BESIDES THE CONCENTRATED strawberry breeding work of some European countries and the extensive culture of strawberries in most of them, and besides the work in the United States and Canada, there is considerable culture of strawberries and some breeding work in other countries. All of these other countries have benefitted to some degree from varieties imported from the United States, England, or Europe, or from all of these; while in some of these countries no breeding work whatsoever has been done, and the country's industry was entirely founded upon varieties developed elsewhere. Japan, Mexico, South Africa, New Zealand, and Australia, the countries represented in this chapter, display various relationships of breeding and industry; from a country such as Mexico, whose industry is based upon varieties originated in the United States, to Japan, where government-supported breeding has proceeded for a considerable time in order to advance a highly developed industry based on American and European varieties. Where breeding work is conducted in these five countries, objectives are usually the same as elsewhere; the development of virus-tolerant plants adapted to the particular region. In the case of Mexico, an extensive strawberry industry exists because varieties have already been bred in the United State which can be grown there, even if they are not well suited to the industry's needs. There is little doubt but that much better adapted varieties could be bred for Mexico.
It is said that strawberries were first cultivated in Japan about 1727 and that some more were grown in 1856. As a commercial crop on a large scale, however, strawberry growing is relatively new to Japan. The first varieties were introduced from the United States in 1872 and 1875, followed by the small-fruited F. vesca from France in 1884. Dr. Hayata Fukuba (Plate 18-1c and Fig. 18-1) of the Shinjuku Imperial Gardens imported four varieties into Japan in 1889; included among them were Docteur Morere and General Chanzy from France. Dr. Fukuba also introduced the Fukuba about 1899, growing it from seed of General Chanzy. Fukuba is high-flavored and of immense size as grown under cover and on the hillsides with cement-block culture. It is similar in shape, size, and appearance to the Florida Ninety, but it is not as early as the Florida Ninety is in Florida. It has been the most important forcing variety in Japan for over forty years. Later, Louis Vilmorin, Saint Joseph, Louis Gauthier, and Marguerite were introduced from France and Royal Sovereign, Sir Joseph Paxton, and Victoria were introduced from England. Royal Sovereign was grown until the 1930's. In recent times Donner, Fairfax, Marshall, Shasta, and Robinson from the United States have been grown.
In 1939 the acreage set to strawberries was given as 17,500. In 1963 the reported planting in strawberries was about 20,800 acres. The centers of the strawberry industry, the varieties grown in each, and the kind of culture given each is shown on the map (Fig. 18-2). It should be noted that strawberries are grown from Hokkaido, about the latitude of central Michigan, south to Kyushu, about the latitude of southern Georgia. The varieties now used are as follows (1 = most important for each culture; 2 is next; etc.):
| Varieties for field culture | For hillside cement-block cover culture 1. Fukuba 2. Benizuru 3. Hottawander 4. Shikinari (word means everbearing) | ||||||||||||||||
| For tunnel culture | ||||||||||||||||
| 1. Kogyoku | |||||||||||||||||
| For matted row culture | 2. Donner | ||||||||||||||||
| 1. Mimakigahara No. 1 | 3. Benizuru | ||||||||||||||||
| 2. Fujisaki | 4. Yachiyo | ||||||||||||||||
| 3. Shunko No. 1 | 5. Hottawander | ||||||||||||||||
| 4. Chikuma | 6. Shikinari |
In percentage of total acreage Kogyoku composed about 40 percent, Donner about 30 percent, "Marshall" about 5 percent, Chiyoda about 5 percent, Yachiyo about 3 percent, Hokowase about 3 percent, and the others 14 percent.
Kogyoku (Plate 18-1b) was obtained in 1940 by Mr. K. Tamari (Fig. 13-34) and is of unknown parentage. One report is that Kogyoku was raised from seed of Fairfax. It is the most widely grown variety because of its very large, early-ripening berries. Although its fruits have only fair flavor, Kogyoku has a vigorous, widely adapted plant which is easy to raise. Donner (Plate 18-1c) is a high-flavored variety originated by Thomas and Goldsmith in California. Recently Donner has been replacing Kogyoku in all parts of Japan because of its better flavor. "Marshall," also called America, is probably not the same as the Marshall variety of the United States. It was the most important variety about 1955.
In recent years breeding work has been carried on at four principal experiment stations in Japan, the first three national and the fourth a state one: Morioka, Iwate-ken; Okitsu Branch, Shimizu, Shizouka-ken; Kurume Branch, Fukuoka-ken and the Kik Yogahara Branch, Nagano-ken. A little breeding work is carried on at some other state (ken) stations. The varieties resulting from this work are becoming important in commercial culture. The map (Fig. 18-3) shows the location of the principal experiment stations now breeding strawberries and some of the varieties originated at each station.
Kurume Branch, Hort. Res. Sta. Strawberry breeding for warm climates began at the Kurume station in 1950 (Fig. 18-4) and the Howard 17 (Premier) was found to be a valuable parent there. By 1954, 24,000 seedlings had been grown and 14 clones released for trial as "Kurume 1 to 14" for dessert and preserving use. From this work, Chikushi (tested as Kurume 1) for dessert use, was named. Kurume 102 and Kurume 103 are grown to a slight extent. Chiyoda (Plate 18-1e), Benizuri, and Yachiyo were later introduced. The next crosses of this station were made in 1956 and a total of 49 selections for fresh market and for processing had been made from crosses up to the end of 1961. In addition, 140 selections for forcing had been made. In 1962, 3,269 seedlings were grown from crosses, a sample series being Chiyoda x #7-3-17, x Dixieland, x Donner, x Shelton, and x Sioux. Objectives of the breeding of this station are fresh market, preserving, and freezing varieties for warm climates, and forcing varieties.
| Variety | Year Introduced | Experiment Station | Variety | Year Introduced | Experiment Station |
| Aga | 1960 | Nigata | Holei | 1961 | Nagano |
| Benizuru | 1960 | Kurume | Hogyoku | 1956 | Tokushima |
| Chikushi | 1951 | Kurume | Koro | 1953 | Okitsu |
| Chiyoda | 1958 | Kurume | Shunko No. 1 | 1852 | Nagano |
| Chikuma | 1952 | Nagano | Takane | 1959 | Okitsu |
| Fujisaki | 1952 | Morioka | Yachiyo | 1961 | Kurume |
| Fukuba | 1899 | Shinjuku Imperial Gardens, Tokyo |
Okitsu Branch, Hort. Res. Sta. Objectives of breeding at this middle latitude station have been processing and disease-resistant varieties. In much of the breeding, Temple, resistant to red stele root rot, has been used as one parent. In 1961, there were 37 selections made from 6,101 seedlings of Okitsu x Temple and 573 selections from 1,542 seedlings of other crosses. Two varieties from this station, Koro in 1953 and Takane in 1959, have been named and introduced.
Morioka Branch, Hort. Res. Sta. Work at this station (formerly at Fujisaki) began in 1938. Objectives of this station have been processing varieties for northern cooler Japan and an evaluation of inbreeding. To obtain processing varieties, 10 varieties were used as mother plants in 60 crosses, 8,330 seedlings raised, and 683 first selections made; Hanaoka Tamotsu is the strawberry breeder here. Fujisaki (Dorsett x Ettersburg) from this station has been quite successful as a processing berry in northern Japan and Hokkaido.
Kik Yogahara Branch, Nagano-ken Agr. Exp. Sta. Breeding for fresh market and for processing varieties of large size, high flavor, and color for northern latitudes have been primary objectives. Combining ability of varieties is being studied. Over 4,500 seedlings were planted in 1961. Two varieties, Holei (1961) and Shunko No. 1 (1962) have been named and introduced.
The Benizuru originated at the Kurume Station as a cross of (Miyazaki x The Sun) x Fukuba and introduced in 1960, is a very early variety that by forcing under tunnels and with plastic on the ground is harvested from the end of November through the winter months. It is far more vigorous than the Fukuba now, and is earlier by two weeks; it is resistant to high temperatures and produces runners freely. It is equally good in flavor, has glossy crimson, long conic necked fruits somewhat like Fukuba but with red flesh. Its production in February under plastic is heavier than under "Ishigaki" (concrete block hillside) cultivation.
Yachiyo. This plant, also from the Kurume Station, was selected in 1957 from seedlings of the cross Lassen x "America" and was introduced in 1961. It is firm-fruited, blunt conic with a neck, attractive, deep glossy red, and preserves well. It is early and adapted to forcing for table use and preserves, but is grown in field culture also.
Chikushi, from the Kurume Station, is from a cross of Miyazaki x Fairfax. lt is extremely large, irregular blunt conic, bright scarlet with a pale flesh, firm, good in flavor, and producing few runner plants.
Chiyoda. This plant was selected also by the Kurume Station from a cross of America x Midland. It is round, blunt conic, deep-red with red flesh, firm, a good shipper, high-flavored, and suitable for preserves and freezing. lt is liked for its early crop in the paddy fields.
Others bred at experiment stations are:
| Ago-Fukuba x Fairfax | Kobe |
| Chikuma-Daikanko x Fairfax | Koro-"Marshall" x Fairfax |
| Fujisaki-Dorsett x Ettersburg | Shunko No. I-Mimakigahara x Dorsett |
| Hogyoku-seedling of Fukuba (selected in 1956) | Takane-Haikara x Fairfax |
| Holei | Mimakigahara |
THE INDUSTRY. In northern Japan and Hokkaido the main systems of culture, especially when fruit is raised for processing, are the matted row systems. Hill culture (Fig. 18-5) is also used in these locations, but chiefly for fresh market berries. In southern Japan the plants usually are raised in the nursery and transplanted into the paddy fields after rice has been harvested (Fig. 18-6). After berry harvest in early spring, the plants are pulled out and vegetables or rice are set to be grown in the summer. During the cold season, nearly a third of the field culture is covered with plastic stretched over split bamboo to hasten the ripening (Figs. 18-7 to 18-9). This is called "tunnel" culture. It has many variations, especially in the size of tunnels. Cement block culture or Ishigaki culture (Ishigaki = stonewall) is a type of forcing on steep hillsides (Figs. 18-10 to 18-12), originated soon after 1900 in the Kuno area in Shizuoka-ken, using stones to retain heat. After 1920 cement blocks took the place of stones.
A report on acreage for 1963 gave three classes of culture -- cement-block culture or hillside culture, with 470 acres (yield 6,381 quarts per acre for 1961), tunnel culture with 6,200 acres, and field culture, with 14,100 acres (yield 4,940 quarts per acre for 1961). There were 109 acres of cement-block hillside culture in Shizuoka and 126 acres in Kanagawa. Field culture is widely distributed; Shizuoka had 2,020 acres and, in the north, Hokkaido had 2,045 acres.
Red stele root rot (negusare disease) has become serious in some fields in the southern part of Japan.
The chart that follows shows the varieties, the planting and harvesting seasons for each type of culture.
| Culture type | Planting dates | Harvesting dates | Varieties | |
| Forcing by concrete blocks on hillsides | { | Sept. 10-30 Sept. 20-Oct.10 | Nov-Dec. Dec. - March | Shikinari, Hottawander, (Fig. 18-7) Benizuru Fukuba |
| Forcing in tunnels | { | Sept. 10-30 Oct. 1- Nov. 10 | Dec. - March March 20-May 10 | Shikihari, Hottawander, Benizuru |
| Forcing under mulch | Oct. 10 - Nov. 10 | April 10, May 10 | Chiyoda | |
| Field | Oct. 10-Nov.30 | May 1 - June 10 | Kogyoku, "Marshall," Chiyoda | |
| Late | Oct. 1 - 20 | May 20-June 20 | Donner, Kogyoku | |
| Cold Storage; in tunnels | { | Sept. 1-20 Sept. 20-30 | Oct. 10-Nov. 20 Nov. - Dec. | Kogyoku, Chiyoda, Takane |
| Matted row | -- | June - July | Mimakigahara, Fujisaki, Shunko No. 1, Progressive, Chikuma | |
Mr. K. Ninomiya, of the Shizuoken-ken Experiment Station, has published (1961) a book on the strawberry for growers in which he describes the 28 leading varieties and briefly discusses strawberry breeding.
The acreage in strawberries for 1962-1963 for all of Australia was reported as 1,041 acres of which 567 acres were in Victoria, 270 in Queensland, 100 in Tasmania, and lesser amounts in the other provinces. Breeding at present is carried on by I.A. Bonner at the Redland Horticultural Research Station, Ormistan, Queensland, and by J.E. Cox and V.C. Austen at the Horticultural Research Station, Narara, New South Wales. About 1,000 seedlings are raised each year at this latter station.
In 1962 Holbeche and Cox reported that the main varieties grown were the following:
Richmond Red, originated by N.S. Shirlow of the Hawkesbury Agricultural College, Richmond, N.S.W. (Fendalcino x British Sovereign, named about 1936), is medium-sized, blunt-conic, dark-red, fair-flavor, firm, and transports well, but is subject to leaf spot.
Ettersburg, one of the Etter varieties, is medium-sized, blunt-rounded, bright-red, and subject to leaf spot.
Auchincruive Climax, of Scotland, is medium in size, fair flavor, and subject to leaf spot.
Phenomenal, of Queensland, is of good flavor and bright red.
Majestic, of Queensland, is large, conic, and subject to mildew and leaf spot.
Bountiful (Fendalcino x Wamberal Beauty), was originated in New South Wales by J.E. Cox and V.C. Austen and introduced in 1958. It is good-sized, long-conic, fair-flavored, light-red, soft, and resistant to leaf spot.
Kendall, originated by the New South Wales Department of Agriculture and introduced in 1961, is an open-pollinated seedling of Richmond Red selected in 1958 and raised by J.E. Cox and V.C. Austen of the Narara Horticultural Research Station near Gosford. It matures from June to January with a flush of crop in October, and is recommended for the Coastal Districts. It is reported as highly resistant to leaf diseases but susceptible to gray mold. Holbeche (personal letter) stated that in 1965 Redgauntlet, Cambridge Vigour, Massey, Auchincruive Climax, and Midland were recommended for inland and Kendall for the coastal areas.
The Phenomenal, a variety originated in Queensland, has been the widely grown variety. Majestic, introduced recently, has outyielded Phenomenal and is increasing in popularity. It led to breeding at the Redland Station where it has demonstrated its valu e as a parent.
The acreage for New Zealand is given as 421 in 1963-1964 and the average yield over four years as 4.7 tons. About half (48 percent) of the production is in North Auckland, much of it near Auckland and the rest scattered in Wellington, Auckland, Canterbury, and Hawke's Bay.
No strawberry breeding as carried on in England and Scotland is being done in New Zealand. Some breeding to obtain varieties tolerant to virus and resistant to red stele root rot was reported in 1958. Marguerite and Melba and then Capt. Cook were formerly the chief varieties; now the chief varieties are Redgauntlet, Cambridge Favourite, and Talisman, of Great Britain. Talisman does not yield well and is declining in importance. Bedford, Shasta, Chapman's Seedling, Solana, and Merton Princess are known.
No figures of acreage set to strawberries in South Africa were found, but in the 1957-1958 season 445 tons were reported as used by the canning industry. From about 1944 to 1954 "Everbearing" was by far the leading variety grown. Having a light-red, soft, medium to large berry of poor flavor and a plant tolerant of virus, it was reported as composing 90 per cent of the total production in the early 1950's. Another variety, Koeal, was also grown to a limited extent.
Beginning in 1940, breeding for adapted varieties was started at Stellenbosch, Western Province Fruit Research Station, by P.A.L. Steyn and has continued there on a limited scale to the present. From the early crosses, three selections were released in 1954:
(1) Bien Donné No. 1. [(Tardive de Leopold seedling x German strawberry) x Everbearing] It is a very large, deep-red, good-flavored variety suitable for jam as well as fresh. It is virus tolerant.
(2) Bien Donné No. 2. (Same parentage as above) This is a pistillate plant with fruit medium to large, light red, and good flavor, which is suitable for jam. It is resistant to leaf spot.
(3) Bien Donné No. 3. (Corvallis x Everbearing) Its berries are medium to small, with very good flavor, and suitable for jam; it is productive, virus tolerant, and leaf-spot resistant.
These three replaced the "Everbearing" almost entirely by 1960. Two of the Bien Donné varieties (Nos. 1 and 2) were used in further breeding and in 1954, 1,747 seedlings were planted and by 1959 reduced to eight selections, four of Bien Donné No. 1 x Missionary and four of Bien Donné No. 1 x Massey.
Publication: "Strawberries in South Africa," Bul. 372; 26 pp., 1960, by P.A.L. Steyn.
For perhaps one hundred years, strawberries have been grown in the vicinity of Irapuato, Guanajuato, which is about two hundred miles northwest of Mexico City; the older varieties being selections of F. chiloensis, called Negrita and Poderosa, and grown to supply domestic markets. Commercial strawberry production in quantity began in 1948, with the opening of the first freezing plant in Irapuato which is located at about 5,700 feet on a plateau area irrigated from streams and deep wells.
Beginning about 1953, the industry expanded to the region about Zamora, east of Guadalajara, in the State of Michoacan, about two hundred miles from Irapuato, and, on a more limited basis, to Obrajuelos, in the State of Queretaro. The Zamora area is higher than that around Irapuato.
By 1954 there were about 2,400 acres planted to strawberries. Foreign Agriculture Circular of April 1964 gave the 1964 acreage as some 14,000 acres, about 9,000 of this is Guanajuato, and about 5,000 in Michoacan. The production per acre, though low, is increasing from 2.0 tons in 1960 to 2.6 tons in 1964. A high yield for the Klondike is 3.5 tons with 4.5 to 6 tons for the Florida Ninety.
Importation of frozen strawberries into the United States from Mexico increased from about 14,000,000 pounds in 1959 to over 45,000,000 pounds in 1964. Canadian imports from Mexico were over 4,000,000 pounds in 1963. In 1963 the total frozen pack was 44,000,000 pounds, of which about 5,300,000 pounds were used in Mexico. There were thirteen strawberry freezing plants in Mexico in 1964. Although the Klondike is preferred for freezing, most packers will accept Florida Ninety, with the same price being paid for all varieties. Florida Ninety and Solana may yield 50 percent more than the Klondike. Normally, most of the frozen berries are packed during March and April.
Shipments of fresh berries to United States markets have also increased in recent years. The Florida Ninety and, to a limited extent, Solana have been used for this purpose. In 1958, 13,000 pounds were exported and 2,449,000 pounds in 1963. In some years a few berries begin ripening by November; 41,000 pounds being exported in that month and 103,000 pounds in December of 1962; 576,000, 702,000, 318,000, 595,000, and 113,000 pounds were exported in the months January to May, 1963, respectively. The fresh packs shipped into the United States compare favorably with those of U.S. origin and compete primarily with fruit from Florida and other southern states. In contrast, the fruit marketed in domestic Mexican markets, usually in baskets holding 12 to 14 pounds, is generally badly packed and poorly handled. Nevertheless, an increase in domestic sales from slightly over 2,000,000 pounds during the early 1950's to 12,600,000 pounds in 1962 was reported. One day's work by strawberry labor in Mexico currently (1963) costs about the same as one hour of similar work in California. Nearly all the cash cost of strawberry production is financed by companies which pack frozen berries or ship fresh ones.
Plants are usually set from May through August, but mostly in July and August, and picking begins in November. Most fields are kept for a single crop. Because of the short days and the cool climate due to the elevation, flower buds and fruit are produced the year through. Berries could be harvested the year through, but harvesting stops when the rainy season begins in late May or June. A common system of planting is in double rows with the plants 8 inches apart each way on raised beds which are spaced about 36 inches from the center of one to the center of the next. All runners are removed. The two principal hazards are frosts, which average seventeen per winter, and the rainy seasons. In 1964, about 90 percent of the plantings were grown as an annual crop; only the remaining 10 percent were bearing their second crop.
Although the soil is alkaline, summer rains are sufficient to leach out the salts. Salinity, Verticillium wilt, the absence of suitable planting stock, relatively poorly adapted varieties, and a need for the experimental evaluation of cultural practices constitute the greatest problems of this area. No breeding work with strawberries is conducted in Mexico; the industry being entirely founded on varieties originated in the United States, none of which is fully adapted to the region of their cultivation.
* By R. S. Bringhurst and George M. Darrow.