1 15 2 https://www.nal.usda.gov/exhibits/speccoll/files/original/23110566ae333eafeb62529c76749ab3.pdf 5d24e730862d31611905c768aab6833c PDF Text Text ItemDNumber 04244 Author D Taylor, Gale D. USAF Environmental Health Laboratory RepOrt/ArtlOlB TitlB Typescript: Description of the Proposed Ocean Dumping Site: Herbicide Orange Journal/Book Title Year °000 Month/Day Color D Number of Images 39 DOSCrlptOll NOtBS There are three versions of the report. Handwritten corrections Wednesday, January 16, 2002 Page 4244 of 4258 �DESCRIPTION OF THE PROPOSED OCEAN DUMPING SITE: HERBICIDE ORANGE Presented by: •Gale D. Taylor, Lt Col, USAF, VC Chief, Veterinary Ecology/Toxicology Division USAF Environmental Health,Laboratory Kelly AFB, TX 78241 �TABLE OF CONTENTS SECTION '' I. INTRODUCTION II. • • , PAGE , THE OCEAN ENVIRONMENT 1 . A.- General .... .' • B. Ocean Food Chains III. 3 A. Location B. Physical Features 3 ..... 3 3 4 1. pH 2. Dissolved Oxygen Sal inity Light Temperature Wind and Water Currents..." 1. Biomass and Primary Productivity 2. Benthos Abundance 3. Commercial Fishing SUMMARY... REFERENCES , 5 5 6 7 7 C. Biological Features. IV. ,.:. 1 2 DESCRIPTION OF PROPOSED DISPOSAL SITE.. 3. 4. 5. 6. 1 \ 7 -......,. 8 8 10 .' 11 �PROPOSED OCEAN DUMPING SITE I. INTRODUCTION A. Using presently available knowledge of ocean characteristics and eco.systems, it is possible to develop criteria for acceptable ocean disposal sites and examine specific locations to determine their suitability for this use. This presentation lists site criteria and .describes the area designated for incineration of herb.icide Orange. B. Pequegnat , in his testimony to EPA concerning the ocean dumping of incineration waste in the Gulf of Mexico, stated that the general advantages of offshelf disposal of industrial wastes are: 1) the presence of great volumes of water, 2) relatively simple water and air currents, 3) Tittle stratification of the water column, and 4) relatively little productivity in the.area. The area chosen for disposal should possess all these characteristics. This position statement will show that the area designated for the disposal of incinerated herbicide Orange is acceptable in all aspects. II. THE OCEAN ENVIRONMENT A. General The open ocean provides the best medium for the disposal of incinerated organic waste. It is one of the least productive areas of the �world.10 It has the capacity to absorb, without deleterious effects, large amounts of degradable and inorganic wastes. What small effect occurs at the •time of incineration is transient due to internal recovery of .the ecosystem of the particular area and by immigration from adjacent areas. Not all marine environments are unproductive.. Estuarine and inshore waters, unlike the open ocean, are quite productive. These ecosystems may double the total production (in biomass) of terrestrial agriculture under irrigation and produce up to 30 times more than the open ocean such as the proposed disposal site. Estuaries and inshore waters have the attributes of lower salinity a.nd higher nutrients due to the inflow of fresh water and also have the advantage of shallower depths. Disposal of materials far from land produces the least environmental impact simply because it is being put immediately into an unproductive ecosystem where it can then degrade. When materials are disposed of on land, eventually they may move through the hydrologic system to rivers, estuaries, and inshore waters where severe environmental impact may be exerted before degradation can take place. Also bioaccumulation of toxic or hazardous materials could occur with still further adverse implications. With the exception of a total recycling system, incineration in the unproductive open ocean is the most environmentally safe alternative of waste disposal known. B. Ocean Food Chains The primary producers are photosynthetic plankton. organisms assimilate inorganic materials into organic matter. These They consist �mostly of microscop'ic diatoms and dinoflagellates although in some areas green and brown algae may predominate. These organisms are found in.the euphotic zone, which in some instances may extend down to 1000 meters, but the bulk of the production is in the upper 100 meters. Crustaceans and protozoa graze upon the phytoplankton, and they in turn are fed upon by carnivores such as fish. The food chain for -carnivores is a long, complex and intermingled web. Below the euphotic zone nearly all the pelagic animals are predators. The benthic organisms are scavengers or decomposers feeding on detritus falling from the zones above them. III. DESCRIPTION OF PROPOSED DISPOSAL SITE A. Location The disposal site is,located between 15° 45' to 17° 45' N latitude and 171° 30' to 172° 30' W longitude. It comprises approximately 911-7 sq miles. The reported mean depth is between 4937 and 5486 meters with a minimum depth of 3575 meters an.d a maximum of 5568 meters. It is located approximately 120 miles SW of Johnston Island and 1200 statute miles SW of the Hawaiian Islands. The area is generally regarded as being one of the least productive areas in the Pacific Ocean.^» 5 Very little specific data is available for this particular area but several areas in the Pacific Ocean have been studied and data can be taken from these studies. B. Physical Features 1. pH . " High pH in the receiving medium is necessary for adequate chemical dissolution of the pyrolysis products of incineration. Among these �products is HC1 which would tend to lower the pH of the receiving water. Ocean water has.a strong carbonate buffer system along with borate. and silicon systems. The diffusion of C02 into the upper ocean levels ^and biological activity at that level give the ocean an alkaline pH strongly resistant to change. In the Pacific Ocean, the pH profile shows a distinct inflection. A pH maximum of 8.2 - 8.3 in the first 100 m can be attributed to C02 diffusion.and biological activity. The pH minimum of 7.5 - 7.7 occurs at 200 - 1200 m and is associated with the minimum oxygen profile and is attributed to biochemical processes.7 Specific values for surface pH. in the'area 10° to '20° N and 170° to 180° W range from 7.9 - 8.'3 with the reading nearest the disposal area being.8.2. 2. Dissolved Oxygen Dissolved oxygen is, an important factor in oxidizing pyrolysis products. The presence of-oxygen in sea water is due to contact of the water with the atmosphere at the sea-air interface and to the metabolism of photos'ynthetic organisms. The oxygen concentration present at any given time is the result of a series of biological and physical factors. The diffusion of oxygen into sea water is dependent on the partial pressure of the gas in the atmosphere, the concentration gradient in the surface layer, the atmospheric pressure, temperature and salinity. In most instances there is a maximum oxygen concentration in the euphotic zone due to diffusion and photosynthesis, but there is a steady decline.until an oxygen minimum is reached.7 The vertical distribution of oxygen in the sea can be ' summarized as follows: 1) A well mixed layer in equilibrium with the �atmosphere and uniform in oxygen content extending to the thermocline, 2) at lower depths, reactions with organic matter causes a variable decrease in oxygen concomitant'with increasing depths, the minimum concentration being found between 700 and 1000 meters, and 3) lower depths may have the same or higher oxygen content due to sinking colder water originating from higher latitudes. 8 3. Salinity The mean surface salinity for the proposed disposal site i-s 34.75 parts per thousand with negligible variation over the course of a year. This value is not significantly different from average open ocean salinity taken from other parts of the world.' 4. Light ' Light penetration in the ocean has a great effect on the vertical position of plankton. The depth of the euphotic zone, in which the majority of phytoplankton is found, depends primarily on the total amount of light received and the transparency of the water. In tropical regions with high average surface illumination, the vertical distribution of phytoplankton may extend to depths of about 100 meters. Diel rhythmic vertical' migration of plankton is also associated with fluctuations in Light. It is believed that this phenomenon is, caused by animals 'moving to'a zone of optimum light intensity. This causes an aggregation within certain strata. The phases of migration are described as movement toward the surface in the evening, departure from the surface at or about midnight, return to the surface near dawn, and a sharp .return to normal daytime depth as the sunlight begins to penetrate the water. It is estimated that 3/4 of the zooplankton exhibit diel migration rhythms.8 �In general, pelagic fish follow a diel rhythm in respect to vertical distribution. During daylight hours they tend to be dee.per and at night approach the surface to feed. However, due to the low standing biomass and the generally recognized low productivity, these diel rhythms are inconsequential as related to significant rhythmic increases of biomass in the mixing zone. 5. Temperature The average surface temperature of the tropical Pacific Ocean i between 10° and 20° N latitude is 26.4°C (79.5°F) with an annual range of about 3°C (difference between temperature recorded in February and August).7 The mean yearly temperature of the surface water in the disposal area is ' • 26.9° (80.4°F) with a,minimum mean of 24.8° (76.6°F) and a maximum mean of 29.0°C (84.2°F). The vertical temperature distribution in the upper layers consists of an isothermal layer (identical temperatures at different depths), the thermocline (a layer with maximum decrease per unit depth)., and a thick lower layer with slowly decreasing temperatures. The thermocline is formed by thermal energy received by the surface layer which decreases the-water 'density thus producing a vertical stratification of progressively increasing stability. The resulting thermocline restricts vertical heat and water exchange. A strong thermocline -also inhibits physicochemicaT and biological vertical exchanges thus greatly affecting both the hydrographical and ecological 'dynamics within the area Concerned. The tropical sea has a steep thermocline which has considerable influence on both vertical exchange and animal distribution. 8 The thermocline in the proposed disposal area is located at a depth of about 250-350 feet.1 �Vertical'distribution of marine invertebrates may be affected by tempera.ture in three ways: 1) Exclusion from water depths with unsuitable temperature, 2) migration to suitable thermal levels within the vertical gradient, or 3) passive transport. Accumulation or dissipation due to hydrographical conditions is vitally important in the vertical distribution of passively floating pianktonic forms. Many of these individuals would be lost from the euphotic zone,, thus removed from the reproducing population except that they are returned to the lighted zone by upward moving water. At the thermocline these downward movements are sufficiently retarded to ' allow accumulation. Vertical temperature gradients are more pronounced in the lower latitudes than at the higher latitudes, consequently, vertical distribution is influenced more by temperature in the tropical and temperate regions than in polar regions.^ 6. Wind and Water Currents Wind and water currents are favorable in view of mixing and keeping materials away from land masses. The proposed disposal area lies in the westward moving equatorial currents and vthe prevailing winds are from the east. The nearest land mass, the Marshall Islands, is more than 1200 miles downwind.^ There are no reported upwellings in the area to bring nutrients to the surface nor does the wake of Johnston Island influence nutrient levels.5'6, C. Biological Features 1. Biomass and Primary Productivity Standing biomass in the proposed disposal area is extremely low. Secchi disk readings for this area are among the highest recorded in �A the Pacific Ocean. The high Secchi disk readings indicate^extremely clear water with a sparse population of plankton. % No measurement of primary productivity is available from the proposed disposal area but it is generally regarded as low. The reasons are the low nutrient levels in the area, low standing biomass, and relatively low fishing activity.. ' . 2. Benthos Abundance No data is available for this particular .portion of the ocean;.however, studies in the Gulf of Mexico estimated the total benthic' macrofauna biomass, exclusive of fish, to be 0.2 gm/sq meter.11 Some of the organisms reported present on the Pacific Ocean floor were starfishes, sea cucumbers, sea urchins, echinoderms and brittle stars. In deeper areas .sponges, barnacles, sea Tillies and sea squirts were found along with crabs, prawns, isopods and sea spiders. 1 3. Commercial Fishing • The proposed disposal site will have very little 'impact on commercial fishing. Commercial fishermen from the Republic of Korea, Taiwan', Japan and Samoa are the ones wh,o frequent this area most with Japanese fishing vessels comprising the majority of vessels in the area; Table 1 shows the catch of commercial species of fish in the area 10° 00' to 20° 00' N latitude and 170° 00' to 180° 00' W longitude as compared to the catch for the entire Pacific Ocean in 1971 and 1972.3 The northern half of this area (15° 00' - 20°. 00' 'N latitude), which includes the disposal area, is reported to be less productive than the southern half.9 �TABLE 1 FISH • Report of Japanese long line tuna catch in the Pacific Ocean in .1971 and 19723.- Figures are given in number of fish caught. 197T 10°QO' to 20°00' N Lat 170°00' to 180°00' W long 1 ,601 24,508 6,886 391 . Albocore Tuna Bigeye Tuna • YelTowfin Tuna Broad-bill Swordfish . Striped Marl in Blue Marl in Black Marl in Sailfish/Spearfish Skipjack Tuna 869,000' 1,272,000 1,292,000 175,000 394,000 102,000 19,000 '195,000 59,000 1,383 .2,643 72 682 473 1971 Total of 1,313 sets (1 set = min of 1 ship/day) Total of 2,733, 925 hooks (2,000 + hooks/set) 1972 Total of 451 sets Total of 986s 625 hooks -- 1972 -1971 Pacific • 10°00' to 20°00' N Lat Total • 170°00' tO:180°oo' W Long — -. '1,386 8,919 2,579 172 398 1,602 15 451 151 1972 Pacific Total 788,000 ' 1,657,000 1,545,000 170,000 262,000 125,000 ' 17,000 189,000 52,000 �IV. SUMMARY - • . In view of the facts about the proposed disposal site contained in this report—sparse productivity, low standing biomass, acceptable physical and chemical characteristics of the receiving waters, remoteness of the location, favorable wind and water currents, and relatively little commercial fishing activity; the proposed site possesses all the characteristics described in the introduction as criteria for an acceptable ocean disposal site. It is recognized that the addition of any foreign material into a small portion of a tropical ocean ecosystem may have some effect; however, this effect will be transient, minimal and inconsequential as it- relates to that ecosystem as a whole. �REFERENCES 1. Anon. United States Department of Commerce, National Marine Fisheries Service, Environmental Impact Statement, Deep Seabed Mining 0 - 25° N Lat, 110 - 155° W Long. 2. Anon. 1974. 'Disposition of'Orange Herbicide by Incineratiori. USAF Final Environmental Statement. 3. Anon. 1972. Annual Report of Effort and Catch by Area on Japanese Longline Fishery, 1972. Research and Development Dept., Fisheries Agency of Japan. • . 4. Anders, F. S. 1975, National Marine Fisheries Service, Terminal Island CA. (Personal communication). 5.. Barkle.y, R. A. 1975. National Marine Fisheries Service, Honolulu HI. (Personal communication). : 6. Barkley, R. A. 1972. Johnston Atoll's Wake. J. Marine Res. 30, 201-216. 7. Home,. R. A. 1969. Marine Chemistry. John Wiley and Sons. New York, 568 pp. 8. Kinne, 0. 1970. Marine Ecology. John Wiley and Sons. New York, 681 pp. 9. Klawe,. Dr. 1975. Inter-American Tropical Tuna Corporation, La Jolla CA. (Personal communication). 10. Odum, E. P. 1971. Fundamentals of Ecoloy. W. B. Saunders, Philadelphia. 11. Pequegnat, W. E. 1974. Concerning Disposal of Incineration Wastes, Western Gulf of Mexico. < Statement to EPA Public Hearing, Houston TX, 4 October 1974. �u.-«•" DESCRIPTION OF THE PROPOSED OCEAN DUMPING SITE: HERBICIDE ORANGE C »J« "1 « f » H * , TX �TABLE OF CONTENTS SECTION I. PAGE INTRODUCTION ..................................................... 1 II . THE OCEAN ENVIRONMENT ............................................ 1 A. General......................................................1 B. Ocean Food Chains ............................................ 2 III. DESCRIPTION OF PROPOSED DISPOSAL SITE ............................ 3 A. Location.....................................................3 B. Physical Features ............................................ 3 1 .2. 3. 4. 5. 6. pH ....................................................... 3 Dissolved Oxygen.........................................4 Salinity.................................................5 Light....................................................5 Temperature..............................................6 Wind and Water Currents..................................7 C. Biological Features 1. Biomass and Primary Productivity ......................... 7 2 . Benthos Abundance........................................8 3. Commercial Fishing.......................................8 IV . SUMMARY..........................................................10 REFERENCES ....................................................... 11 �PROPOSED OCEAN DUMPING SITE INTRODUCTION,,^ - -" K: The USAE^ha-s-been- tasted^wlth disposing of approximate] V """"-'" „-••--"" ^^ mi 11 ion gallons of herbicide Orange. The method of disjy>s€T must meet with all applicabp<{aws, regulatixms-and-pol-ic-ii B. The USAF has cwicluded thpfwe method of disposal which is the 7^%^*^ most effective and which wJJLXnaVa^the least environmental impact is incineration of herbicide(P#range at sea. TheHncineration will be accomplished u^ :~^ on board a shj^^specifical-Ty-designed™for inciner^t^n of^waste materials.2 The prpvposed dispoisa-V-srtteT as designated by EPA, is IS^W^to 17° 45' N ntuctTand 171° 30' to 172° 30' W longitude. Pequegnatu, in his testimony to EPA concerning the ocean dumping of incineration waste in the Gulf of Mexico, stated that the general advantages of offshelf disposal of industrial wastes are: 1) the presence of great volumes of water, 2) relatively simple water and air currents, 3) little stratification of the water column, and 4) relatively little productivity in the area. The area chosen for disposal should possess all these characteristics. This position statement will show that the area designated for the disposal of incinerated herbicide Orange is acceptable in all aspects. II. THE OCEAN ENVIRONMENT A. General The open ocean provides the best medium for the disposal of incinerated organic waste. It is one of the least productive areas of the �world.10 It has the capacity to absorb, without deleterious effects, large */&**•* (> ^MS^ amounts of degradable and inorganic wastes. What small da-merge \z dotre at the time of dtmtpwg is transient due to internal recovery of the ecosystem of the particular area and by immigration from adjacent areas. Not all marine environments are unproductive. Estuarine and inshore waters, unlike the open ocean, are quite productive. These ecosystems may double the total production (in biomass) of terrestrial agriculture under irrigation and produce up to 30 times more than the open ocean such as the proposed disposal site. Estuaries and inshore waters have the attributes of lower salinity and higher nutrients due to the inflow of fresh water and also have the advantage of shallower depths.11 Disposal of materials far from land produces the least environmental impact simply because it is being put immediately into an unproductive ecosystem where it can then degrade. When materials are disposed of on land, eventually they may move through the hydrologic system to rivers, estuaries, and inshore waters where severe environmental impact may be exerted before degradation can take place. Also bioaccumulation of toxic or hazardous materials could occur with still further adverse implications. With the exception of a total recycling system, incineration in the unproductive open ocean is the most environmentally safe alternative of waste disposal known. B. Ocean Food Chains The primary producers are photosynthetic plankton. These organisms assimilate inorganic materials into organic matter. They consist �mostly of microscopic diatoms and dinoflagellates although in some areas green and brown algae may predominate. These organisms are found in the euphotic zone, which in some instances may extend down to 1000 meters, but the bulk of the production is in the upper 100 meters. Crustaceans and protozoa graze upon the phytoplankton, and they in turn are fed upon by carnivores such as fish. The food chain for carnivores is a long, complex and intermingled web. Below the euphotic zone nearly all the pelagic animals are predators. The benthic organisms are scavengers or decomposers feeding on detritus falling from the zones above them.1 III. DESCRIPTION OF PROPOSED DISPOSAL SITE A. Location The disposal site is located between 15° 45' to 17° 45' N latitude and 171° 30' to 172° 30' W longitude. It comprises approximately 9117 sq miles. The reported mean depth is between 4937 and 5486 meters with a minimum depth of 3575 meters and a maximum of 5568 meters. It is located approximately I Q y 0 ^s^tAAAtAJt- 120 miles SW of Johnston Island and-W98-miles SW of the Hawaiian Islands. The area is generally regarded as being one of the least productive areas in the Pacific Ocean.4'5 Very little specific data is available for this particular area but several areas in the Pacific Ocean have been studied and data can be taken from these studies. B. Physical Features 1. pH High pH in the receiving medium is necessary for adequate chemical dissolution of the pyrolysis products of incineration. Among these �products is HC1 which would tend to lower the pH of the receiving water. Ocean water has a strong carbonate buffer system along with borate and silicon systems. The diffusion of CC^ into the upper ocean levels and biological activity at that level give the ocean an alkaline pH strongly resistant to change. In the Pacific Ocean, the pH profile shows a distinct inflection. A pH maximum of 8.2 - 8.3 in the first 100 m can be attributed to ( 2 # diffusion and biological activity. The pH minimum of 7.5 - 7.7 occurs at 200 - 1200 m and is associated with the minimum oxygen profile and is attributed to biochemical processes.7 Specific values for surface pH in the area 10° to 20° N and 170° to 180° W range from 7.9 - 8.3 with the reading nearest the disposal area being 8.2. 2. Dissolved Oxygen Dissolved oxygen is an important factor in oxidizing pyrolysis products. The presence of oxygen in sea water is due to contact of the water with the atmosphere at the sea-air interface and to the metabolism of photosynthetic organisms. The oxygen concentration present at any given time is the result of a series of biological and physical factors. The diffusion of oxygen into sea water is dependent on the partial pressure of the gas in the atmosphere, the concentration gradient in the surface layer, the atmospheric pressure, temperature and salinity. In most instances there is a maximum oxygen concentration in the euphotic zone due to diffusion and photosynthesis, but there is a steady decline until an oxygen minimum is reached.7 The vertical distribution of oxygen in the sea can be summarized as follows: 1) A well mixed layer in equilibrium with the �atmosphere and uniform in oxygen content extending to the thermocline, 2) at lower depths, reactions with organic matter causes a variable decrease in oxygen concomitant with increasing depths, the minimum concentration being found between 700 and 1000 meters, and 3) lower depths may have the same or higher oxygen content due to sinking colder water originating from higher latitudes.8 3. Salinity The mean surface salinity for the proposed disposal site is 34.75 parts per thousand with negligible variation over the course of a year. This value is not significantly different from average open ocean salinity taken from other parts of the world. 4. Light Light penetration in the ocean has a great effect on the vertical position of plankton. The depth of the euphotic zone, in which the majority of phytoplankton is found, depends primarily on the total amount of light received and the transparency of the water. In tropical regions with high average surface illumination, the vertical distribution of phytoplankton may extend to depths of about 100 meters. Diel rhythmic vertical migration of plankton is also associated with fluctuations in light. It is believed that this phenomenon is caused by animals moving to a zone of optimum light intensity. This causes an aggregation within certain strata. The phases of migration are described as movement toward the surface in the evening, departure from the surface at or about midnight, return to the surface near dawn, and a sharp return to normal daytime depth as the sunlight begins to penetrate the water. It is estimated that 3/4 of the zooplankton exhibit die! migration rhythms.8 �In general, pelagic fish follow a die! rhythm in respect to vertical distribution. During daylight hours they tend to be deeper and at night approach the surface to feed. However, due to the low standing biomass and the generally recognized low productivity, these die! rhythms are inconsequential as related to significant rhythmic increases of biomass in the mixing zone. 5. Temperature The average surface temperature of the tropical Pacific Ocean between 10° and 20° N latitude is 26.4°C (79.5°F) with an annual range of about 3°C (difference between temperature recorded in February and August).7 The mean yearly temperature of the surface water in the disposal area is 26.9° (80.4°F) with a minimum mean of 24.8° (76.6°F) and a maximum mean of 29.0°C (84.2°F). The vertical temperature distribution in the upper layers consists of an isothermal layer (identical temperatures at different depths), the thermocline (a layer with maximum decrease per unit depth), and a thick lower layer with slowly decreasing temperatures. The thermocline is formed by thermal energy received by the surface layer which decreases the water density thus producing a vertical stratification of progressively increasing stability. The resulting thermocline restricts vertical heat and water exchange. A strong thermocline also inhibits physicochemical and biological vertical exchanges thus greatly affecting both the hydrographical and ecological dynamics within the area concerned. The tropical sea has a steep thermocline which has considerable influence on both vertical exchange and animal distribution.8 The thermocline in the proposed disposal area is located at a depth of about 250-350 feet.1 �Vertical distribution of marine invertebrates may be affected by temperature in three ways: 1) Exclusion from water depths with unsuitable temperature, 2) migration to suitable thermal levels within the vertical gradient, or 3) passive transport. Accumulation or dissipation due to hydrographical conditions is vitally important in the vertical distribution of passively floating planktonic forms. Many of these individuals would be lost from the euphotic zone, thus removed from the reproducing population except that they are returned to the lighted zone by upward moving water. At the thermocline these downward movements are sufficiently retarded to allow accumulation. Vertical temperature gradients are more pronounced in the lower latitudes than at the higher latitudes, consequently, vertical distribution is influenced more by temperature in the tropical and temperate regions than in polar regions.8 6. Wind and Water Currents Wind and water currents are favorable in view of mixing and keeping materials away from land masses. The proposed disposal area lies in the westward moving equatorial currents and the prevailing winds are from the east. The nearest land mass, the Marshall Islands, is more than /ap i»a miles downwi nd.ai )4 dowrruur ranW1"*"2" There are no reported upwellings in the area to bring nutrients to the surface nor does the wake of Johnston Island influence nutrient levels.5>6 C. Biological Features 1. Biomass and Primary Productivity Standing biomass in the proposed disposal area is extremely low. Secchi disk readings for this area are among the highest recorded in �the Pacific Ocean. 5 The high Secchi disk readings indicate extremely clear water with a sparse population of plankton. No measurement of primary productivity is available from the proposed disposal area but it is generally regarded as low. The reasons are the low nutrient levels in the area, low standing biomass, and relatively low fishing activity. 2. Benthos Abundance No data is available for this particular portion of the ocean; however, studies in the Gulf of Mexico estimated the total benthic macrofauna biomass, exclusive of fish, to be 0.2 gm/sq meter.11 Some of the organisms reported present on the Pacific Ocean floor were starfishes, sea cucumbers, sea urchins, echinoderms and brittle stars. In deeper areas sponges, barnacles, sea Tillies and sea squirts were found along with crabs, prawns, isopods and sea spiders.1 3. Commercial Fishing The proposed disposal site will have very little impact on commercial fishing. Commercial fishermen from the Republic of Korea, Taiwan, Japan and Samoa are the ones who frequent this area most with Japanese fishing vessels comprising the majority of vessels in the area. Table 1 shows the catch of commercial species of fish in the area 10° 00' to 20° 00' N latitude and 170° 00' to 180° 00' W longitude as compared to the catch for the entire Pacific Ocean in 1971 and 1972.3 The northern half of this area (15° 00' - 20° 00' N latitude), which includes the disposal area, is reported to be less productive than the southern half.9 �TABLE 1 FISH Albocore Tuna • Bigeye Tuna Yellowfin Tuna Broad-bill Swordfish Striped Marl in Blue Marl in Black Marl in Sailfish/Spearfish Skipjack Tuna Report of Japanese long line tuna catch in the. Pacific Ocean in .1971 and 19723. Figures are given in number of fish caught. 1972 1971 .1971 Pacific • 10°00' to 20°00' N Lat 10°00' to 20°00' N Lat 170°00' to 180°00J W long' Total 170°00' to 180°oo' W-Long . 869,000' 1,272,000 1,292,000 175,000 394,000 .102,000 19,000 195,000 59,000 1,601 24,508 6,886 391 1,383 .2,643 72 682 473 1971 Total of 1,313 sets (1 set = min of 1 ship/day) Total of 2,733, 925 hooks (2,000 + hooks/set) 1972 Total of 451 sets — Total of 986, 625 hooks --- ••< •- 1,386. 8,919 2,579 172 398 ' 1,602 15 451 151 1972 Pacific Total 788,000 1,657,000 1,545,000 170,000 262,000 125,000 17,000 189,000 52,000 �IV. SUMMARY In view of the facts about the proposed disposal site contained in this report—sparse productivity, low standing biomass, acceptable physical and chemical characteristics of the receiving waters, remoteness of the location, favorable wind and water currents, and relatively little commercial fishing activity; the proposed site possesses all the characteristics described in the introduction as criteria for an acceptable ocean disposal site. It is recognized that the addition of any foreign material into a small portion of a tropical ocean ecosystem may have some effect; however, this effect will be transient, minimal and inconsequential as it relates to that ecosystem as a whole. �REFERENCES 1. Anon. United States Department of Commerce, National Marine Fisheries Service, Environmental Impact Statement, Deep Seabed Mining 0 - 25° N Lat, 110 - 155° W Long. 2. Anon. 1974. Disposition of Orange Herbicide by Incineration. USAF Final Environmental Statement. 3. Anon. 1972. Annual Report of Effort and Catch by Area on Japanese Longline Fishery, 1972. Research and Development Dept., Fisheries Agency of Japan. 4. Anders, F. S. 1975. National Marine Fisheries Service, Terminal Island CA. (Personal communication). 5. Barkley, R. A. 1975. National Marine Fisheries Service, Honolulu HI. (Personal communication). 6. Barkley, R. A. 1972. Johnston Atoll's Wake. J. Marine Res. 30, 201-216. 7. Home, R. A. 1969. Marine Chemistry. John Wiley and Sons. New York, 568 pp. 8. Kinne, 0. 1970. Marine Ecology. John Wiley and Sons. New York, 681 pp. 9. Klawe, Dr. 1975. Inter-American Tropical Tuna Corporation, La Jolla CA. (Personal communication). 10. Odutn, E. P. 1971. Fundamentals of Ecoloy. W. B. Saunders, Philadelphia. 11. Pequegnat, W. E. 1974. Concerning Disposal of Incineration Wastes, Western Gulf of Mexico. Statement to EPA Public Hearing, Houston TX, 4 October 1974. �TABLE OF CONTENTS SECTION PAGE I. INTRODUCTION ..................................................... 1 II . THE OCEAN ENVIRONMENT ............................................ 1 A. General ...................................................... 1 B. Ocean Food Chains ............................................ 2 III. DESCRIPTION OF PROPOSED DISPOSAL SITE ............................ 3 A. Location.....................................................3 B. Physical Features............................................3 1. pH.......................................................3 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Dissolved Oxygen ........................................ .. 4 Salinity........................................... ...... 5 Light....................................................5 Temperature..............................................6 Wind and Water Currents .................................. -7 C. Biological Features 1 . Biomass and Primary Productivity.........................7 2. Benthos Abundance........................................8 3. Commercial Fishing.......................................8 IV . SUMMARY..........................................................10 REFERENCES ....................................................... 11 �PROPOSED OCEAN DUMPING SITE I INTRODUCTION A. The USAF has been tasked with disposing of approximately 2.3 million gallons of herbicide Orange. The method of disposal must meet with all applicable laws, regulations and policies. B. The USAF has concluded that the method of disposal which is the most effective and which will have the least environmental impact is incineration of herbicide Orange at sea. The incineration will be accomplished on board a ship specifically designed for incineration of waste materials.2 The proposed disposal site, as designated by EPA, is 15° 45' to 17° 45' N latitude and 171° 30' to 172° 30' W longitude. C. Pequegnat11, in his testimony to EPA concerning the ocean dumping of incineration waste in the Gulf of Mexico, stated that the general advantages of offshelf disposal of industrial wastes are: 1) the presence of great volumes of water, 2) relatively simple water and air currents, 3) little stratification of the water column, and 4) relatively little productivity in the area. The area chosen for disposal should possess all these characteristics. This position statement will show that the area designated for the disposal of incinerated herbicide Orange is acceptable in all aspects. II. THE OCEAN ENVIRONMENT A. General The open ocean provides the best medium for the disposal of incinerated organic waste. It is one of the least productive areas of the �world.10 It has the capacity to absorb, without deleterious effects, large amounts of degradable and inorganic wastes. What small damage is done at the time of dumping is transient due to internal recovery of the ecosystem of the particular area and by immigration from adjacent areas. Not all marine environments are unproductive. Estuarine and I inshore waters, unlike the open ocean, are quite productive. These j ecosystems may double the tptal production (in biomass) of terrestrial agriculture under irrigation and produce up to 30 times more than the open ocean such as the proposed disposal site. Estuaries and inshore waters have the attributes of lowef salinity and higher nutrients due to the inflow of fresh water and a)so have the advantage of shallower depths.11 . Disposal of materials far from land produces the least environmental impact simply becaus^ it is being put immediately into an unproductive ecosystem where it ^an then degrade. When materials are disposed of on land, eventually they may move through the hydrologic system to rivers, estuaries, and inshore waters where severe environmental impact may be exerted before degradation can take place. Also bioaccumulation of toxic or hazardous materials could occur with still further adverse implications. With the exception of a total recycling system, incineration in the unproductive open ocean is the most environmentally safe alternative of waste disposal known. B. Ocean Food Chains The primary producers are photosynthetic plankton. These organisms assimilate inorganic materials into organic matter. They consist �mostly of microscopic diatoms and dinoflagellates although in some areas green and brown algae may predominate. These organisms are found in the euphotic zone, which in some instances may extend down to 1000 meters, but the bulk of the production is in the upper 100 meters. Crustaceans and protozoa graze upon the phytoplankton, and they in turn are fed upon by carnivores such as fish. The food chain for carnivores is a long, complex and intermingled web. Below the euphotic zone nearly all the pelagic animals are predators. The benthic organisms are scavengers or decomposers feeding on detritus falling from the zones above them.1 III. DESCRIPTION OF PROPOSED DISPOSAL SITE A. Location The disposal site is located between 15° 45' to 17° 45' N latitude and 171° 30' to 172° 30' W longitude. It comprises approximately 9117 sq miles. The reported mean depth is between 4937 and 5486 meters with a minimum depth of 3575 meters and a maximum of 5568 meters. It is located approximately 120 miles SW of Johnston Island and 1000 miles SW of the Hawaiian Islands. The area is generally regarded as being one of the least productive areas in the Pacific Ocean.4'5 Very little specific data is available for this particular area but several areas in the Pacific Ocean have been studied and data can be taken from these studies. B. Physical Features 1. pH High pH in the receiving medium is necessary for adequate chemical dissolution of the pyrolysis products of incineration. Among these �products is HC1 which would tend to lower the pH of the receiving water. Ocean water has a strong carbonate buffer system along with borate and silicon systems. The diffusion of C02 into the upper ocean levels and biological activity at that level give the ocean an alkaline pH strongly resistant to change. In the Pacific Ocean, the pH profile shows a distinct inflection. A pH maximum of 8.2 - 8.3 in the first 100 m can be attributed to C02 diffusion and biological activity. The pH minimum of 7.5 - 7.7 occurs at 200 - 1200 m and is associated with the minimum oxygen profile and is attributed to biochemical processes.7 Specific values for surface pH in the area 10° to 20° N and 170° to 180° W range from 7.9 - 8.3 with the reading nearest the disposal area being 8.2. 2. Dissolved Oxygen Dissolved oxygen is an important factor in oxidizing pyrolysis products. The presence of oxygen in sea water is due to contact of the water with the atmosphere at the sea-air interface and to the metabolism of photosynthetic organisms. The oxygen concentration present at any given time is the result of a series of biological and physical factors. The diffusion of oxygen into sea water is dependent on the partial pressure of the gas in the atmosphere, the concentration gradient in the surface layer, the atmospheric pressure, temperature and salinity. In most instances there is a maximum oxygen concentration in the euphotic zone due to diffusion and photosynthesis, but there is a steady decline until an oxygen minimum is reached.7 The vertical distribution of oxygen in the sea can be summarized as follows: 1) A well mixed layer in equilibrium with the �atmosphere and uniform in oxygen content extending to the thermocline, 2) at lower depths, reactions with organic matter causes a variable decrease in oxygen concomitant with increasing depths, the minimum concentration being found between 700 and 1000 meters, and 3) lower depths may have the same or higher oxygen content due to sinking colder water originating from higher latitudes.8 3. Salinity The mean surface salinity for the proposed disposal site is 34.75 parts per thousand with negligible variation over the course of a year. This value is not significantly different from average open ocean salinity taken from other parts of the world. 4. Light Light penetration in the ocean has a great effect on the vertical position of plankton. The depth of the euphotic zone, in which the majority of phytoplankton is found, depends primarily on the total amount of light received and the transparency of the water. In tropical regions with high average surface illumination, the vertical distribution of phytoplankton may extend to depths of about 100 meters. Diel rhythmic vertical migration of plankton is also associated with fluctuations in light. It is believed that this phenomenon is caused by animals moving to a zone of optimum light intensity. This causes an aggregation within certain strata. The phases of migration are described as movement toward the surface in the evening, departure from the surface at or about midnight, return to the surface near dawn, and a sharp return to normal daytime depth as the sunlight begins to penetrate the water. It is estimated that 3/4 of the zooplankton exhibit die! migration rhythms.8 �In general, pelagic fish follow a die! rhythm in respect to vertical distribution. During daylight hours they tend to be deeper and at night approach the surface to feed. However, due to the low standing biomass and the generally recognized low productivity, these die! rhythms are inconsequential as related to significant rhythmic increases of biomass in the mixing zone. 5. Temperature The average surface temperature of the tropical Pacific Ocean between 10° and 20° N latitude is 26.4°C (79.5°F) with an annual range of about 3°C (difference between temperature recorded in February and August).7 The mean yearly temperature of the surface water in the disposal area is 26.9° (80.4°F) with a minimum mean of 24.8° (76.6°F) and a maximum mean of 29.0°C (84.2°F). The vertical temperature distribution in the upper layers consists of an isothermal layer (identical temperatures at different depths), the thermocline (a layer with maximum decrease per unit depth), and a thick lower layer with slowly decreasing temperatures. The thermocline is formed by thermal energy received by the surface layer which decreases the water density thus producing a vertical stratification of progressively increasing stability. The resulting thermocline restricts vertical heat and water exchange. A strong thermocline also inhibits physicochemical and biological vertical exchanges thus greatly affecting both the hydrographical and ecological dynamics within the area concerned. The tropical sea has a steep thermo- cline which has considerable influence on both vertical exchange and animal distribution.8 The thermocline in the proposed disposal area is located at a depth of about 250-350 feet.1 �Vertical distribution of marine invertebrates may be affected by temperature in three ways: 1) Exclusion from water depths with unsuitable temperature, 2) migration to suitable thermal levels within the vertical gradient, or 3) passive transport. Accumulation or dissipation due to hydrographical conditions is vitally important in the vertical distribution of passively floating planktonic forms. Many of these individuals would be lost from the euphotic zone, thus removed from the reproducing population except that they are returned to the lighted zone by upward moving water. At the thermocline these downward movements are sufficiently retarded to allow accumulation. Vertical temperature gradients are more pronounced in the lower latitudes than at the higher latitudes, consequently, vertical distribution is influenced more by temperature in the tropical and temperate regions than in polar regions.8 6. Wind and Water Currents Wind and water currents are favorable in view of mixing and keeping materials away from land masses. The proposed disposal area lies in the westward moving equatorial currents and the prevailing winds are from the east. The nearest land mass, the Marshall Islands, is more than 1000 miles downwind and downcurrent.1'2 There are no reported upwellings in the area to bring nutrients to the surface nor does the wake of Johnston Island influence nutrient levels. 5»6 C. Biological Features 1. Biomass and Primary Productivity Standing biomass in the proposed disposal area is extremely low. Secchi disk readings for this area are among the highest recorded in �the Pacific Ocean.5 The high Secchi disk readings indicate extremely clear water with a sparse population of plankton. No measurement of primary productivity is available from the proposed disposal area but it is generally regarded as low. The reasons are the low nutrient levels in the area, low standing biomass, and relatively low fishing activity. 2. Benthos Abundance No data is available for this particular portion of the ocean; however, studies in the Gulf of Mexico estimated the total benthic macrofauna biomass, exclusive of fish, to be 0.2 gm/sq meter.11 Some of the organisms reported present on the Pacific Ocean floor were starfishes, sea cucumbers, sea urchins, echinoderms and brittle stars. In deeper areas sponges, barnacles, sea lillies and sea squirts were found along with crabs, prawns, isopods and sea spiders.1 3. Commercial Fishing The proposed disposal site will have very little impact on commercial fishing. Commercial fishermen from the Republic of Korea, Taiwan, Japan and Samoa are the ones who frequent this area most with Japanese fishing vessels comprising the majority of vessels in the area. Table 1 shows the catch of commercial species of fish in the area 10° 00' to 20° 00' N latitude and 170° 00' to 180° 00' W longitude as compared to the catch for the entire Pacific Ocean in 1971 and 1972.3 The northern half of this area (15° 00' - 20° 00' N latitude), which includes the disposal area, is reported to be less productive than the southern half.9 �TABLE 1 1972 1971 .1971 Pacific • 10°00« to 20°00' N Lat 10°00' to 20°00' N Lat 170°00' to 180°00' W long' Total 170°00' to 180°00' W Long FISH Albocore Tuna • Bigeye Tuna Yellowfin Tuna Broad-bill Swordfish Striped Marl in Blue Marl in Black Marl in Sailfish/Spearfish Skipjack Tuna 1971 Report of Japanese long line tuna catch in the Pacific Ocean in .1971 and 19723. Figures are given in number of fish caught. . • 1,601 24,508 6,886 391 1,383 .2,643 72 682 473 ' Total of 1,313 sets (1 set = min of 1 ship/day) Total of 2,733, 925 hooks (2,000 + hooks/set) 1972 Total of 451 sets . — -Total of 986, 625 hooks - = ••• --—•- 869,000' 1,272,000 1,292,000 175,000 394,000 .102,000 19,000 195,000 59,000 1,386. 8,919 2,579 172 398 ' 1,602 15 451 151 1972 Pacific Total 788,000 1,657,000 1,545,000 170,000 262,000 125,000 17,000 189,000 52,000 �IV. SUMMARY In view of the facts about the proposed disposal site contained in this report—sparse productivity, low standing biomass, acceptable physical and chemical characteristics of the receiving waters, remoteness of the location, favorable wind and water currents, and relatively little commercial fishing, activity; the proposed site possesses all the characteristics described in the introduction as criteria for an acceptable ocean disposal site. It is recognized that the addition of any foreign material into a small portion of a tropical ocean ecosystem may have some effect; however, this effect will be transient, minimal and inconsequential as it relates to that ecosystem as a whole. �REFERENCES 1. Anon. United States Department of Commerce, National Marine Fisheries Service, Environmental Impact Statement, Deep Seabed Mining 0 - 25° N Lat, 110 - 155° W Long. 2. Anon. 1974. Disposition of Orange Herbicide by Incineration. USAF Final Environmental Statement. 3. Anon. 1972. Annual Report of Effort and Catch by Area on Japanese Longline Fishery, 1972. Research and Development Dept., Fisheries Agency of Japan. 4. Anders, F. S. 1975. National Marine Fisheries Service, Terminal Island CA. (Personal communication). 5. Barkley, R. A. 1975. National Marine Fisheries Service, Honolulu HI. (Personal communication). 6. Barkley, R. A. 1972. Johnston Atoll's Wake. J. Marine Res. 30, 201-216. 7. Home, R. A. 1969. Marine Chemistry. John Wiley and Sons. New York, 568 pp. 8. Kinne, 0. 1970. Marine Ecology. John Wiley and Sons. New York, 681 pp. 9. Klawe, Dr. 1975. Inter-American Tropical Tuna Corporation, La Jolla CA. (Personal communication). 10. Odum, E. P. 1971. Fundamentals of Ecoloy. W. B. Saunders, Philadelphia. 11. Pequegnat, W. E. 1974. Concerning Disposal of Incineration Wastes, Western Gulf of Mexico. Statement to EPA Public Hearing, Houston TX, 4 October 1974. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange Description An account of the resource <p style="margin-top: -1em; line-height: 1.2em;">The Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange comprises 120 linear feet and spans the late 1800s to 2005; however, the bulk of the coverage is from the 1960s to the 1980s and there are many undated items. The collection was donated to Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in 1985 by Dr. Alvin L. Young (1942- ). Dr. Young developed the collection as he conducted extensive research on the military defoliant Agent Orange. The collection is in good condition and includes letters, memoranda, books, reports, press releases, journal and newspaper clippings, field logs and notebooks, newsletters, maps, booklets and pamphlets, photographs, memorabilia, and audiotapes of an interview with Dr. Young.</p> <p>For more about this collection, <a href="/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/alvin-l--young-collection-on-a">view the Agent Orange Exhibit.</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Box The box containing the original item. 147 Folder The folder containing the original item. 4244 Series The series number of the original item. Series VI Subseries III Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Taylor, Gale D. Description An account of the resource <strong>Corporate Author: </strong>USAF Environmental Health Laboratory Title A name given to the resource Typescript: Description of the Proposed Ocean Dumping Site: Herbicide Orange https://www.nal.usda.gov/exhibits/speccoll/files/original/674eb29a8a34dfcc39b724dacc6b7981.pdf cbe0e71cc3544bed2bc4cf57b010783c PDF Text Text Item ID Number 01527 Author Taylor, Gale D. Corporate Author Report/Article Title Memorandum: from Gale D. Taylor to all USAF OEHL Division Chiefs, with subject Herbicide Orange, November 14, 1979. Journal/Book Title Year 000 ° Month/Day Color n Number of Images 2 DeSCrlptOU NotOS Memo directs staff to send all inquires received on Herbicide Orange to the Public Affairs office. Includes one attachment: memorandum: from Robert G. Mclver to all AMD Commanders and Staff Agencies, with subject Herbicide Orange Study, June 6,1979. Wednesday, May 23, 2001 Page 1527 of 1608 �DEPARTMENT OF THE AIR FORCE USAF OCCUPATIONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH LABORATORY lAFSC) BROOKS AIR FORCE BASE. TEXAS 78Z35 Memorandum from the Vie* Commandar 14 Nov 79 CIRCULATE TO: SUBJECT: Herbicide Orange TO: ALL USAF OEHL DIVISION CHIEFS CHARLES E THALKEN, LtCol, USAF Chief, Envir mmental Assessment Bror> New inquiries are coming in regarding Herbicide Orange. The guidance provided you on 7 June 1979 (Atch 1) still pertains. All inquiries should be referred to the Public Affairs Office. GALE D. TAYLOR, col, USAF, vc 1 Atch Vice Commander HQ AMD/CC Ltr, 6 Jun 79, W/USAF ;OEHL Ind. �DEPARTMENT OF THE AIR FORCE HEADQU SRS AEROSPACE MEDICAL DIVISION (AFSC) BTOOKS AIR FORCE BASE. TEXAS 78235 REPUV TO ATTN OP: cc SUBJECT: Herbicide Orange Study 6 June 1979 'All AMD Commanders and Staff Agencies The publicity on Herbicide Orange/"Ranch Hand" Study has left many questions unanswered in the minds of people who may feel they should take some action. Because of this, we have already received several telephone calls in various offices on the base. To ensure correct information is given, I want all these calls referred to the Information Office at 536-3235. ROBERT G. MCIVER Brigadier General, USAF, MC Commander 1st Ind, USAF OEHL/CV TO: 7 June 1979" All USAF OEHL Division Chiefs Please give the above letter wide dissemination to assure that all personnel are aware of General Mclver's wishes. Effective immediately, all calls pertaining to the Epi Division study or other human health questions regarding Herbicide Orange will be referred to the Information Office. GALE D. TAYLOR, Colonel, USAF, VC Vice Commander *. ; '/-" - - . / � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange Description An account of the resource <p style="margin-top: -1em; line-height: 1.2em;">The Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange comprises 120 linear feet and spans the late 1800s to 2005; however, the bulk of the coverage is from the 1960s to the 1980s and there are many undated items. The collection was donated to Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in 1985 by Dr. Alvin L. Young (1942- ). Dr. Young developed the collection as he conducted extensive research on the military defoliant Agent Orange. The collection is in good condition and includes letters, memoranda, books, reports, press releases, journal and newspaper clippings, field logs and notebooks, newsletters, maps, booklets and pamphlets, photographs, memorabilia, and audiotapes of an interview with Dr. Young.</p> <p>For more about this collection, <a href="/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/alvin-l--young-collection-on-a">view the Agent Orange Exhibit.</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Box The box containing the original item. 057 Folder The folder containing the original item. 1527 Series The series number of the original item. Series III Subseries III Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Taylor, Gale D. Title A name given to the resource Memorandum: from Gale D. Taylor to all USAF OEHL Division Chiefs, with subject Herbicide Orange, November 14, 1979. Subject The topic of the resource Air Force Health Study ao_seriesIII