
Handbook of Veterinary Anesthesia. W.W. Muir III and J.A.E. Hubbell. 1989. St. Louis: C.V. Mosby. 340 pp.
Ketamine anesthesia in chimpanzees and other great ape species. W.B. Bonner, M.E. Keeling, E.T. Van Ormer, and J.E. Haynie. 1972. The Chimpanzee 5:255-268.
*Laboratory Animal Anaesthesia. P.A. Flecknell. 1987. London: Academic Press. 156 pp.
Laboratory animal technicians: Their role in stress reduction and human-companion animal bonding. T.L. Wolfle. 1985. Vet. Clin. North Am. 15:441-454.
Large Animal Anesthesia: Principles and Techniques. T.W. Riebold, D.O. Goble, and D.R. Geiser. 1982. Ames: Iowa State University Press. 154 pp.
Pain and discomfort. How to recognize and manage pain associated with animal research. J.S. Spinelli and R.H. Morrish. 1987. Invest. Radiol. 22:348-52.
*Pain, Anesthesia, and Analgesia in Common Laboratory Animals. F.P. Gluckstein. 1987. National Library of Medicine Literature Search, No. 86-l7. (Available from: Literature Search Program, Reference Section, National Library of Medicine, 8600 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20894.)
Pain terms: A list with definitions and notes on usage. H. Mersky. 1979. Pain 6:249-252.
Perioperative analgesia: A surgeon's perspective. S.W. Crane. 1987. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 191:1254-1257.
Pharmacologic aspects of analgesic drugs in animals: An overview. W.L. Jenkins. 1987. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 191:1231-1240.
Physiologic basis and consequences of distress in animals. R.L. Kitchell. 1987. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 191:1212-1215.
The Practice of Small Animal Anesthesia. D.C. Sawyer. 1982. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders. 256 pp.
Preanesthesia, anesthesia, analgesia, and euthanasia. D.H. Clifford. 1984. Pp. 527-562 in Laboratory Animal Medicine, J.G. Fox, B.J. Cohen, and F.M. Loew, eds. Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
*Principles and Practices of Veterinary Anesthesia. C.E. Short, ed. 1987. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins. 669 pp.
Problems in defining stress and distress in animals. G.P. Moberg. 1987. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 191:1207-1211.
*Recognition and Alleviation of Pain and Distress in Laboratory Animals. National Research Council. In press. A report of the Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources Committee on Pain and Distress in Laboratory Animals. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
*Recognition and alleviation of pain in animals. P.A. Flecknell. 1985. Pp. 61-77 in Advances in Animal Welfare Science. Boston: Martinus Nijholt.
The relief of pain in laboratory animals. P.A. Flecknell. 1984. Lab. Anim. 18:147-160.
Research on pain mechanisms in animals. R. Dubner. 1987. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 191:1273-1276.
Restraint, venipuncture, endotracheal intubation, and anesthesia of miniature swine. H.A. Ragan and M.F. Gillis. 1975. Lab. Anim. Sci. 25:409-419.
Small Animal Anesthesia: Mosby's Fundamentals of Animal Health Technology. R.G. Warren, ed. 1983. St. Louis: C.V. Mosby. 367 pp.
*Veterinary Anesthesia. 2nd ed. W.V. Lumb and E.W. Jones. 1984. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger. 693 pp.
*Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics. 6th ed. N.H. Booth and L.E. McDonald, eds. 1988. Ames: Iowa State University Press. 1,227 pp.
*Anesthesia and surgery of laboratory animals. W.J. White and K.J. Field. 1987. Vet. Clin. N. Am. 17:989-1017.
Animal Physiologic Surgery. 2nd ed. C.M. Lang, ed. 1982. New York: Springer-Verlag. 180 pp.
*Basic Surgical Exercises Using Swine. M.M. Swindle. 1983. New York: Praeger. 237 pp.
Canine Surgery: A Text and Reference Work. 2nd ed. J. Archibald, ed. 1974. Wheaton, IL: American Veterinary Publications. 1,172 pp.
*Current Techniques in Small Animal Surgery. 3rd ed. M.J. Bojrab, ed. 1990. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger. 950 pp.
Experimental Surgery: Including Surgical Physiology. 5th ed. J. Markowitz, J. Archibald, and H.G. Downie. 1964. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins. 659 pp.
*Experimental and Surgical Technique in the Rat. H.B. Waynforth. 1980. New York: Academic Press. 269 pp.
Orthopedic procedures for laboratory animals and exotic pets. D.A. Rickards, P.J. Hinco, E.M. Morse. 1972. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 161:728-732.
*Small Animal Surgical Nursing: Mosby's Fundamentals of Animal Health Technology. D.L. Tracy, ed. 1983. St. Louis: C.V. Mosby. 347 pp.
Surgery of the Digestive System in the Rat. R. Lambert. 1965. (Translated from the French by B. Julien.) Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas. 501 pp.
*Techniques in Large Animal Surgery. 2nd ed. A.S. Turner and C.W. McIlwraith. 1989. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger. 381 pp.
Euthanasia agents and methods. D.C. Sawyer. 1988. Pp. 219-223 in Euthanasia of the Companion Animal, W.J. Kay, S.P. Cohen, C.E. Fudin, A.H. Kutscher, H.A. Nieburg, R.E. Grey, and M.M. Osman, eds. Philadelphia: The Charles Press.
Euthanasia of Amphibians and Reptiles. Joint UFAW/WSPA Working Party. 1989. Herts, England: Universities Federation for Animal Welfare (UFAW) and London: World Society for the Protection of Animals (WSPA). 35 pp.
*1986 Report of the AVMA Panel on Euthanasia. American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA) Panel on Euthanasia. 1986. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 188:252-266.
General References (Concerning more than one species or subject)
*American Association for Laboratory Animal Science Training Manual Series. D.M. Stark and M.E. Ostrow, eds. Vol. I: Assistant Laboratory Animal Technician, 1989, 186 pp.; Vol. II: Laboratory Animal Technician, 1990, 214 pp.; Vol. III: Laboratory Animal Technologist, in press. Cordova, TN: American Association for Laboratory Animal Science. (Available from: AALAS, 70 Timbercreek Drive, Cordova, TN 38018.)
*Clinical Biochemistry of Domestic Animals. 4th ed. J.J. Kaneko, ed. 1989. San Diego: Academic Press. 932 pp.
*The Clinical Chemistry of Laboratory Animals. W.F. Loeb and F.W. Quimby, eds. 1989. New York: Pergamon. 579 pp. Comfortable Quarters for Laboratory Animals. Rev. ed. Animal Welfare Institute. 1979. Washington, DC: Animal Welfare Institute. 108 pp.
*Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. National Research Council. 1985. A report of the Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources Committee on Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. NIH Pub. No. 86-23. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 83 pp.
*Guide to the Care and Use of Experimental Animals. Canadian Council on Animal Care. Vol. 1, 1980, 112 pp.; Vol. 2, 1984, 208 pp. Ottawa, Ontario: Canadian Council on Animal Care. (Available from: CCAC, 1105-151 Slater Street, Ottawa, Ontario K1P 5H3, Canada.)
*Laboratory Animal Housing. Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources Committee on Laboratory Animal Housing. 1978. Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences. 220 pp.
Laboratory Manual for Animal Technicians. V. Solberg. 1985. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press. 173 pp.
Laboratory Manual for Basic Biomethodology of Laboratory Animals. R. Hitzelberg, E. Lundgren, and J. Phillips. Vol. I: Mice, Rats, Guinea Pigs and Rabbits, 1985; Vol. II: Dog, Cat, Primate, 1987. Silver Spring, MD: MTM Associates, Inc.
Methods in Animal Physiology. Z. Deyl and J. Zicha, eds. 1988. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. 448 pp.
Principles of Proper Laboratory Animal Use in Research. G.R. Novak and R. Hitzelberg. 1989. Silver Spring, MD: MTM Associates, Inc. 171 pp.
The UFAW Handbook on the Care and Management of Laboratory Animals. 5th ed. Universities Federation for Animal Welfare (UFAW) Staff, ed. 1976. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone. 635 pp.
Carnivores
*Anatomy of the Dog. M.E. Miller, C. Christensen, and H.E. Evans. 1964. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders. 941 pp.
*Biology and Diseases of the Ferret. J.G. Fox. 1988. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger. 345 pp.
Canine Research Environment. J.A. Mench and L. Krulisch, eds. 1990. Bethesda, MD: Scientists Center for Animal Welfare. 82 pp. (Available from: SCAW, 4805 St. Elmo Avenue, Bethesda, MD 20814.)
Laboratory animal management: Cats. Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources Committee on Cats. 1978. ILAR News 21(3):C1-C20.
Domestic Animals
*The Biology of the Pig. W.G. Pond and K.A. Houpt. 1978. Ithaca, New York: Comstock Publishing. 371 pp.
The Calf. Management and Feeding. 3rd ed. J.H.B. Roy. 1970. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. 183 pp.
The Calf. Nutrition and Health. 3rd ed. J.H.B. Roy. 1970. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. 164 pp.
The Care and Management of Farm Animals. 2nd ed. W.N. Scott, ed. 1978. London: Bailliere Tindall. 254 pp.
Essentials of Pig Anatomy. W.O. Sack. 1982. Ithaca, NY: Veterinary Textbooks. 192 pp.
Guide to Ruminant Anatomy Based on the Dissection of the Goat. P.D. Garrett. 1988 ed. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press. 102 pp.
Horse Behavior: The Behavioral Traits and Adaptations of Domestic and Wild Horses, Including Ponies. G.H. Waring. 1983. Park Ridge, NJ: Noyes Publications. 292 pp.
Ruminants: Cattle, Sheep, and Goats. Guidelines for the Breeding, Care, and Management of Laboratory Animals. Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources Subcommittee on Standards for Large (Domestic) Laboratory Animals, Committee on Standards. 1974. Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences. 72 pp.
Nonhuman Primates
The Anatomy of the Rhesus Monkey (Macaca mulatta). C.G. Hartman and W.L. Strauss, Jr., eds. 1933. Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins. 383 pp. (Reprinted in 1970 by Hafner, New York).
An Atlas of Comparative Primate Hematology. H.J. Huser. 1970. New York: Academic Press. 405 pp.
Behavior and Pathology of Aging in Rhesus Monkeys. R.T. Davis and C.W. Leather. 1985. New York: Alan R. Liss. 380 pp.
Captivity and BehaviorþPrimates in Breeding Colonies, Laboratories and Zoos. J. Erwin, T.L. Maple, and G. Mitchell, eds. 1979. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. 286 pp.
Effects of environmental conditions on the psychological well-being of primates: A review of the literature. W.L. oolverton, N.A. Ator, P.M. Beardsley, and M.E. Carroll. 1989. Life Sci. 44:901-917.
A Handbook of Living Primates: Morphology, Ecology, and Behavior of Nonhuman Primates. J.R. Napier and P.H. Napier. 1967. London: Academic Press. 456 pp.
Housing, Care and Psychological Wellbeing of Captive and Laboratory Primates. E.F. Segal, ed. 1989. Park Ridge, NJ: Noyes Publications. 544 pp.
Laboratory animal management: Nonhuman primates. Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources, Subcommittee on Care and Use, Committee on Nonhuman Primates. 1980. ILAR News 23(2-3):P1-P44.
Laboratory Primate Handbook. R.A. Whitney, Jr., D.J. Johnson, and W.C. Cole. 1973. New York: Academic Press. 169 pp.
Living New World Monkeys (Platyrrhini). Vol. 1. P. Hershkovitz. 1977. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 117 pp.
Macaca mulatta. Management of a Laboratory Breeding Colony. D.A. Valerio, R.L. Miller, J.R.M. Innes, K.D. Courtney, A.J. Pallotta, and R.M. Guttmacher. 1969. New York: Academic Press. 140 pp.
Primates: Comparative Anatomy and Taxonomy. Vols. 1-7. W. C. O. Hill, ed. 1953-1974. New York: Interscience Publishers.
The Squirrel Monkey. L.A. Rosenblum and R.W. Cooper, eds. 1968. New York: Academic Press. 451 pp.
Well-Being of Nonhuman Primates in Research. J.A. Mench and L. Krulisch, eds. 1990. Bethesda, MD: Scientists Center for Animal Welfare. 86 pp. (Available from: SCAW, 4805 St. Elmo Avenue, Bethesda, MD 20814.)
Rabbits
Atlas d'Anatomie du Lapin [Atlas of Rabbit Anatomy]. 1973. Paris: Masson. 219 pp.
Atlas d'Histologie du Lapin [Histological Atlas of the Rabbit]. 1975. Paris: Librairie Maloine. 310 pp.
The Biology and Medicine of Rabbits and Rodents. 3rd ed. J.E. Harkness and J.E. Wagner. 1989. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger. 230 pp.
*The Biology of the Laboratory Rabbit. S.H. Weisbroth, R.E. Flatt, and A.L. Kraus, eds. 1974. New York: Academic Press. 496 pp.
Laboratory Anatomy of the Rabbit. 2nd ed. C.A. McLaughlin and R.B. Chiasson. 1979. Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown. 68 pp.
A Laboratory Guide to the Anatomy of the Rabbit. 2nd ed. E.H. Craigie. 1966. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. 115 pp.
Necropsy Guide: Rodents and the Rabbit. D.B. Feldman and J.C. Seely, eds. 1988. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. 176 pp.
The Rabbit: A Model for the Principles of Mammalian Physiology and Surgery. H.N. Kaplan and E.H. Timmons. 1979. New York: Academic Press. 167 pp.
Rabbit Feeding and Nutrition. P.R. Cheeke. 1987. Orlando, FL: Academic Press. 376 pp.
Rodents
Anatomy of the Guinea Pig. G. Cooper and A.L. Schiller. 1975. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 417 pp.
Anatomy of the Laboratory Rat. R. Hebel and M.W. Stromberg. 1976. Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins. 173 pp.
Anatomy of the Rat. E.C. Greene. Reprinted 1970. New York: Hafner. 370 pp.
The Biology and Medicine of Rabbits and Rodents. 3rd ed. J.E. Harkness and J.E. Wagner. 1989. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger. 230 pp.
The Biology of the Guinea Pig. J.E. Wagner and P.J. Manning, eds. 1976. New York: Academic Press. 317 pp.
Biology of the House Mouse. Symposia of the Zoological Society of London. No. 47. R.J. Berry, ed. 1981. London: Academic Press. 715 pp.
A Colour Atlas of the RatþDissection Guide. R.J. Olds and J.R. Olds. 1979. London: Wolfe Medical Publications Ltd. 112 pp.
The Golden Hamster: Its Biology and Use in Medical Research. R.A. Hoffman, P.F. Robinson, and H. Magalhaes, eds. 1968. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press. 545 pp.
Handbook on the Laboratory Mouse. C.G. Crispens, Jr. 1975. Springfield, Ill.: Charles C Thomas. 267 pp.
Histological Atlas of the Laboratory Mouse. W.D. Gude, G.E. Cosgrove, and G.P. Hirsch. 1982. New York: Plenum. 151 pp.
*Immunodeficient Rodents: A Guide to Their Immunobiology, Husbandry, and Use. National Research Council. 1989. A report of the Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources Committee on Immunologically Compromised Rodents. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. 246 pp.
*Laboratory animal management: Rodents. Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources Committee on Rodents. 1977. ILAR News 20(3):L1-L15.
Laboratory Hamsters. G.L. Van Hoosier, Jr. and C.W. McPherson, eds. 1987. Orlando, FL: Academic Press. 400 pp.
*The Laboratory Rat. H.J. Baker, J.R. Lindsey, and S.H. Weisbroth, eds. Vol. I, Biology and Diseases, 1979, 435 pp.; Vol. II, Research Applications, 1980, 276 pp. New York: Academic Press.
Long-term holding of laboratory rodents. Institute of boratory Animal Resources Committee on Long-Term Holding of Laboratory Rodents. 1976. ILAR News 19(4):L1-L25.
*The Mouse in Biomedical Research. H.L. Foster, J.D. Small, and J.G. Fox, eds. Vol. I, History, Genetics, and Wild Mice, 1981, 306 pp.; Vol. II, Diseases, 1982, 449 pp.; Vol. III, Normative Biology, Immunology, and Husbandry, 1983, 447 pp.; Vol. IV, Experimental Biology and Oncology, 1982, 561 pp. New York: Academic Press.
Necropsy Guide: Rodents and the Rabbit. D.B. Feldman and J.C. Seely, eds. 1988. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. 176 pp.
Research Techniques in the Rat. C. Petty. 1982. Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas. 382 pp.
Other Animals
Laboratory Anatomy of the Turtle. L.M. Ashley. 1955. Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C. Brown. 50 pp.
Laboratory Animal Management: Marine Invertebrates. National Research Council. 1981. A report of the Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources Committee on Marine Invertebrates. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. 382 pp.
*Laboratory Animal Management: Wild Birds. Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources Subcommittee on Birds, Committee on Standards. 1977. Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences. 116 pp.
Mammals of the Sea. S.H. Ridgway, ed. 1972. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas. 830 pp.
Physiology and Behaviour of the Pigeon. M. Abs, ed. 1983. London: Academic Press. 360 pp.
The Pigeon. W.M. Levi. 1974 (reprinted 1981). Sumter, SC: Levi Publishing. 667 pp.
Genetics and Probability in Animal Breeding Experiments. E.L. Green. 1981. New York: Oxford University Press. 271 pp.
Genetic Monitoring of Inbred Strains of Rats. A Manual on Colony Management, Basic Monitoring Techniques, and Genetic Variants of the Laboratory Rat. H.J. Hedrich, ed. In press. Stuttgart: Gustav Fischer Verlag.
Genetic Variants and Strains of the Laboratory Mouse. 2nd ed. M.F. Lyon and A.G. Searle, eds. 1989. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 876 pp.
Holders of inbred and mutant mice in the United States. Including the rules for standardized nomenclature of inbred strains, gene loci, and biochemical variants. D.D. Greenhouse, ed. 1984. ILAR News 27(2):1A-30A.
Inbred and Genetically Defined Strains of Laboratory Animals. P.L. Altman and D.D. Katz, eds. 1979. Part 1, Mouse and Rat, 418 pp.; Part 2, Hamster, Guinea Pig, Rabbit, and Chicken, 319 pp. Bethesda, MD: Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology. (Available from: Pergamon Press, Inc., Maxwell House, Fairview Park, Elmsford, NY 10523.)
Inbred Strains in Biomedical Research. M.F.W. Festing. 1979. London: Macmillan. 483 pp.
International standardized nomenclature for outbred stocks of laboratory animals. International Committee on Laboratory Animals (now called International Council for Laboratory Animal Science or ICLAS). 1972. A report of the Working Party to prepare an International Nomenclature System for Outbred Animals. ICLA Bull. 30:4-17. (Available from: ILAR, National Research Council, 2101 Constitution Avenue, Washington, DC 20418.)
Laboratory animal management: Genetics. Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources. 1979. ILAR News 23(1):A1-A16.
Origins of Inbred Mice. H.C. Morse, ed. 1978. New York: Academic Press. 719 pp.
Control of diets in laboratory animal experimentation. Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources Committee on Laboratory Animal Diets. 1978. ILAR News 21(2):A1-A12.
Effect of Environment on Nutrient Requirements of Domestic Animals. National Research Council. 1981. A report of the Board on Agriculture and Renewable Resources Subcommittee on Environmental Stress, Committee on Animal Nutrition. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. 152 pp.
Feeding and Nutrition of Nonhuman Primates. R.S. Harris, ed. 1970. New York: Academic Press.310 pp.
Feeds and Feeding. 3rd ed. A.E. Cullison. 1981. Reston, VA: Reston Publishing. 600 pp.
Nutrient Requirements of Beef Cattle. 6th rev. ed. National Research Council. 1984. Nutrient Requirements of Domestic Animals Series. A report of the Board on Agriculture Subcommittee on Beef Cattle Nutrition, Committee on Animal Nutrition. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. 90 pp.
Nutrient Requirements of Cats. Rev. ed. Board on Agriculture and Renewable Resources Panel on Cat Nutrition, Subcommittee on Laboratory Animal Nutrition, Committee on Animal Nutrition. 1978. Nutrient Requirements of Domestic Animals Series. Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences. 49 pp. (See also Taurine Requirement of the Cat.)
Nutrient Requirements of Dairy Cattle. 5th rev. ed. Board on Agriculture and Renewable Resources Subcommittee on Dairy Cattle Nutrition, Committee on Animal Nutrition. 1978. Nutrient Requirements of Domestic Animals Series. Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences. 76 pp.
Nutrient Requirements of Dogs. Rev. ed. Board on Agriculture and Renewable Resources Subcommittee on Dog Nutrition, Committee on Animal Nutrition. 1974. Nutrient Requirements of Domestic Animals Series. Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences. 71 pp.
Nutrient Requirements of Goats: Angora, Dairy, and Meat Goats in Temperate and Tropical Countries. National Research Council. 1981. Nutrient Requirements of Domestic Animals Series. A report of the Board on Agriculture and Renewable Resources Subcommittee on Goat Nutrition, Committee on Animal Nutrition. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. 84 pp.
Nutrient Requirements of Horses. 4th rev. ed. Board on Agriculture and Renewable Resources Subcommittee on Horse Nutrition, Committee on Animal Nutrition. 1978. Nutrient Requirements of Domestic Animals Series. Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences. 33 pp.
Nutrient Requirements of Laboratory Animals. 3rd rev. ed. Board on Agriculture and Renewable Resources Subcommittee on Laboratory Animal Nutrition, Committee on Animal Nutrition. 1978. Nutrient Requirements of Domestic Animals Series. Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences. 96 pp.
Nutrient Requirements of Nonhuman Primates. Board on Agriculture and Renewable Resources Panel on Nonhuman Primate Nutrition, Subcommittee on Laboratory Animal Nutrition, Committee on Animal Nutrition. 1978. Nutrient Requirements of Domestic Animals Series. Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences. 83 pp.
Nutrient Requirements of Poultry. 8th rev. ed. National Research Council. 1984. Nutrient Requirements of Domestic Animals Series. A report of the Board on Agriculture Subcommittee on Poultry Nutrition, Committee on Animal Nutrition. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. 71 pp.
Nutrient Requirements of Rabbits. 2nd rev. ed. Board on Agriculture and Renewable Resources Subcommittee on Rabbit Nutrition, Committee on Animal Nutrition. 1977. Nutrient Requirements of Domestic Animals Series. Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences. 30 pp.
Nutrient Requirements of Sheep. 5th rev. ed. Board on Agriculture and Renewable Resources Subcommittee on Sheep Nutrition, Committee on Animal Nutrition. 1975. Nutrient Requirements of Domestic Animals Series. Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences. 72 pp.
Nutrient Requirements of Swine. 8th rev. ed. Board on Agriculture and Renewable Resources Subcommittee on Swine Nutrition, Committee on Animal Nutrition. 1979. Nutrient Requirements of Domestic Animals Series. Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences. 52 pp.
Nutrition and Disease in Experimental Animals. W.D. Tavernor, ed. 1970. London: Bailliere, Tindall and Cassell. 165 pp.
Rabbit Feeding and Nutrition. P.R. Cheeke. 1987. Orlando, FL: Academic Press. 376 pp.
Taurine Requirement of the Cat. National Research Council. 1981. A report of the Board on Agriculture and Renewable Resources Ad Hoc Panel on Taurine Requirement of the Cat, Committee on Animal Nutrition. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. 4 pp.
United StatesþCanadian Tables of Feed Composition. 3rd rev. ed. National Research Council. 1982. A report of the Board on Agriculture and Renewable Resources Subcommittee on Feed Composition, Committee on Animal Nutrition. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. 148 pp.
Vitamins in Animal Nutrition. Comparative Aspects to Human Nutrition. L.R. McDowell. 1989. San Diego: Academic Press. 486 pp.
Allergy to laboratory animals in laboratory technicians and animal keepers. G. Agrup, L. Belin, L. Sjostedt, and S. Skerfving. 1986. Brit. J. Indust. Med. 43: 192-198.
Biohazards and Zoonotic Problems of Primate Procurement, Quarantine and Research. M.L. Simmons, ed. 1975. Cancer Research Safety Monograph Series, Vol. 2. DHEW Pub. No. (NIH) 76-890. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. 137 pp.
Biological Safety Manual for Research Involving Oncogenic Viruses. National Cancer Institute. 1976. DHEW Pub. No. 76-1165. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.
*Biosafety in Microbiological and Biomedical Laboratories. 2nd ed. Centers for Disease Control and National Institutes of Health. 1988. DHHS Pub. No. (NIH) 88-8395. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 139 pp. Classification of Etiologic Agents on the Basis of Hazard. 4th ed. U.S. Public Health Service Ad Hoc Committee on the Safe Shipment and Handling of Etiologic Agents. 1974. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.
*Control of biohazards associated with the use of experimental animals. W.E. Barkley and J.H. Richardson. 1984. Pp. 595-602 in Laboratory Animal Medicine, J.G. Fox, B.J. Cohen, and F.M. Loew, eds. Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
Design Criteria for Viral Oncology Research Facilities. National Cancer Institute. 1975. DHEW Pub. No. (NIH) 76-891. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. 24 pp.
Diseases Transmitted From Animals to Man. 6th ed. W.T. Hubbert, W.F. McCulloch, and P.R. Schnurrenberger, eds. 1975. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas. 1,206 pp.
Guidelines for Carcinogen Bioassay in Small Rodents. J.M. Sontag, N.P. Page, and U. Saffiotti. 1976. DHEW Pub. No. (NIH) 76-801. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. 65 pp.
Handbook of Laboratory Safety. 3rd ed. A.K. Furr, ed. 1990. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. 704 pp.
Laboratory Acquired Infections. 2nd ed. C.H. Collins. 1988. Boston: Butterworth. 288 pp.
Laboratory safety for arboviruses and certain other viruses of vertebrates. Subcommittee on Arbovirus Safety, American Committee on Arthropod-Borne Viruses. 1980. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 29:1359-1381.
National Cancer Institute Safety Standards for Research Involving Oncogenic Viruses. National Cancer Institute. 1974. DHEW Pub. No. (NIH) 78-790. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. 20 pp.
*NIH Guidelines for the Laboratory Use of Chemical Carcinogens. National Institutes of Health. 1981. NIH Pub. No. 81-2385. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 15 pp.
An Outline of the Zoonoses. P.R. Schnurrenberger and W.T. Hubbert. 1981. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press. 157 pp.
Potential for accidental microbial aerosol transmission in the biological laboratory. R.L. Dimmick, W.F. Vogl, and M.A. Chatigny. 1973. Pp. 246-266 in Biohazards in Biological Research, A. Hellman, M.N. Oxman, and R. Pollack, eds. Cold Spring Harbor, NY: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory.
Safe Laboratories: Principles and Practices for Design and Remodeling. P. Ashbrook and M. Renfrew, eds. 1990. Boca Raton, FL: Lewis Publishers. 135 pp.
Selected zoonoses and other health hazards. J.G. Fox, C.E. Newcomer, and H. Rozmiarek. 1984. Pp. 614-648 in Laboratory Animal Medicine, J.G. Fox, B.J. Cohen, and F.M. Loew, eds. Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
Toxoplasmosis of Animals and Man. J.P. Dubey and C.P. Beattie. 1988. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. 220 pp.
Clinical Textbook for Veterinary Technicians. D.M. McCurnin. 1985. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders. 511 pp.
Color Atlas of Comparative Veterinary Hematology. C.M. Hawkey and T.B. Dennett. 1989. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press. 192 pp.
Color Atlas of Diseases and Disorders of the Pig. W.J. Smith, D.J. Taylor, and R.H.C. Penny. 1990. Ames: Iowa State University Press. 192 pp.
Color Atlas of Veterinary Histology. W.J. Bacha, Jr. and L.M. Wood. 1990. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger. 269 pp.
Comparative Neuropathology. J.R.M. Innes and L.Z. Saunders, eds. 1962. New York: Academic Press. 839 pp.
Current Veterinary Therapy. VIII. Small Animal Practice. 6th ed. R.W. Kirk, ed. 1983. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders. 1,267 pp.
Handbook of Veterinary Drugs: A Compendium for Research and Clinical Use. I.S. Rossoff. 1975. New York: Springer Publishing. 730 pp.
An Introduction to Comparative Pathology: A Consideration of Some reactions of Human and Animal Tissues to Injurious Agents. G.A. Gresham and A.R. Jennings. 1962. New York: Academic Press. 412 pp.
Introduction to Veterinary Pathology. N.F. Cheville. 1988. Ames: Iowa State University Press. 537 pp.
Laboratory Profiles of Small Animal Diseases. C. Sodikoff. 1981. Santa Barbara, CA: American Veterinary Publications. 215 pp.
Nutrition and Disease in Experimental Animals. W.D. Tavernor, ed. 1970. Proceedings of a symposium organized by the British Small Animal Veterinary Association, the British Laboratory Animal Veterinary Association, and the Laboratory Animal Scientific Association. London: Bailliere, Tindall and Cassell. 165 pp.
Outline of Veterinary Clinical Pathology. 3rd. ed. M.M. Benjamin. 1978. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press. 352 pp.
Parasites of Laboratory Animals. R.J. Flynn. 1973. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press. 884 pp.
Pathology of Aging Rats. J.D. Burek. 1975. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. 230 pp.
Pathology of Laboratory Animals. 2 Vols. K. Benirschke, F.M. Garner, and T.C. Jones. 1978. New York: Springer Verlag. 2,171 pp. plus indexes.
The Pathology of Laboratory Animals. W.E. Ribelin and J.R. McCoy, eds. 1965. Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas. 436 pp.
The Problems of Laboratory Animal Disease. R.J.C. Harris, ed. 1962. New York: Academic Press. 265 pp.
Textbook of Veterinary Internal Medicine: Diseases of the Dog and Cat. 2nd ed. 2 Vols. S.J. Ettinger, ed. 1983. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders. 2,260 pp.
Veterinary Clinical Parasitology. 5th ed. M.W. Sloss and R.L. Kemp. 1978. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press. 276 pp.
Veterinary Clinical Pathology. 3rd ed. E.H. Coles. 1980. Philadelphia, PA: W.B. Saunders. 562 pp.
Veterinary Pathology. 5th ed. T.C. Jones and R.D. Hunt. 1983. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger. 1,792 pp.
Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics. 5th ed. L.M. Jones, N.H. Booth, and L.E. McDonald. 1982. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press. 1,134 pp.
Carnivores
Biology and Diseases of the Ferret. J.G. Fox. 1988. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger. 345 pp.
Domestic Animals
Current Veterinary Therapy. Food Animal Practice. J.L. Howard, ed. 1981. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders. 1,233 pp.
Diseases of Poultry. 8th ed. M.S. Hofstad, B.W. Calnek, C.F. Helmboldt, W.J. Reid, and H.W. Yoder, Jr., eds. 1984. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press. 832 pp.
Diseases of Sheep. R. Jensen. 1974. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger. 389 pp.
Diseases of Swine. 5th ed. A.D. Leman, R.D. Glock, W.L. Mengeling, R.H.C. Penny, E. Scholl, and B. Straw, eds. 1981. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press. 844 pp.
Nematode Parasites of Domestic Animals and of Man. N.D. Levine. 1968. Minneapolis, MN: Burgess Publishing. 600 pp.
Pathology of Domestic Animals. 3rd ed. K.V.F. Jubb and P.C. Kennedy. 1985. Vol. 1, 593 pp.; Vol. 2, 613 pp.; Vol. 3, 527 pp. New York: Academic Press.
Fishes
Diseases of Fishes. 1971. Book 2A, Bacterial Diseases of Fishes, G.L. Bullock, D.A. Conroy, and S.F. Snieszko, 151 pp.; Book 2B, Identification of Fish Pathogenic Bacteria, G.L. Bullock, 41 pp. Neptune, NJ: T.F.H. Publications.
Diseases of Fishes. Book 4, Fish Immunology. D.P. Anderson. 1974. Neptune, NJ: T.F.H. Publications. 240 pp.
Diseases of Fishes. Book 5, Environmental Stress and Fish Diseases. G.A. Wedemeyer, F.P. Meyer, and L. Smith. 1976. Neptune, NJ: T.F.H. Publications. 192 pp.
Fish Pathology. R.J. Roberts, ed. 1978. London: Bailliere Tindall. 328 pp.
Parasites of Freshwater Fishes: A Review of Their Treatment and Control. G.L. Hoffman and F.P. Meyer. 1974. Neptune, NJ: T.F.H. Publications. 224 pp.
The Pathology of Fishes. W.E. Ribelin and G. Migaki, eds. 1975. Madison: University of Wisconsin. 1,004 pp.
Systemic Pathology of Fish. A Text and Atlas of Comparative Tissue Responses in Diseases of Teleosts. H.W. Ferguson. 1989. Ames: Iowa State University Press. 263 pp.
Nonhuman Primates
Comparative Pathology in Monkeys. B.A. Lapin and L.A. Yakovleva. 1963. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas. 272 pp.
Diseases of Laboratory Primates. T.C. Ruch. 1959. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders. 600 pp.
Pathology of Simian Primates. R.N.T.W. Fiennes, ed. 1972. Part I, General Pathology; Part II, Infectious and Parasitic Diseases. Basel: S. Karger.
The Primate Malarias. G.R. Coatney, W.E. Collins, M.W. Warren, and P.G. Contacos. 1971. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. 366 pp.
Zoonoses of Primates. The Epidemiology and Ecology of Simian Diseases in Relation to Man. R.N.T.W. Fiennes. 1967. London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson. 190 pp.
Rabbits and Rodents
Color Atlas of Neoplastic and Non-neoplastic Lesions in Aging Mice. C.H. Hrith and J.M. Ward. 1988. Amsterdam: Elsevier. 109 pp.
Common Parasites of Laboratory Rodents and Lagomorphs. Laboratory Animal Handbook. D. Owen. 1972. London: Medical Research Council. 140 pp.
A guide to infectious diseases of guinea pigs, gerbils, hamsters, and rabbits. Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources Committee on Laboratory Animal Diseases. 1974. ILAR News 17(4):ID1-ID16.
Infectious Diseases of Mice and Rats. National Research Council. In press. A report of the Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources Committee on Infectious Diseases of Mice and Rats. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. (An abbreviated guide entitled Companion Guide to Infectious Diseases of Mice and Rats is also available.)
Pathology of Aging Syrian Hamsters. R.E. Schmidt, R.L. Eason, G.B. Hubbard, J.T. Young, and D.L. Eisenbrandt. 1983. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. 272 pp.
Pathology of Laboratory Mice and Rats. P.L. Altman, ed. 1985. Biology Databook Series. Aberdeen: Pergamon. 700 pp.
Pathology of Laboratory Rats and Mice. E. Cotchin and F.J.C. Roe, eds. 1967. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific. 848 pp.
Pathology of the Syrian hamster. F. Homburger, ed. 1972. Progr. Exp. Tumor Res. 16:1-637.
Other Animals
Disease Diagnosis and Control in North American Marine Aquaculture. C.J. Sindermann. 1977. New York: Elsevier. 329 pp.
Pathology of Zoo Animals. L.A. Griner. 1983. San Diego, CA: Zoological Society of San Diego. 608 pp.
The Principal Diseases of Lower Vertebrates. H. Reichenbach-Klinke and E. Elkan. 1965. New York: Academic Press. 600 pp.
*Design of a course to introduce research personnel in the care and use of laboratory animals. D.R. Faulkner. 1989. Lab Anim. 18(1):21-25.
An employee training program in research animal care and use. J.G. Hamner, B. Miller, and F. Ali. 1987. Lab Anim. 16(6):53-57.
*A pilot program on principles of animal experimentation for research technicians. G.L. Van Hoosier, Jr., B. Hammond, D. Johnson, and M.B. Dennis, Jr. 1985. Lab. Anim. Sci. 35:541.
Principles of Instructional Design. 3rd ed. R.M. Gagne, L.J. Briggs, and W.W. Wager. 1987. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. 384 pp.
Training for animal welfare. J. Larson. 1988. J. Am. College Toxicol. 7(4):441-446.
USDA's Perspective on Education. J.W. Glosser and P.H. York. 1988. J. Am. College Toxicol. 7(4):429-433.
No single reference includes all audiovisual materials that might in some way relate to the care and use of laboratory animals. The following organizations, however, publish catalogs that provide information on content, format, and costs of most programs available:
American Association for Laboratory Animal Science (AALAS). Publishes a catalog of slide-tape, film, and computer disc programs on all aspects of laboratory animal care and use. Maintains slide programs, primarily for training postdoctoral veterinary students, which are loaned free to members and for a fee to nonmembers. Contact: AALAS, 70 Timber Creek Drive, Cordova, TN 38018 (901-754-8621).
American Venterinary Association (AVMA). Publishes the Veterinary audiovisual Catalog, which lists programs relevant to veterinary medicine. Maintains library of films and videotapes that are loaned to members free of charge. Contact: AVMA, 930 North Meacham Road, Schaumburg, IL 60196 (800-248-2862).
Atlantic Provinces Council on the Sciences, Animal Care Committee. Published a catalog, compiled by William Threlfall (1989), entitled Audiovisual Materials Concerning the Care, Use, Behavior and General Biology of Animals, which contains a reading list and a list of audiovisual materials on a wide variety of subjects and on a large number of animal species. Contact: Dr. William Threlfall, Department of Biology, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, Newfoundland A1B 3X9, Canada (709-737-7498).
The following institutions maintain and lend or sell audiovisual programs on animal care and use:
Animal Welfare Institute. Has books and reprints expressing animal welfare advocate views on animal use and a film on humane care and housing of dogs in an experimental surgery laboratory. Contact: Animal Welfare Institute, P.O. Box 3650, Washington, DC 20007 (202-337-2333).
Center to Study Human-Animal Relationships and Environments. Has videotapes on interrelationships between people and animals, including animal behavior, domestication, human-animal bond, and research use. Contact: CEN/SHARE, University of Minnesota Media Distribution, Box 734 Mayo Building, 420 Delaware Street, SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455 (612-624-7906).
Foundation for Biomedical Research. Has videotapes, posters, books, and brochures on the human health benefits of using animals in research. Contact: Foundation for Biomedical Research, 818 Connecticut Avenue, NW, Washington, DC 20006 (202-457-0654).
Interactive Teleducation Corporation. Has image-based, computer-assisted interactive training programs on various laboratory animal topics. Contact: Innovative Medical Marketing Associates, 226 Sunny Jim Drive, Medford, NJ 08055 (609-654-5561).
Iowa State University. Has a slide programs, videotapes, and films on a variety of topics, including gross and microscopic anatomy and surgical techniques. A catalog is available. Contact: Biomedical Communications, 2261 College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011 (515-294-6988).
Laboratory Animal Training Association. Has videotapes, manuals, and a program that uses both computer programs and videotapes on the humane care and use of laboratory animals and on specific techniques. Contact: Laboratory Animal Training Association, 54 Remington Drive, Suite 301, Highland Village, TX 75067 (800-262-5282).
MTM Associates, Inc. Has videotapes and computer programs on basic biomethodology for laboratory animals. Contact: MTM Associates, Inc., P.O. Box 1606, Manassas, VA 22110 (Maryland phone number, 301-731-7360).
National Agricultural Library. Has slides, films, and videotapes on care and use of laboratory animals. For a catalog, contact: Animal Welfare Information Center, NAL, Room 205, Beltsville, MD 20705 (301-344-3212). To borrow audiovisual materials, contact: Lending Branch, NAL, Beltsville, MD 20705 (301-344-3755).
North Carolina State University. Has two slide/audiotape programs on anatomy, one on mice and rats and another on rabbits. Contact: Dr. James E. Smallwood, Department of Anatomy, Physiology, and Radiology, North Carolina State University, College of Veterinary Medicine, Raleigh, NC 27606 (919-829-4223). Also has videotapes on a variety of surgical and other techniques in animals. Contact: Biomedical Communications, North Carolina State University, College of Veterinary Medicine, Raleigh, NC 27606 (919-829-4489).
Pennsylvania State University. Has audiovisual programs on ethology of primates, hamsters, and other species. Contact: Audio-Visual Services, Pennsylvania State University, Special Services Building, University Park, PA 16802 (800-826-0132).
Southern Illinois University School of Medicine. Has videotapes on the ethics and use of animals in research. Contact: Southern Illinois University School of Medicine, P.O. Box 19230, Springfield, IL 62794 (217-782-3318).
Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center. Has videotapes on the use of animals in research. Contact: Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, UV Center, 3601 4th Street, Lubbock, TX 79430 (806-743-2288).
University of California, Davis. Has slide programs and videotapes on techniques using laboratory animals. Contact: Office of the Dean, Instruction, University of California, School of Veterinary Medicine, Davis, CA 95616 (916-752-6521).
University of Florida. Has videotapes on diseases of rabbits and rodents. Contact: Learning Resources Center Television, University of Florida, Box J16, Health Sciences Center, Gainesville, FL 32610-0016. (Make initial contact by phone at 904-392-4143).
University of Washington, Health Sciences Center for Educational Resources. Has slide sets with audiotapes and manuals on laboratory animal science and medicine and on performing a variety of techniques in the common laboratory species. A catalog is available. Contact: HSCER, University of Washington, T-281 Health Sciences SB-56, Seattle, WA 98195 (206-685-1186).
Wisconsin Regional Primate Center. Has slides, audiocassettes, films, and videotapes on nonhuman primate-related topics. Contact: Audio-Visual Services, University of Wisconsin, 1223 Capital Court, Madison, WI 53715-1299 (608-263-3512).
HOW TO DEVELOP, DELIVER, AND EVALUATE
AN EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM
EDUCATIONAL GOALS
The goal of education and training in laboratory animal care and use goes far beyond meeting stated requirements of regulating agencies. The intent of the requirement for education is to stimulate changes in knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors that will ensure humane care of animals used in teaching, testing, and research. The education and training methods you select will depend on your audience, the objectives that have been set, and the resources you have available.
Desirable changes in behavior do not automatically follow introduction of information. To help translate knowledge into performance, be sure the learner:
knows concepts well enough to integrate them into a complex
behavioral pattern;
develops confidence in skills associated with desired
behaviors;
connects rules and associated behaviors with a personal
benefit;
connects principles and rules with practical situations;
understands when and how to apply information;
knows the risks of noncompliance;
has access to services and resources available locally and
nationally; and
receives positive feedback or rewards for the desired
behaviors.
Changes in attitudes are stimulated by acquiring information
and increasing skills, but they are reinforced by interaction
with peers. Therefore, to facilitate a change in attitude the
education program for investigators should:
publicize both institutional and peer support for attending
educational programs and for complying with legal requirements;
encourage questions and discussions;
build networks; and
provide a forum for exchanging ideas and expressing
concerns.
A final goal of the program should be to document the
effectiveness of the institution's approach to training
scientists, technicians, and others involved with animal care and
use.
SETTING OBJECTIVES
Objectives must be established with a particular audience in mind. A measurable objective is a statement of what the learner should be able to do on completion of a particular educational or training experience. For example, at the end of a lecture, an appropriate goal would be for the learner to demonstrate recall, verbally or in writing. (Note: writing assumes a higher level of competence with language.) A higher level objective would be to ask the participant to apply information to a stated situation or case or to discriminate between situations as to whether a concept applies. Following a lecture and a hands-on laboratory, an appropriate goal would be for the participant to carry out a procedure acceptably, incorporating information and skills. There are three important considerations in setting objectives. First, they must be in line with the outcomes desired. Second, they should be consistent with real-life applications. Finally, the training must provide both the information and the skills to enable the learner to meet the objectives. Desired outcomes are generally increased knowledge or skills to enable performance of a task or changes in attitude that will be reflected in changes in behaviors.
Once specific subjects are identified for presentation, a variety of educational methods should be considered. Approaches should match the course content to the needs of the learners and to the available resources. Recommended methods include:
lectures, seminars;
interactive sessions þ discussions with peers: listening
teams, problem solving, case studies;
workshops
demonstrations, wet labs;
individualized study þ readings, videorecordings for home
viewing, audiotapes, computerized teaching modules or reviews,
audio programs; and
assessment tools
self-assessment, self-reporting.
Lectures/Seminars
A lecture/seminar format is recommended for presenting most of the introductory, core block of material. This format is suitable for groups of ny size, communicates the institutional mandate well, and makes the most efficient use of resources. A session might include several speakers who provide an introduction to the various topics listed. Prepackaged video or slide programs can be used effectively for portions of the presentation, particularly if the number of content experts is limited.
Provide some interactive experiences during the presentation of the core block, if at all possible. Suggestions for the presentation include the following:
Provide a panel of experts to address an issue and respond to questions raised by participants (Example: how to write a research protocol that meets the review needs of the institutional animal care and use committee).
Break a large group into smaller groups for a follow-up discussion of an issue presented (Example: responsibility of the investigator for health and safety of research associates).
Break a large group into smaller groups in accordance with an interest expressed or a commonality of their work (Example: people whose protocols include pain management or postsurgical monitoring in a particular species).
Have a structured refreshment break during which participants are asked to introduce themselves to someone they have not met and to discuss an issue (Example: what would you do if you observed another investigator who you felt was not complying with guidelines).
A workshop/laboratory is an opportunity to gain hands-on experience. Insofar as possible, labs should be species- or technique-specific, and groups should be kept small. The sessions should provide opportunities for each individual to participate in skill-building activities such as methods of handling animals and performing necessary procedures.
Adult learners, particularly those in a profession, tend to avoid situations in which they cannot demonstrate competence. Therefore, it is usually helpful to introduce the lab with a demonstration, slide show, or video presentation to provide background information. Demonstration with models is also highly recommended prior to hands-on experience. However, media is not a substitute for the hands-on experience needed for developing skills. The facilitator must be encouraging, positive, and patient toward learners who have little or no prior experience with a particular species of animal or procedure.
Adult learners appreciate individualized, independent study. A variety of individualized study approaches should be used, including:
recommended texts;
reprint files (computerized);
videotapes, slides, and print visuals;
computer simulations;
newsletters to update information, introduce new resources
and equipment, and provide reminders of policies;
checklists and protocols posted in prominent places;
a "buddy system" in which new investigators are introduced
to more experienced researchers, particularly for highly
specialized procedures; and
special-interest or study groups.
Self-assessment tools are a form of individualized independent study. They provide an investigator with an instrument to test his or her knowledge in a confidential way. This self-assessment tool could be a pencil-and-paper instrument or a computerized program. The essential characteristics are that the results are strictly for the benefit of the person completing the program and that the program identifies areas of weakness.
Self-assessment can be combined with self-reporting: a statement that the person has completed the program.
Some investigators may resent a requirement for education or give the program a low priority. Steps must be taken to overcome potential resistance. Some suggestions are as follows:
Obtain an endorsement of the program from the highest institutional official and send out letters announcing the program over his/her signature.
Involve several key people in planning the educational offerings, for example, people at the institution who represent the needs and views of the researchers, people who have the respect of investigators, or a person from whom resistance is anticipated. Explain the requirements, available resources, and limitations to those people, and encourage them to problem-solve and incorporate their ideas into an action plan. Name these people in publicity about the courses.
Make compliance with institutional goals as personalized and as easy as possible.
Develop packets containing species-specific information relating to requirements and guidelines.
Ensure access to information. Develop reading lists and catalog books and reprint files in the resource library by species and subject for easy access. If a major institutional library will be used as the resource library, arrange for a demonstration on how to locate relevant materials. Develop a "reference bank" of local investigators who have experience with exotic species or are experts in performing advanced techniques.
Find out from researchers what obstacles to implementation they perceive and develop a mechanism for reducing difficulties in changing behaviors.
Reward and encourage compliance by acknowledging investigators for their cooperation following successful inspections or accreditation visits. Build a positive image with an active public relations program, such as by displaying articles about research accomplishments.
A complete education program for researchers and their assistants will:
disseminate required information
increase awareness
improve skills
affect behaviors
change attitudes
A well-organized educational program will conserve time and resources, be customized to the content needs of the learners, and be flexible enough to encourage enthusiastic participation.
Careful planning and preparation are required to provide informative, well-organized courses. Attention to detail cannot be overemphasized. Up to 6 months should be allowed to organize and implement the first offering of each course.
Each course must be designed for a specific audience to encourage active participation and achieve desired results. The audience should be defined on the basis of job responsibilities, educational level, experience, motivation, and training needs. This audience profile will help the trainer establish program goals, objectives, content, and presentation method. For example, a program for people who support animal research efforts peripherally, such as security, janitorial, or equipment maintenance personnel, will be designed differently from a program for scientific staff. Likewise, a course for newly hired research staff will include introductory information that may be inappropriate or redundant for staff members who have been employed by the institution for several years.
A course budget should be allocated to include honoraria and travel expenses for guest speakers; duplication of handout materials; rental, purchase, or development of audiovisual support materials; room and equipment rental; and costs of publicity.
The goals and learning objectives must be defined clearly during the early phases of course development. As Kemp (1971) has stated, "A good goal is a nonambiguous statement. It means exactly the same thing to all other teachers who use it." Each speaker or course facilitator should be given specific instructional goals for his/her section, which may be communication of information, motivation, or skill building. From these goals, specific learning objectives can be developed that reflect the institution's mission, the scope of the laboratory animal research projects, and the audience profile. In traditional academic settings, selected learning objectives would become the basis of test questions. In most adult education settings, the learning objectives are shared with course participants, who can use them to structure their learning experience or, after the course, to assess their retention of course content. Sample objectives or self-assessment statements are shown in Appendix III for the Core, Species-Specific, Pain-Management, and Surgery modules.
The frequency with which training programs are given and their scheduling depends on the total number of people who will receive training, the approximate number who will attend each session, and the availability of facilities and other resources. Mandatory training, which includes the core material required by federal regulations and institutional policy, is likely to be offered more frequently than are training opportunities for special topics or skill development. Offering multiple options for the dates and time of training will better enable scientists to participate with minimal disruption to their research and teaching efforts.
The training facility or facilities should be identified and evaluated before final scheduling is begun. Selection of a location convenient to the participants should be a primary consideration. The size of the room, the acoustics, and the lighting must be appropriate for the teaching format.
Once the schedule is established and time is allocated for each content area, speakers for each segment of the program should be identified and contacted. The choice of speakers might include members of the laboratory animal resource staff; investigators with expertise in a topic area; members of the institutional animal care and use committee; and personnel from public affairs, safety, or occupational health departments. Guest speakers might be desirable for certain topics. The selection criteria for speakers should include not only professional qualifications, but also their level of enthusiasm, oral presentation skills, commitment to the training effort, and ability to speak at the level of the participants.
Audiovisuals are effective teaching tools and will help reinforce what is being said. Research has shown that people remember only 10% of what they hear, but will retain 50% of what they both hear and see. The materials and the equipment should be identified and reserved. The equipment must, of course, be compatible with the slides, videotapes, or films that are to be used.
All audiovisual aids should be previewed for content and technical quality. It may be appropriate to show only part of a film or slide program or to add slides to supplement the program. Slides or overheads should be uncluttered and easy to understand. It is better to use several slides than to crowd too much information on a single slide. Dark backgrounds and colors are more effective than are black on white.
Audiovisual resources can be borrowed from a number of sources, including the National Agriculture Library, the American Veterinary Medical Association, the American Association for Laboratory Animal Science, and the Foundation for Biomedical Research. Part IV furnishes more detailed information on ordering and purchasing audiovisual programs. In most instances, orders must be placed at least 4 weeks in advance.
A large amount of information can be provided to participants as reference materials. These materials must be identified and ordered or duplicated. They might include sections from reference texts, institutional manuals, reprints, or copies of resources such as the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals (NRC, 1985) and the 1986 Report of the AVMA Panel on Euthanasia (AVMA, 1986). A bibliography has been provided in Part IV to assist in the selection of appropriate literature. Reference material should relate directly to course material presented to the participants.
The program must be well publicized beginning approximately 6 to 8 weeks before the program is offered. This requires producing, duplicating, and mailing the announcement. Inclusion of all or part of the institutional commitment letter might encourage participation. A statement of the program's purpose and a brief outline of the topics and speakers should also be included.
Investigators should be asked to indicate which session(s) they plan to attend to ensure adequate seating and allow preparation of an appropriate number of handouts. Confirmation of attendance or program reminders should be distributed approximately 2 weeks before the program starting date.
AVMA (American Veterinary Medical Association). 1986. 1986 Report of the AVMA Panel on Euthanasia. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 188:252-268.
Kemp, J.E., 1971. The Instructional Design Process. Belmont, CA: Fearon Publishers.
NRC (National Research Council). 1985. Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. A report of the Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources Committee on Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. NIH Pub. No. 86-23. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 83 pp.
Evaluation of a program charts progress toward institutional goals and also measures changes in attitudes and behaviors of the entire target population. To measure success in reaching the target audience, it is necessary to obtain baseline data, such as estimates of the size of the target audience at present plus estimates of the annual influx of new people. This information can be used to determine the percentage of the target audience who have participated in the education and training program.
Improvements in level of knowledge at an institutional level can be documented by comparing responses of groups that have attended courses with those that have not. It is important to gather baseline data before the first course is offered, as people who attend are likely to share information and demonstrate skills to others who have not yet attended, thus raising the knowledge and skill level for personnel taking subsequent courses. To evaluate success at an institutional level, course results should be compared with data obtained before the first course was given.
An attitude is an internal state that can be inferred from a behavior; therefore, attitudes can be measured by the choices an individual makes (Gagne and Briggs, 1979). To document changes in attitude, identify behaviors that indicate undesirable attitudes and behaviors that would result if attitudes were changed. For example, if an emphasis of the program is to increase cooperation between researchers and veterinary care staff, the number of contacts could be documented over a period of several weeks before the course is given and compared with the number of contacts after the course has been given. Other possibilities are to measure the number of people who attend education and training sessions voluntarily or changes in the use of animals. Consideration must be given to all elements that will be measured. For example, if the comparison is between personnel voluntarily attending at the beginning of the education program and those voluntarily attending later, it must be remembered that with each course given, a smaller pool of untrained people may remain, and this pool will contain the personnel who are most resistant to participating in the program. Likewise, a simple change in the number or species of animals used may be a misleading measure, since animal use must correlate with the number and type of projects and the effectiveness of research data obtained.
Courses should be evaluated routinely to monitor their effectiveness and identify those portions that require modification. Program participants should be surveyed immediately following each training session to gather specific information about the course organization and content and quality of instruction (see Table 3.1).
The methods and instruments used to elicit responses should be consistent, so that the training coordinator can use both historical and current information to evaluate programs and recommend changes. The most common method of evaluation is a check list of topics, with a choice of descriptive responses ranging on a scale from "1" to "10" (see Table 3.2). Statistical analyses usually require a variance of three points to distinguish differences in responses. Open-ended questions are more difficult to collate and quantitate but might provide insight that cannot be elicited from form questions. Forced-choice (yes or no) questions are often used, particularly when the questions involve value judgments or opinions.
A follow-up survey, conducted 6-12 months later, should be used to evaluate the impact training has had on the participant's planning and conduct of research, testing, and teaching (see Table 3.3). Qualified members of the laboratory animal medical staff may also observe actual research procedures that involve animal handling to ensure that the training has been effective and correct technique is being practiced. The institutional animal care and use committee might want to develop its own set of guidelines for evaluating the investigator's training and ability to conduct animal research.
Gagne, R.M. and L.J. Briggs. 1979. Principles of Instructional Design. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. 384 pp.
TABLE 3.1 Suggested Items for Immediate Course Evaluation
Course Organization
Allocation of time
Overall
Individual sections Content
Appropriateness of level
Applicability to job requirements
Individual Presentations
Quality of instruction for each major presentation
Preparation of speaker(s)
Clarity and conciseness of presentation(s)
Discussion encouraged
Questions handled well
Effectiveness of format
Lecture
Audiovisual
Printed materials
Small-group discussions
Wet-labs
Satisfaction with the Course
Which topic was most beneficial?
What changes would you recommend?
What topics should be added or deleted?
Would you recommend this program to your colleagues?
TABLE 3.2 Examples of Evaluation Instrument Form
Position and Job Category
Course Title Date
Strongly Strongly
Agree Disagree
The course was well organized. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
The time devoted to each topic was
appropriate. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
The program content was appropriate for
my job responsibilities. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Instructor John Doe's material was well
organized. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Instructor John Doe presents the material
well. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
I have a new level of understanding of
the issues as a result
of this course. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
TABLE 3.3 Examples of Items for Follow-up Course Evaluation
Position and Job Category
Course Title Date
Did the course help you to [for example] prepare animal
care and use procedure statements?
Did the course provide you with resources that were helpful
in planning and conducting your research?
What have you done differently as a result of this course?
The development of knowledge necessary for the improvement of the health and well-being of humans as well as other animals requires in vivo experimentation with a wide variety of animal species. Whenever U.S. Government agencies develop requirements for testing, research, or training procedures involving the use of vertebrate animals, the following principles shall be considered; and whenever these agencies actually perform or sponsor such procedures, the responsible institutional official shall ensure that these principles are adhered to:
I. The transportation, care, and use of animals should be in accordance with the Animal Welfare Act (7 U.S.C. 2131 et seq.) and other applicable Federal laws, guidelines, and policies.
II. Procedures involving animals should be designed and performed with due consideration of their relevance to human or animal health, the advancement of knowledge, or the good of society.
III. The animals selected for a procedure should be of an appropriate species and quality and the minimum number required to obtain valid results. Methods such as mathematical models, computer simulation, and in vitro biological systems should be considered.
IV. Proper use of animals, including the avoidance or minimization of discomfort, distress, and pain when consistent with sound scientific practices, is imperative. Unless the contrary is established, investigators should consider that procedures that cause pain or distress in human beings may cause pain and distress in other animals.
V. Procedures with animals that may cause more than momentary or slight pain or distress should be performed with appropriate sedation, analgesia, or anesthesia. Surgical or other painful procedures should not be performed on unanesthetized animals paralyzed by chemical agents.
VI. Animals that would otherwise suffer severe or chronic pain or distress that cannot be relieved should be painlessly killed at the end of the procedure or, if appropriate, during the procedure.
VII. The living conditions of animals should be appropriate for their species and contribute to their health and comfort. Normally the housing, feeding, and care of all animals used for biomedical purposes must be directed by a veterinarian or other scientist trained and experienced in the proper care, handling, and use of the species being maintained or studied. In any case, veterinary care shall be provided as indicated.
VIII. Investigators and other personnel shall be appropriately qualified and experienced for conducting procedures on living animals. Adequate arrangements shall be made for their in-service training, including the proper and humane care and use of laboratory animals.
IX. Where exceptions are required in relation to the provisions of these Principles, the decisions should not rest with the investigators directly concerned but should be made, with due regard to Principle II, by an appropriate review group such as an institutional animal research committee. Such exceptions should not be made solely for the purpose of teaching and demonstration.
Appropriations of $750,000 per year for fiscal years (FY) 1987 and 1988 to fund the new information center were directed to the library through the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS). Funding for FY 1989 was added to NAL's base budget. The funding has been used to provide services to patrons, develop information products, purchase reference materials, and hire staff. Presently, the staff includes a coordinator and three technical information specialists.
As directed by Congress, the AWIC staff emphasizes the acquisition of new aterials related to the welfare of laboratory animals. Literature dealing with the welfare of farm animals and wild animals, however, represents a significant portion of the present NAL collection. Literature that involves the use of research animals as experimental units but does not address the welfare of the animals is generally not indexed. This type of information is collected by the National Library of Medicine. Also, because the Primate Information Center, University of Washington, has an extensive collection of primate-related materials, literature involving the use of laboratory primates is generally not indexed by NAL.
To access its extensive information resources, the NAL provides computerized bibliographic retrieval services through its in-house database Agricultural On-Line Access (AGRICOLA). This and other databases enable the staff to develop customized bibliographies tailored to the specific information needs of the patron. Established in 1970, AGRICOLA contains nearly 2.5 million citations covering aspects of agriculture and related subjects such as plant and animal production, food and nutrition, forestry, entomology, biotechnology, and rural development. While there is currently no database specifically for animal welfare, approximately one-fifth of the AGRICOLA database is devoted to citations on animal production, laboratory animal science, veterinary medicine, and animal welfare. AGRICOLA is currently available through the database vendors DIALOG Information Retrieval Service (in files 10 and 110) and theBibliographic Retrieval Service (BRS) (in file CAIN), or commercially on compact disc. AGRICOLA/CAIN can be accessed from these vendors using standard dial-up computer terminals. The publication Searching AGRICOLA for . . . Animal Welfare details strategies and techniques for efficiently searching the database for animal welfare topics on both DIALOG and BRS. Other databases commonly utilized by the AWIC staff include the DIALOG files CRIS (60), MEDLINE (154,155), EMBASE (72,172,173), BIOSIS PREVIEWS (5,55), and CAB ABSTRACTS (50,53).
The staff also maintains vertical files of subjects and organizations related to animal care and use. These provide an excellent source of contact people and information about related organizations, as well as quick reference to current events and popular animal-related topics. The files contain records of acquisitions and clippings from current newspapers and magazines. They also include information about the history of animal welfare, legislation and guidelines pertaining to animal care and use, and organizations involved in animal welfare or animal research. Other files are devoted to specific subject-related topics such as laboratory ferrets, computer simulations, guidelines for animal care in the United Kingdom, the Draize test, laboratory animal identification, and technician training.
The staff has developed an extensive network of subject experts and organizations active in the area of animal care and use. Referrals to individuals and groups may be provided on request.
A table-top exhibit describing the purpose and functions of AWIC is available for loan to interested groups. The display is sent by overnight mail, and copies of AWIC publications can be included. Return shipment must be arranged and paid for by the requestor.
AWIC services are available to USDA employees; federal, state or local government staff; academic and private institution staff; industry staff; students; and the general public. Under some circumstances, non-USDA personnel may be billed for services. Materials held in the collection can be obtained on interlibrary loan through institutional, business, academic, or public libraries. The information sheet Document Delivery Services to Individuals details the photo, duplication and loan services to patrons for requested information. Information can be obtained by phone or mail request or by visiting AWIC in person.
To fill patron requests as quickly and thoroughly as possible, a number of bibliographic reference publications have been developed on specific topics in the area of animal welfare. These bibliographies address subjects that have been identified as critical animal welfare issues. For example, bibliographies are available on the Draize and LD50 tests, alternatives to the use of live animals for research and education, euthanasia, legislation, training materials for technicians and investigators, ethical and moral issues, transgenic animals, reference materials for members of institutional animal care and use committees, toxoplasmosis in laboratory animals, sources of simulation software, and laboratory animal housing and management. All AWIC bibliographies are distributed without charge. Many of these bibliographies are routinely updated to reflect new developments in each area, and efforts will continue to be directed toward developing new reference publications.
Since 1987, AWIC has supported a number of projects, either financially or through active participation, that promote the mandates of the Animal Welfare Act. The following projects were funded with grant monies provided by AWIC:
An annotated bibliography of important literature relating to animal welfare entitled Laboratory Animal Welfare Bibliography, compiled by the Scientists Center for Animal Welfare (SCAW). (Available from SCAW and AWIC). An updated bibliography, also supported by AWIC, is in preparation.
A handbook, partially funded by AWIC, produced by the National Research Council, Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources, entitled Recognition and Alleviation of Pain and Distress in Laboratory Animals.
An educational videotape program, Alternatives in Animal Research, produced by Texas University Health Sciences Center, which will survey past and present ethical issues relating to animal research and discuss the concepts of reduction, refinement, and replacement in the context of experimental design and planning.
Proceedings of a conference held June 22-25, 1988, by the Sientists Center for Animal Welfare (SCAW) entitled Science and Animals: Addressing Contemporary Issues, covering various aspects of animal experimentation. (Available for purchase from SCAW at $25.00 per copy.)
Two updated guidelines documents, Laboratory Animal Management: Rodents and Laboratory Animal Management: Dogs, to be produced by the National Research Council, Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources.
Two publications on alternative animal toxicology testing methods entitled Benchmarks: Alternative Methods in Toxicology and A Predictive Model for Estimating Rat Oral LD50 Values, which were produced by the Princeton Scientific Publishing Company (Available for purchase from Princeton Scientific.)
Twenty slide programs on care of animals to be produced by the American College of Laboratory Animal Medicine.
Intelligence query assistance software in animal welfare produced by TOME Associates. (Available from AWIC.)
AWIC has also participated in formal cooperative agreements with several groups. The following joint projects have been implemented:
An animal care training manual for principal investigators produced in collaboration with the University of Illinois at Chicago.
Two reference volumes produced with the Agricultural Library of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign entitled Laboratory Animal Welfare Training Resource Directory and Laboratory Animal Welfare Research Guide.
An expert software system for anesthesia and analgesia in laboratory animals to be developed in association with the Central Animal Resource Facility of the University of Maryland.
A videotape documenting normal and abnormal behavior of farm animals to be developed in association with Jack Albright, Purdue University.
A Spanish language training videotape entitled The Humane Care and Use of Laboratory Animals to be produced in association with the Laboratory Animal Training Association.
Publication of the proceedings of the SCAW-sponsored conference entitled Agricultural Animals in Research, which was held in September 1990.
Additional activities recently undertaken by AWIC, in cooperation with other groups, include:
Distribution of Chick Embryo Biology Information System (CEBIS), a bibliography prepared by John Bowen, University of Georgia, College of Veterinary Medicine.
Establishment of guidelines with the National Library of Medicine for the cooperative acquisition of materials relating to animal welfare.
Assumption of printing costs and distribution of the publication Animal Care and Use in Behavioral Research: Regulations, Issues and Applications. These proceedings of the invited papers session of the 1988 Animal Behavior Society meeting were prepared by the University of Colorado at Denver.
Patrons are welcome to visit AWIC and other NAL offices on weekdays from 8:00 am to 4:30 pm. A tour of the NAL facilities is available by appointment. For current updates regarding AWIC and NAL, the monthly newsletter Agricultural Libraries Information Notes is available free-of-charge. The Agricultural Library Forum (ALF), an electronic bulletin board system, also provides current information about new and existing products and services of AWIC and NAL and serves as a forum for the exchange of agricultural information between libraries, information centers, and other users. A "Brief Guide" to ALF has been prepared to introduce the major features of the system and to help callers get started.
For additional information please contact Animal Welfare Information Center, National Agricultural Library, 10301 Baltimore Blvd., Room 205, Beltsville, MD 20705 (301-504-6212).
Quick Bibliographies
Animal Models of Disease (QB 89-07)
Animal Welfare Legislation and Regulation (QB 89-23)
Ethical and Moral Issues Relating to Animals (QB 89-03)
Stress in Swine (QB 89-09)
Welfare of Experimental Animals (QB 89-18)
Annotated Bibliographies:
An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Materials Concerning
the Philosophy of Animal Rights
Laboratory Animal Welfare Bibliography (Scientist Center for
Animal Welfare/National Agricultural Library)
Search Tip Series
Searching AGRICOLA for . . . Animal Welfare (STS 88-01)
Special Reference Briefs
Alternatives to the Use of Animals in Research and Education
(SRB 88-11)
Animal Care and Use Committees (SRB 89-06)
Animal Euthanasia (SRB 88-12)
Biotechnology: Methodologies Involved in the Production of
Transgenic Animals (SRB 88-10)
The Draize Eye-Irritancy Test 1979-1988 (SRB 89-02)
The LD50 (Median Lethal Dose) Toxicity Test 1980-1988 (SRB
89-04)
Salmonella in Laboratory Animals (SRB 89-01)
Miscellaneous
ALF (Agricultural Library Forum): The National Agricultural
Library's Electronic Bulletin Board System: A Brief Guide
The Animal Welfare Information Center Brochure
Animal Welfare Information Center Scope Notes for Indexers
Animal Welfare Information Center: Serials List
Animal Welfare Legislation: Bills and Public Laws
1980-October 1988
Animal Welfare Legislation: Bills and Public Laws November
1988-January 1989. Bills Submitted to the 101st Congress
Animal Welfare Legislation: February 1989-April 1989. Bills
Submitted to the 101st Congress
Audio-Visuals in the Collections of the National Agricultural
Library Relating to Animal Welfare
Reference Materials for Non-Affiliated Members of Animal Care
and Use Committees
Training Materials in the Collections of the National
Agricultural Library Relating to Animal Welfare
The following are samples of learning objectives or self-assessment statements that coordinators may want to use or adapt for use at their institutions. Additional statements should be developed as necessary.
Laws, Regulations, and Policies That Impact on the Care and Use of Animals State the primary sources of regulations and policies affecting the care and use of laboratory animals.
State the major provisions of the Animal Welfare Act regulations and PHS policy.
Describe the composition and functions of the IACUC.
Outline the required contents of your institution's PHS Assurance Statements and annual reports to the USDA and the PHS Office of Laboratory Animal Welfare.
Describe the possible penalties for noncompliance with federal regulations and policies.
Describe the policies of your institution that affect research protocols.
Compare key elements of the deontological and the utilitarian positions on the use of animals in research, education, and testing.
List six ethical principles suggested in the U.S. government's Principles for the Utilization and Care of Vertebrate Animals Used in Testing, Research, and Training.
Discuss what you might do differently in the future in response to concerns over use of animals in research.
Define the "3R's".
Cite examples of nonanimal research methods and models that might aid you in your research goals.
Discuss how regulations and policies on the use of alternatives affect your present and future projects.
Cite the factors that influence animal model selection.
List services that you can use to gather information on alternatives and indicate how you have access to these services.
State three major institutional responsibilities.
List the mandated responsibilities of the IACUC.
Discuss how delegating authority to the IACUC provides protection to the institution, individual investigators, and research animals.
State six major categories of investigator responsibility and describe how these might be delegated among the principal investigator, co-investigators, and technical staff.
If your institution has policies relating to the major categories of institutional responsibility, state where copies of these policies can be obtained.
Define pain, stress, and distress.
State the principles of nonmalficence and beneficence.
Describe situations in which pain can be present when reflex responses are absent and absent when reflex responses are present.
Describe physiologic and behavioral signs that may indicate the presence of pain and distress.
Discuss steps taken by your institution in carrying out its legal obligations to minimize and control pain in animals.
Discuss the concept of adequate veterinary care as it relates to relief of pain.
Give an example of a pharmacologic agent that can produce each of the following: general anesthesia, analgesia, tranquilization, sedation, and chemical immobilization.
List factors that are major determinants for calculating drug doses and drug effectiveness.
List physiologic functions that should be monitored during general anesthesia.
Describe how an anesthetic overdose is diagnosed, and what you would do if an overdose occurred.
Describe requirements for recordkeeping associated with the use of pharmacologic agents, including special records required for procuring and storing controlled drugs.
Define major, minor, survival, and nonsurvival surgeries.
Describe the facility and equipment requirements for performing survival surgery on rodents and on mammals other than rodents.
Describe the major considerations for aseptic surgery.
List the most common complications of survival surgery, and describe the environment and care that is necessary to prevent morbidity and pain.
Describe in detail the records that must be kept for an animal on which a surgical procedure is performed.
Discuss the legal requirements for performing euthanasia on laboratory animals and cite the sources of laws, regulations, policies, and guidelines.
List several examples of chemical methods of euthanasia and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each.
List several examples of nonchemical methods of euthanasia and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each.
Cite reasons for selecting the method of euthanasia that was chosen for use in your research protocol.
Discuss ways in which professional and support staff may respond to the performance of euthanasia.
Describe in detail your institution's protocol for disposal of animal carcasses, including any special considerations that may apply to your project.
Discuss benefits to animal research derived from control of environmental variables.
Describe in detail the measures you have taken to ensure that the animals used for your research, teaching, or testing program are housed and cared for at all times in conformance with USDA regulations and PHS policy.
Describe the measures that will be taken to protect your animals in case of emergencies, such as a power failure.
Give examples of where you can find information regarding alternatives to use of animals.
Describe where you can find information on earlier studies related to your work.
Describe the resources available to you within your institution or community.
For your specific project(s), discuss the reasons for your choice of animal(s) to be studied.
Discuss any legal requirements and institutional policies related to procurement of the animal(s) you have chosen for study.
Discuss who is responsible for ensuring good husbandry practices and appropriate handling of the animals used in your project.
For the animals selected, state the size and construction materials of the cages you will be using, the population density that is appropriate, and the food and water delivery systems that will be used.
Discuss factors in the macroenvironment that are important to the particular species used in your research.
For the given species:
State normal physiologic paramenters.
Describe physiologic and behavioral signs associated with pain
and distress.
List the signs of common diseases or conditions that require
veterinary intervention.
For a given species, indicate routine precautions that should be taken to prevent transmission of disease.
State recommended precautions for handling known high-risk animals.
Assemble all instruments and material for performing a given procedure.
Indicate the structures or landmarks that will guide performance of the technique, including any structures that must be avoided.
State how you will know if the procedure is progressing as planned and how to respond to an error.
Indicate the method of euthanasia to be used in a given project, and give the reasons for selecting that method.
Discuss the potentially painful aspects of your project and ways in which you will monitor subjects for pain and distress.
Discuss what you are required to do to meet your legal and ethical obligations.
Discuss how the attending veterinarian can assist you.
Suggest several ways that research staff and caregivers can reduce pain and distress in research animals without using pharmacologic agents.
Give examples of situations in which you might choose to use a tranquilizer, an analgesic, or a neuromuscular blocking agent.
For a specific animal and drug, calculate dosage and give details of administration.
Explain "dosage to effect" for anesthetics, and list factors that influence effectiveness.
Write out instructions for preanesthesia, initial dose of anesthetic, and follow-up dosage, as necessary, specifying time intervals and methods of monitoring effectiveness.
Describe signs of overdose, and state what interventions you would initiate.
Discuss conditions under which you would be required to kill an animal before completion of the experiment and the procedure you would follow.
Write a proposal for survival surgery on the species of your choice, providing sufficient information to demonstrate compliance with legal and institutional requirements.
For a specific procedure on the species of your choice, describe in detail all areas of preparation for aseptic surgery, indicating who on the surgical team is involved in each action.
For a specified animal and surgical protocol, write a pain-management protocol, stating dosage and assessment of effectiveness.
For a specified animal, give the range of vital signs that you would consider acceptable during the surgical procedure and methods of monitoring vital signs during and immediately after surgery.
Describe the surgical procedure(s) you are using in your research, including equipment and instruments needed.
Describe the suture material preferred for the surgical procedure of your choice and state what precautions you would take to prevent dehiscence and infection.
For a specific animal and a specific procedure, write a protocol for routine postsurgical monitoring, including indicators of when the animal can be returned to normal caging.
Describe the signs of shock and state what interventions you would initiate in the presence of these signs.
List and describe all pertinent and required items that should be entered into the medical record of an animal subjected to surgery.
For a given animal, elect a method of euthanasia and indicate the exact procedure, including confirmation of death, and disposal method that you would use.
Animal Welfare
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