4 15 137 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange Description An account of the resource <p style="margin-top: -1em; line-height: 1.2em;">The Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange comprises 120 linear feet and spans the late 1800s to 2005; however, the bulk of the coverage is from the 1960s to the 1980s and there are many undated items. The collection was donated to Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in 1985 by Dr. Alvin L. Young (1942- ). Dr. Young developed the collection as he conducted extensive research on the military defoliant Agent Orange. The collection is in good condition and includes letters, memoranda, books, reports, press releases, journal and newspaper clippings, field logs and notebooks, newsletters, maps, booklets and pamphlets, photographs, memorabilia, and audiotapes of an interview with Dr. Young.</p> <p>For more about this collection, <a href="/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/alvin-l--young-collection-on-a">view the Agent Orange Exhibit.</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Box The box containing the original item. 134 Folder The folder containing the original item. 3831 Series The series number of the original item. Series VI Subseries III Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Young, Alvin L. E. L. Arnold A. M. Wachinski Title A name given to the resource Typescript: Field Studies on the Soil Persistence and Movement https://www.nal.usda.gov/exhibits/speccoll/files/original/65d7ea4552a728892173e8ed8643725b.pdf d0bf104dd0d44a42a56fa6d50009edc7 PDF Text Text Item D Number °3814 Author Young, Alvin L. D (jot Scanned Corporate Author RBOOrt/ArtiGlB TltlO Typescript: The Orange Controversy and Its Implication to Weed Control Programs Journal/Book Title Year 1973 Month/Day November 15 Color D Number of Images 13 DBSCriptOn NOtBS Program for 1973 State Weed Conference included Friday, January 04, 2002 Page 3814 of 3927 �fitts \AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA < < < < 1973 State Weed Conference and MONTANA WEED CONTROL ASSOCIATION . ELKS CLUB MILES CITY, MONTANA NOV. 15-16,1973 �PROGRAM 1973 State Weed Conference Wednesday - November 14th 3:00-4:00 p.m. Registration - Elks Building 4:00-6:00 p.m. Tours: 1. Mobile Home Construction Company, 2. Pine Hill School for Boys, 3. U.S. Range Livestock Experiment Station. 4. Range Riders" Museum. 6:00-7:30 p.m. 7:30-9:00 p.m. 8:00 p.m. Board of Directors Dinner Meeting Registration - Elks Building Association Committee Meetings, Thursday - November 15th Morning - Chairman - Les Shumaker Rosebud County Weed District 8:00-9:00 9:00 9:05 9:15 9:30 10:00 10:30 11:15 12:00 Registration Invocation. Welcome - Mayor Dean Holmes Presidents Address Philip Donally - Assoc. President Secretary's Report Mike Jackson - Assoc. Secretary Break - Sponsor, First Security Bank, Miles City, Montana State Department of Agriculture Gary Gingery - Robert LaRue State Department of Health and Environmental Sciences Kit Walthers Luncheon - Elks Building �Afternoon - Chairman - Dale Benge. Vice-President - State Weed Association 1:00 "Ecological Effects of Herbicides" and "Pesticide Disposal Techniques". Dr. Alvin L. Young, Captain USAF Associate Professor of Life Sciences USAF Academy, Colorado 2:00 The Effects of Poisonous Plants on Livestock Mr. A. Earl Johnson, Animal Physiologist Poisonous Plant Research Laboratory Agriculture Research Service - USDA Logan, Utah » 3:00 Break - Sponsor - First Nat'l Bank Miles City, Montana 3:30 Question - Answer Session 4:30 Adjourn. Evening 6:00 Banquet - Elks Building Master of Ceremonies - Roy Patte Golden Valley Weed District Entertainment . Speaker - Dr. Alvin L. Young Captain, USAF "The Orange Controversy and Its Implications to Weed Control Programs". 8:00 Montana Weed Association Annual Meeting President Philip Donally - Presiding �Friday - November 16th Morning - Chairman - Walter Schillinger McCone County Weed District 8:30 Annual Weed Control - Don Baldrich Southern Agri. Research Center, Huntley 9:15 Biological Weed Control - Don Merkley, Supt. Western Agri. Research Center, Corvallis 10:00 Break - Sponsor - PGA, Federal Land Bank 10:30 "Annual Weed Control and Small Grains",, Larry Baker, Plant & Soil Science, MSU, Bozeman, Montana 11:15 "Response of Small Grains to Herbicide and Perennial Weed Control Dr. Jesse Hodgsons Agricultural Research Service, USDA, MSU, Bozeman, Montana. 12:00 Luncheon = Elks Building Afternoon 1:00 Demonstrations - Custer County Fairgrounds Chairman - Bill Snapp Fergus County Weed District MONTANA WEED CONTROL ASSOCIATION President - Philip Donally, Mineral County Vice-President - Dale Benge, Powder River County Secretary-Treasurer - Mike Jackson, MSU, Bozeman 1973 PROGRAM PLANNING COMMITTEE Southeastern Area Weed Council �THE ORANGE CONTROVERSY AND ITS IMPLICATION TO WEED CONTROL PROGRAMS MONTANA WEED CONTROL ASSOCIATION 15 November 1973 During the past six years all of you have read with dismay and shock the press releases on the military use of herbicides in Southeast Asia. Most of you have even read, with interest, the articles appearing in SCIENCE-JOURNAL of The American Association for the Advancement of Science. These articles have been written by "distinguished" scientists and scholars. Hundreds of other articles and at least two major books (Ecocide in Indochina and Harvest of Death) have been published on this topic. Almost without exception they have damned the military use of herbicides and described what we have done as "A new and terrible dimension to warfare". Indeed, in frequent use are such philosophical statements as "Long after first-hand memories of the war's horror have faded, a crippled land will remain the legacy of our presence". When the critics of the "Defoliation" program first began to speak out, you and I thought to ourselves "so what ... the use of those exotic herbicides (orange, white and blue) aren't going to affect my weed control program. After all, it is the military and it is in a land on the other side of the world ... besides, if worse comes to worse, it's really •* only 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T that they're talking about, and they are as safe as cherry pie, motherhood, and the American Flag". �(Ho, Ho, little did we know that attitudes change so suddently - now it's organically gorwn cherries, abortion is common and to hell with the Flag). As the critics persued their relentless attack on the military use of herbicides, it became only too clear to us what was happening: bit by bit they were convincing the American people that these vegetation control chemicals were not just weed killers, but indeed a sneaky secret method of genocide. I quote to you a statement read into the Congressional Record, August 25, 1970, by Senator Gaylord Nelson: " Now there is a new advancement. Chemical compounds have been found that can destroy plants that man finds undesirable along his roads and highways. Science and Technology have produced chemicals that efficiently and economically can be used militarily to destroy the foliage suspected to be hiding an enemy or kill the crops believed grown to feed him. Unfortunately, like so many other of the rapid advancements of his society, man has created but another potential disaster. By engaging in warfare on the environment this country has taken the leadership in conducting a long range warfare on man himself and future generations, friend and enemy alike." How has all of this come about?? Weed control and genocide?? Just what in the world has the military done to our honorable profession. Is it the military, or is it our own failure to defend weed control technology? WHAT WE ALL NEED IS A GOOD HEALTHY DOSE OF PERSPECTIVE!! �To understand what has happened requires us to go back 30 years into history. Early in 1943 the Army's Chemical Warfare Service activated Fort Detrick at Frederick, Maryland. Its mission was to conduct research and development on chemical and biological antiplant agents. The early work was sensitive and highly classified, and publication of research data was withheld until the end of World War II. In June 1946, and entire issue of the Botanical Gazette was devoted to 18 select papers covering work accomplished during 1944 to 1945 on chemical growth regulators. Much of the research was conducted by Dr. E. J. Kraus, Head of the Botany Department at the University of Chicago, and Dr. John W. Mitchel, Plant Physiologist, USDA's Plant Industry Station in Beltsville, Maryland. They directed the synthesis and testing of nearly 1,100 substances, first in the laboratory and greenhouses and later in the field. From this array of chemicals 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T were shown to possess outstanding herbicidal properties, thus having great military and agricultural significance. The earliest military aerial spray trials were accomplished in 1944 and 1945 using smoke tanks hung externally on B-25 aircraft. Three different formulations were used in these tests. It was only a decision by President Roosevelt that prevented the use of these chemicals from being sprayed on the Japanese homeland - the option chosen, of course, was the Atomic bomb. At the close of World War II, 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T were released to American agriculture and immediately workers at state agricultural experiment stations began the first extensive field testing of 2,4-D and �2,4,5-T. At the 1945 North Central States Weed Conference, Mitchel reported that treating pastures with twice the normal amount of 2,4-D produced no toxic effects in sheep and cows grazed on them. Further, after feeding a cow 5 1/2 grams of pure 2,4-D per day for three months, there were no ill effects either for the cow or for the calf fed entirely on milk from that cow. To clinch the point, Kraus announced that he had personally taken one-half gram per day for three weeks with absolutely no effect. Backed with reports on effectiveness and no indications of shortcomings that would detract from those reports, the market for 2,4-D increased rapidly. 1945 - limited production - 917,000 pounds 1946 - 5,466,000 1950 - 14,000,000 At this time over 600 articles on the use of phenoxy herbicides appeared in the literature in a one-year period. 1960 - 36,000,000 pounds 1962 - 6,000 different formulations were available increased specificity for particular weed problems, 1n eeftaiirrcrops under differwigiiaoil and climatic conditions-accounted for the bewildering selection. 0« ) & 3*Dil1ion dollars were spent by farmers to control % weeds!! 1964 - 53,000,000 2,4-D �Concurrently - What was the military doing? By 1951 it had determined that the vegetation - control chemicals of choice would be the n-butyyesters of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T. While major emphasis was on delivery of these chemicals to crop targets, their use for defoliation and target marking also was considered. Because of the conflict in Korea and the possible need for vegetationcontrol sustems there, delivery technology was intensified. Fielding test occurred from 1951 to 1953 at which time the Air Force completed development on an operational capability for its employment, although it was never used. In May 1961, Fort Detrick received a request from the Secretary of Defense on information on the technical feasibility of defoliating jungle vegetation in Vietnam. Technical judgement was made that if adequate resources were provided, militarily significant vegetation control could be demonstrated. In August of the same year eight different spray tests were conducted in Southeast Asia. Even though tight security restrictions were imposed on the early efforts, the activities attracted considerable attention among friendly and enemy forces. Without full information on the nature of the tests and equipment limitations, an undue amount of controversy and criticism developed within official US circles. Attitudes of uncertainty, doubt, and perhaps even hostility towards the concepts per se placed the program in jeopardy. At the height of the controversy, General Maxwell Taylor and Mr. Walt Rostow, advisors to President Kennedy, visited �South Vietnam. The Presidential Advisors were impressed with what they saw and urged that the effort be continued. Subsequently, six C-123 aircraft were made available to the Tactical Air Command with a highpriority directive to install spray equipment capable of disseminating vegetation-control chemicals. On the 7th of January 1962, the USAF effort was named Operation Ranch Hand and the defoliation program began. In the military sense, defoliation was the destruction and/or removal of target foliage by the application of chemical agents. The objective of defoliation was to improve vertical and horizontal visibility with a target area. The high incidence of successful enemy ambushers in Vietnam was the salient factor that influenced the introduction of vegetation-control systems into the Southeast Asia Conflict. The objective of Ranch Hand was to defoliate the vegetation along lines of communication (highways and waterways) to deny the enemy the safety of adequate cover and concealment. From 1962-1966 the defoliation program was an outstanding success. When used properly along roads, canals, lines of communication and around base perimeters it was responsible for the saving of thousands of lives of our troops. However, it was so successful that military leaders recommended its use for treating large forested area known to be enemy strong holds. Moreover, the use of herbicides for anticrop purposes was becoming more and more politically sensitive. This indiscriminate spray is what lead the critics to charge "Ecological damage". (Remember DDT!) �At home the American people were being baraged about the Vietnam War and about their own American Environment. Rachel Carson's Bood "Silent Springs" was on the lips of many college professors and students. More and more protest groups began to object to the use of herbicides in Vietnam but most in fact were more concerned with the war itself. A much smaller group, predominantly scientists, choose to criticize the use of herbicides on "scientific", economic, and/or political bases. The US Government was not insensitive to their pronouncements. The Ranch Hand program was continually under evaluation! Teams of scientists were sent from the US and each evaluation group recommended continued use of the vegetation-control systems. The conclusions being that defoliation had reduced the incidence of ambushes, had saved lives, and had disrupted enemy tactics. As a/1 of you are now aware the blow that finally terminated the use of herbicides in Vietnam was a news release titled: "Scientists Charge Plant Killer Causes Vietnames Birth Defects" in which the Bionetics Report on 2,4,5-T was first published. The charge was never proven, but the reaction by the public was overwhelming; within four days restrictions were placed not only on Orange in Vietnam, but on 2,4,5-T. Since that announcement there has been widespread paranoia about the phenoxy herbicides (eg., the Globe Arizona Incident). Twenty five years of use, experience and 10,000 publications mean nothing. We are being asked to prove a negative - that is 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T are not proven to be fully safe and never will be, nor will any other material ever be proven to be ultimately safe. The simple fact is that safety cannot �be proven. Whatever the tests of safety and however elaborate they may be made, we can always think of an additional, untested set of conditions under which the chemical mayjconceivably be hazardous. It can only be said that 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T have been tested under a sufficiently wide range of conditions to give reasonable assurance that when properly used their direct effect on animal life is negligible. The point is not so much that we do not and cannot know all of the biological consequences of our actions, but that we lack a common ethic for decisions even when the facts are reasonably well known. Economic, social and aesthetic considerations all enter into the picture in matters of land and vegetation management. These conflicting interests have no common medium of exchange with which, for example, economic debts can be paid with aesthetic dollars. Economic factors are likely to take precedence over aesthetics for those who live on the land and extract their livelihood from it. For others, however, social or aesthetic values are more important. Unfortunately, for us it is the latter group that provide the vocal outcry that we have heard so much. Perhaps the common currency in a democratic society for the settlement of such differences is the ballot. It, as all of you are aware from the question period, is the current trend to seek solutions in the political arena. Such solutions as you now know take the form of regulations and laws restricting or prohibiting the use of chemicals. Loss of the phenoxy and related herbicides for agricultural use would be serious blow to this nation. It is unfortunate that the RISKS VS BENEFITS, cannot be explained to the American public before it is too late. 8 �However, the fact that these chemicals have been extensively used in an unpopular war, combined with other doubts and suspicions may yet turn the tide in their disfavor! What then should we do if the use of chemicals is lost to agriculture? Obviously, we do without the convenience and economy that chemicals have brought. When we lose modern conveniences, we return to primative ways. When the carpenter losses his ski 11 saw, he goes back to the handsaw. Sound biological management is available and indeed is much improved in recent years. There is still also the plow and I trust, the will to work. Despite the current panic over the use of herbicides (and all pesticides) I do not believe that they will be outlawed April 1974 hearings will be critical. Moreover, sooner or later society will recover its sense of perspective. Indeed, we will probably approach our employment of chemicals in the environment with far greater wisdom for such perspective. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange Description An account of the resource <p style="margin-top: -1em; line-height: 1.2em;">The Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange comprises 120 linear feet and spans the late 1800s to 2005; however, the bulk of the coverage is from the 1960s to the 1980s and there are many undated items. The collection was donated to Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in 1985 by Dr. Alvin L. Young (1942- ). Dr. Young developed the collection as he conducted extensive research on the military defoliant Agent Orange. The collection is in good condition and includes letters, memoranda, books, reports, press releases, journal and newspaper clippings, field logs and notebooks, newsletters, maps, booklets and pamphlets, photographs, memorabilia, and audiotapes of an interview with Dr. Young.</p> <p>For more about this collection, <a href="/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/alvin-l--young-collection-on-a">view the Agent Orange Exhibit.</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Box The box containing the original item. 133 Folder The folder containing the original item. 3814 Series The series number of the original item. Series VI Subseries III Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Young, Alvin L. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 15 1973 Title A name given to the resource Typescript: The Orange Controversy and Its Implication to Weed Control Programs https://www.nal.usda.gov/exhibits/speccoll/files/original/af8c5629db0a37824d70503c71db6368.pdf 6b336b62861903ae3eb61ae26df84d7d PDF Text Text Item D Number °3772 Author Young, Alvin L D (jot Scanned Corporate Author Report/Article Title Typescript: Disposal of Herbicide Orange by Soil Biodegradation: A Report of Findings and Recommendations Journal/Book Title Year Month/Day Color Number of Images June 10 D 44 Descrlpton Notes Monday, December 31, 2001 Page 3772 of 3802 �DISPOSAL OF HERBICIDE ORANGE BY SOIL BIODEGRADATION 10 June 1972 A REPORT OF FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS BY Captain Alvin L. Young, Ph.D. Herbicide Physiologist USAFA (DFLS) United States Air Force Academy NOTE; This is a report prepared by the investigator for limited circulation. The views and recommendations expressed by the author are his own and do not represent the policies nor commit support from the United States Air Force Academy Command. �ABSTRACT The Air Force is charged with responsibility for ecologically safe disposal of approximately 2.3 million gallons of herbicide Orange. This report provides information on the feasibility of using a soil incorporation technique for the biological (microbial) degradation of the herbicide. Research data have shown that massive amounts of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T (the components of Orange) can be biologically destroyed by microorganisms. Moreover, data substantiate biological degradation of the toxic contaminant dioxin (TCDD). Data confirm that such large quantities of herbicide can be biologically degraded within an acceptaible time frame (1 1/2 years). Special details are provided on the soil incorporation technique and on the criteria for the selection of a suitable site for the disposal program. �TABLE OF CONTENTS Section I II III IV V VI Page INTRODUCTION AGENT DESCRIPTION 4 CURRENT USES OF PHENOXY HERBICIDES 7 LITERATURE REVIEW 9 THE FATE OF DIOXIN (TCDD) IN THE ENVIRONMENT 17 RECOMMENDATIONS 21 Calculations and Cost Estimates VII 1 SITE CRITERIA AND IMPLICATIONS FOR SELECTION 23 26 Physical Factors Biological Factors 28 Management Factors 32 Socio-Political Factors VIII 26 33 LITERATURE CITED 36 GLOSSARY 41 �DISPOSAL OF HERBICIDE ORANGE BY SOIL BIODEGRADATION 10 June 1972 Captain A. L. Young, USAFA (DFLS) 303-472-3978/3861 USAF Academy, Colorado 80840 SECTION I: INTRODUCTION The Air Force is charged with responsibility for ecologically safe disposal of approximately 2.3 million gallons of herbicide Orange. Initially, high temperature incineration by CONUS commercial operators was proposed. However, there have been adverse reactions on the part of certain state environment agencies which may preclude this course of action. This report is designed to provide information on an alternate disposal method; namely, the biological degradation of the herbicide by a soil incorporation technique. The disposal of herbicide Orange by soil degradation should be considered for the following reasons: (1) soil incorporation has definite cost advantages; an estimate of $300,000 is proposed; ( ) soil incorporation provides a relatively fast 2 technique for the disposal of such a large quantity of agent; a time estimate of 240 days is proposed; (3) soil incorporation in a carefully selected site will provide an ecologically safe disposal; degradation data are available on all components of herbicide Orange including the contaminant 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin; (4) properly employed this technique will minimize manpower requirements, the proposal calls for a 10-man operation to include soil incorporation of the agent and drum cleaning and disposal; (5) soil incorporation offers an alternate �disposal method for those areas where incinerators are not available; and ( ) this method may provide a reasonable socio-political solution if 6 the factors in Section VII are given serious consideration. The rationale for the soil incorporation technique is based on pertinent literature and field studies. It has been known for several years that the rate at which herbicides disappear from the soil is largely dependent upon their susceptibility to metabolism by soil microorganisms. Much of the information available on the biological breakdown of the components of Orange, 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4,5-T), comes from laboratory studies and is very useful for predicting what might happen when relatively high concentrations of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T are applied to a soil incorporated site. Conversely, a certain amount of caution must always be used when extrapolating laboratory data to a field situation. Until recently there was very little information concerning the breakdown of 2,4-D or 2,4,5-T in a soil incorporation site. However, Dr. R. L. Goulding (Environmental Health Sciences Center, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, Phone 503-754-2814) is presently conducting field experiments on the use of soil incorporation as a method for disposing of massive quantities (approximately 1 1/4 million gallons) of 2,4-D and waste byproducts. A copy of Dr. Goulding's January 1972 progress report is attached. Of significance, Dr. Goulding found that when he employed a trenching technique, simulating subsurface injection, he could place 500 pounds/acre (Ib/A) 2,4-D at a depth of 10 inches into 5-inch bands on two-foot centers. With this placement the actual concentration of material within these bands was - 2- �approximately 1250 parts per million (ppm). Samples taken between trenches and in soil profile segments from the surface down through the point of application indicated minimal vertical and horizontal movement of the agent from the site of initial deposition. Results from this experiment indicated little difference in the rates of degradation in the trenched plots or a surface application of 500 Ib/A: 95% degradation in 540 days. Data obtained on soil persistence of large quantities of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T are also available from the Eglin AFB one square mile spray equipment test grid that was used from 1962 to September 1970 ( 0 . This area 5) was sprayed with approximately 21,265 gallons of Orange and 16,164 gallons of Purple (also a 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T formulation) during a seven-year period (1962-1969). The area also received 4,172 gallons of White (2,4-D and picloram herbicide) between 1967-1970. In May 1970, plant bioassays indicated that the maximum concentration of 2,4-D and/or 2,4,5-T in the soil was 5 ppm. If all of the 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T from the military herbicides had remained in the top six inches of the soil and had not decomposed during the eight-year period, then the approximate concentration would have been 1,550 ppm combination of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T. In December 1970, the maximum detectable level of a combination of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T in the soil was 0.1 ppm. Chemical analysis of soils collected in December 1970 indicated that no dioxin could be detected at a minimum detection limit of 0.001 ppm dioxin ( 9 . 4) - 3- �SECTION II: AGENT DESCRIPTION Orange is a reddish brown to tan-colored liquid soluble in diesel fuel and organic solvents, but insoluble in water. One gallon of Orange contains 4.21 pounds of the active ingredient of 2,4-D and 4.41 pounds of the active ingredient of 2,4,5-T. Orange is formulated to contain a 50:50 mixture of the n-butyl esters of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T. The percentages of the formulation are: n-butyl ester of 2,4-D . free acid of 2,4-D n-butyl ester of 2,4,5-T 49.40% 0.13% 48.75% free acid of 2,4,5-T 1.00% inert ingredients (e.g., butyl alcohol and ester moieties) 0.62% Some of the physical, chemical, and toxicological properties of Orange are: Specific density (25 C) Viscosity, centipoise (23 C) Molecular mass 1.282 43 618 Weight of formulation Ibs/gal 8.63 Soluble in water N6 Relative toxicity Low Specific toxicity for white rats (mg/kg) 566 Orange and its component n-butyl esters of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T are characterized by plant physiologists as volatile herbicides because the vapors are relatively phytotoxic. However, the physical chemist would - 4- �regard the butyl esters of 2,4-D and 2,4,S-T as essentially nonvolatile, with a vapor pressure of less than 1 ram of mercury at 35 C. In fact, the n.-butyl ester of 2,4-D is approximately equivalent to No. 2 diesel fuel in volatility, requiring a temperature of 147 C for vapor pressure to equal 1 mm of mercury ( 0 . 2) Data are not available on the distance Orange or its component esters may travel in vapor state from sprayed areas, but lateral movements of herbicides, due to their volatile nature along, are believed to be negligible. Most instances of alleged crop damage adjacent to areas sprayed with Orange may be attributed to drift or misapplication at the time of spraying rather than to volatility ( 0 . Perhaps the most 2) appropriate data on the potential of Orange to effect damage to agronomically important plants downwind from application comes again from research (unpublished data, Captain Young) on dissemination studies of Orange on Test Area C-52A, Eglin AFB Reservation, Florida. The large quantity of herbicides (57,000 gallons), deposited aerially, and the possibility of drift (and/or volatility?) fostered several monitoring systems for possible environmental contamination. Strategic placement downwind of sensitive indicator plants (tomato and cotton) at distances of 0.5, 1.0, and 2.5 miles indicated essentially no damage was done to the plants positioned at 2.5 miles, while only light and moderate damage (galling and tissue enlargement) occurred to those positioned at 1.0 and 0.5 miles, respectively. The dioxin formation was the cause for concern over the use of Orange. 2,4,5-trichlorophenol is employed in the manufacture of 2,4,5-T. It can condense to form 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD). This compound is extremely toxic and elicits teratogenic effects (See Section V). In a �personal communication with Mr. Wayne E. Vandeventer (SAAMA/SFQT, Kelly AFB, Texas, Autovon 945-5613), data were obtained on the dioxin content of the Orange currently stored at Gulfport, Mississippi. From an analysis of 18 drums the range of dioxin content was 0.1 to 14.0 ppm. Approximately 50% of the drums contained dioxin content within the limits set by the Environmental Protection Agency ( . ppm dioxin). The average dioxin 05 content of the drums was calculated to be 3.3 ppm. - 6- �SECTION III: CURRENT USES OF PHENOXY HERBICIDES The phenoxy herbicides 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4,5-T) are well established pesticides for the control of weeds and shrubs in agriculture. In particular, as noted by Klingman and Shaw (27), the phenoxy herbicides are especially useful because: (a) they are selective; they kill most broadleaf plants but do not kill grasses or grain crops; (b) they are potent; many species of weeds are controlled by less than one pound of active ingredient per acre; (c) they are easy to use; (d) they are not poisonous to man, domestic animals, or game when applied at the recommended rates; and (e) they do not accumulate in the soil and they have no harmful effects on soil organisms. Klingman and Shaw noted that ester formulations are generally more potent, pound for pound, than are salt formulations. The esters are more effective than salts for killing weeds that are growing slowly; and because esters are oily, they are less likely to be washed off the foliage if rain falls soon after application. The herbicides 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T were first employed by farmers and ranchers in the mid-1940's and remain the most common synthetic organic herbicides. They are used in several situations. The largest use of 2,4-D is for broadleaf weed control in corn and other grains; the major use of 2,4,5-T is to kill brush ( 4 . The combined production of 2,4-D 1) and 2,4,5-T has increased steadily from 34.6 million pounds in 1958 to 96.8 million pounds in 1968. At present, the phenoxy herbicides are the only group of herbicides used to any extent on pasture and rangeland. Weeds and brush infesting pasture and rangeland are most widely controlled -•7 - �by 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T, respectively. In 1966, nearly 8 million acres (more than 1 percent) of pasture and rangeland were treated with phenoxy herbicides ( 4 , The herbicide 2,4,5-T is a particularly effective tool for 1) vegetation management on forest lands ( 3 . It is used on powerline, 3) railroad, and road rights-of-way; but its most important use is in connection with the establishment and release of conifers on forest lands. For these purposes, 0.5 to 4 pounds of 2,4,5-T per acre are applied as low volatile esters dissolved or emulsified in diesel oil or water. The 15 April 1970 government edict on 2,4,5-T suspended the registrations of liquid formulations for use around the home and recreational areas, and for uses on lakes, ponds, and ditchbanks. This restriction did not include its use on range and pasture lands, non-agricultural lands, or in weed and brush control programs on communication and highway rights-of-way. - 8- �SECTION IV: LITERATURE REVIEW The interrelationships of soil microorganisms and herbicides are observed in two areas of study: (a) effects of herbicides on microorganisms and (b) effects of microorganisms on herbicides. The first area relates to the effects by direct or indirect action of the herbicide on the growth and physiological processes of the soil microflora. The second area of study deals with the metabolism and breakdown of herbicides into components that are usually less phytotoxic than the original compound. There is considerable evidence available to show that 2,4-D as contained in Orange is rapidly decomposed in soils ( 2). Concentrations of 2,4-D at 100 to 200 times the amounts normally used for Weed control usually have no appreciable effect on the soil population of bacteria, fungi, and actinomycetes ( 6 . Reduced bacterial counts have been observed with 2,4-D 3) concentrations as low as 100 ppm, but in several experiments 500 ppm have not altered bacterial counts. More is known about the effects of 2,4-D on soil microflora than about any other herbicide, and some interesting interactions have been observed ( 6 . The herbicide is more toxic to microorganisms 3) in acid than in alkaline soils and most toxic to aerobes and facultative anaerobes. Spore-forming bacteria appear to be more sensitive than nonspore- formers to 2,4-D. Bacteria are more sensitive than fungi to the herbicide. Even closely related species differ in response to 2,4-D. If 2,4-D were applied to a moist loam soil under summertime temperature at a rate of 0.5 to 3 Ib/A, it would disappear in 7 to 30 days ( 6 . 2) If applied at rates of 4 to 55 Ib/A, it would probably disappear in one to three months ( 2 . If 2,4-D were applied to the soil at a concentra1) _ o- �tion of 500 ppm (1,000 Ib/A) and disappeared at a rate proportional to the breakdown of 55 Ib/A, the calculated time is 5.6 years. However, there is evidence that a more realistic time for inactivation of 500 ppm would be one to two years or maybe less. Soil microorganisms have remarkable adaptive power and several people have shown that microorganisms can, through adaptation or mutation, alter their metabolic pathways for a more efficient utilization of herbicides () 5. When microorganisms are exposed to high concentrations of a foreign material, there is usually a lag period before utilization of the material begins. This lag period represents the time required for the microorganism to become adapted. Once breakdown is initiated and completed the soil then retains a capability for rapid breakdown. For example, Audus (2) treated a soil with 100 ppm of 2,4-D and 20 days were required for 80% detoxification and when the soil was treated again only three days were required for 80% detoxification. Colmer (6) found that 5,000 ppm of 2,4-D was at first inhibitory to a bacterium, but after subculturing three times_the organism1 grew rapidly in the 5,000 ppm concentration. Newman et al. ( 4 and Rogoff 3) and Reed (40) discovered that 2,4-D disappeared from soil more rapidly with the second application. Walker and Newman ( 6 found in laboratory tests 4) that three to five days were required for decomposition of 100 ppm,2,4-D; but when the same soil was treated again with 1,000 ppm then only 10 to 14 days were required for decomposition. Stojanovic et al. ( 5 added a mixture 4) of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T (similar to the military formulation of Orange) to soil at a concentration of 5 tons/A (5,000 ppm in top 6 inches). Seventyeight percent of the herbicide carbon was given off as ( ^ in 56 days. It X - 10 ^ �also appeared that mixtures of 2,4,5-T were more rapidly degraded than were the single compounds. Persistence of 2,4,5-T in soils is usually two to three times longer than 2,4-D (12), and very few organisms have been identified as having the ability to break down the 2,4,5-T molecule (1) . Dr. Michael Newton, Oregon State University, (35) has calculated from studies on the kinetics of degradation by microorganisms that 2,4,5-T has a half-life of 7 weeks in the forest floor. Dr. Newton also has noted (personal communication) that in tropical soils, a three gallon per acre application of Orange (27 pounds active ingredient/acre) disappeared within 10 days. He estimated the 2,4-D disappeared in 3 days and the 2,4,5-T in 10 days. Leopold, Van Schaik, and Neal (29) found that increasing chlorination of phenoxyacetic acid decreased its water solubility while increasing its absorption onto activated carbon and organic matter, thus making it less available for microbial degradation. Moreover, Thiegs (44) noted, from reviewing the literature, that 2,4,5-T is less susceptible to attack by microorganisms because the aromatic nucleus of halogenated phenoxyalkyl carboxylic acids and phenols are more biologically inert in compounds containing the halogen (chlorine) in a position meta (the 5 position) to the phenolic hydroxy. There are some microorganisms that are susceptible to phenoxy herbicides (2,4-D and 2,4,5-T) at concentrations of about 50 ppm ( ) 5. However, most microorganisms are resistant to high concentrations. Shennan and Fletcher (41) subjected 38 species of soil bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes to 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T at concentrations of 100 to 10,000 ppm. Twenty-six species were not inhibited by 10,000 ppm 2,4-D. Twenty-four organisms - 11 - �required 10,000 ppm 2,4,5-T for growth restriction to occur. Stojanovic et al. (43) added a mixture of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T to soil at a concentration of 5 tons/A and the bacteria and actinomycetes were inhibited but the total number of fungi increased during a 56-day incubation period. It seems apparent from the literature that over the millennia, microorganisms have developed unbelievable capabilities for handling organic compounds. Moreover, most microorganisms seem to have a latent ability for decomposition of halogenated hydrocarbons. In a recent review, McNew (32) discussed the degradation of just such organic compounds in the soil. He noted that the degradation of such chemicals are dependent upon the enzymatic capabilities of the microorganisms. There are certain types of enzymes that destroy the molecules by hydrolysis at vulnerable spots such as an oxygen group or ester linkage, oxidation over an unsaturated bond or hydroxyl group, reduction, substitute reaction with a carboxyl or halogen substituent, or beta oxidation of an alkyl chain. McNew illustrates this degradation process by discussing the fate of 2,4-D in soil: In normal loam soils rich in soil microorganisms there is hydrolysis to inactive acetic acid and 2,4-dichlorophenol within 2 to 6 weeks, depending upon the moisture and temperature of the soil. The acetic acid is immediately used as an energy source by entering into the Krebs cycle of almost any microorganism. The 2,4-dichlorophenol is further degraded by those organisms that attack phenols through the hydroxyl group. If instead of 2,4-D, an application is made of the inactive ester 2,4-dichlorophenoxyethanol sulfate, Bacillus cereus var. mycoides hydrolyzes off the sulfate group, certain species of Pseudomonas or other bacteria oxidize the resultant alcohol to an acid, thereby producing 2,4-D which then undergoes decomposition by the means described above. In substance, the soil microorganisms can be encouraged to generate the - 12 - �herbicide in situ and then decompose it before excessive residues build up. This is an ideal self-regulant device but it has three drawbacks to discourage its general use: more chemical must be applied per acre, it can be ineffective on some soils with low microbial populations, and the system is extremely susceptible to variations in the environmental conditions. The question can now be asked: "What are the breakdown products from phenoxy herbicides and do they accumulate in the soil?" Loos, Roberts, and Alexander (30), and Bollag et al. (3,4) have extensively studied in cultures the decomposition of 2,4-D by a soil Arthrobacter. They have suggested that the bacterium first enzymatically converts the 2,4-D to 2,4-dichlorophenol and other chlorophenols. These chlorophenols are further metabolized to catechols (e.g., 3,5-dichloro catechol and 4-chlorocatechol). At low enzyme levels, the chlorocatechols are metabolized completely. apparently formed. At high enzyme levels other compounds are Bollag et al. (3) have identified these as carboxy- methylenebutenolides. The butenolides are probably converted to chloromuconic acid and then to chloride ion, acetate and dicarboxylic acid. They concluded by noting that the toxicity of many of these intermediates is unknown and inasmuch as they are found in cultures of a microorganism obtained from soil, they may accumulate during the decomposition of phenoxy herbicides. under fieId conditions? But do they actually accumulate Investigations by Winston and Ritty (48) and Reigner, Sopper, and Johnson (38) indicated that both 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T are decomposed to form carbon dioxide, inorganic chlorides, and water; objectionable chlorophenols are not end-products of this decomposition. Further supporting evidence has been provided by Reinhart ( 9 . The 3) - 13 - �upper half of a 60-acre timber watershed in northern West Virginia was logged and treated with a 2,4,5-T ester to kill all vegetation. The volume of herbicide that was applied was 1,325 gallons on 30 acres (44 galIons/acre). Almost 800 gallons of this was potential contaminating material: about 740 gallons of diesel oil and 52 gallons of a commercial formulation of 2,4,5-T (312 pounds acid equivalent). Reinhart found n£ odor contaminants (phenols or catechols) in the numerous water samples taken from the stream draining the treated watershed. The amount of active herbicide applied to soil may diminish by means othertthan biological decompositions; e.g., chemical degradation, absorption, metabolism by plants, volatilization, leaching, and photodecomposition. Hanks (16) has shown that 2,4-D was much more resistant to leaching from alkali soil than from a peat soil. Hernandez and Warren (17) found that high organic matter content in the soil reduced the movement of 2,4-D by leaching. Moreover, herbicides once applied to the soil surface are exposed to the forces of light, air heat, moisture, and other environmental influences. Such "weathering" acts, in some degree, to change""the initial character of the herbicide. While each factor individually may cause chemical transformations, the influence of light appears to be the most important and widespread of all. The herbicides 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T undergo photodecomposition. Crosby (9) has noted that while many of the herbicides are decomposed readily by ultraviolet light in the laboratory, data from field experiments - 14 - �are not always in agreement. The atmosphere effectively absorbs ultraviolet light of short wave lengths; and the intensity of the light is strongly affected by season, climate, latitude, elevation, and the angle of incidence. Shading, however, is not as important a factor as might be suspected; the intensity of ultraviolet reflection from open sky often exceeds that from direct sunlight. Crosby and Tutass (10) compared the effects of sunlight and ultraviolet light on aqueous solutions of 2,4-D (440 ppm). The solutions were confined to a depth of 3.5 inches and a pH of 3.5. They found that 2,4-D decomposed rapidly in the presence of water and ultraviolet light. The major reaction in the laboratory was in the formation of 2,4-dichlorophenol. This was further degraded to a mixture of polyquinpid humic acids (a lightindependent reaction). Sunlight appeared to produce many of the same qualitative effects as the ultraviolet light in the laboratory. However, 2,4-dichlorophenol was not detected in the sunlight. This was probably due to rapid volatilization under outdoor conditions. The fact that humic acid was found in the sunlight-irradiated mixture suggested that a significant part of the herbidide was degraded to this end-product. Aly and Faust (1) examined the effects of ultraviolet irradiation (in the laboratory) on the isopropyl ester, butyl ester, and isooctyl ester of 2,4-D. They found that the irradiation by a mercury lamp decomposed the esters of 2,4-D at a rate which was pH dependent. Degradation occurred faster at pH 9.0 than at pH 7.0 or 4.0. These results appear to be in disagreement with the results of Crosby and - 15 - �Tutass (10) primarily because of the differences in the 2,4-D formulations. The acid and salt formulations are soluble in an acid system while the ester formulations are not. Since the solubility of a formulation is important, it should be recognized that the addition of an ester to an aquatic system (e.g., a pond) would probably result in the accumulation of the herbicide on the bottom and, hence, in the mud (recall that Orange has a density of 1.282). Frank and Comes (15) investigated the persistence of 2,4-D in pond water and the associated hydrosoil • (mud). They found that when the butoxyethanol ester of 2,4-D was added to ponds, it accumulated in the top one inch of the hydrosoil. They also found that low concentra- tions of the 2,4-D persisted in the pond water for 25 days and in the hydrosoil for 55 days. Newton (35) reported that photochemical degradation was one of the most important mechanisms of 2,4,5-T loss in a forest ecosystem. - 16 - �SECTION V: THE FATE OF DIOXIN (TCDD) IN THE ENVIRONMENT In. the latter part of 1969, it was revealed by the National Cancer Institute that a study (8) conducted by the Bionetics Research Laboratories, Division of Litton Industries, had shown 2,4,5-T at very high dosage levels to be teratogenic (producing malformed fetuses) in mice and rats. Subsequent studies (47) showed that a toxic contaminant, 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) was responsible for most of the findings attributed to 2,4,5-T. The sample of 2,4,5-T employed in the Bionetics study contained 30 ppm TCDD. Sparschu, Dunn, and Rowe (42) have noted that TCDD is highly toxic. The LD for male and female rats is 23 and 45 Aig/kg respectively, while that for male guinea-pigs is 0.6 jag/kg. They also noted that TCDD was responsible for human cases of chloracne (a disease clinically similar in all patients and characterized by a profuse acneiform eruption, starting on the face and extending to the trunk and limbs, appearing 3-9 weeks after contact with TCDD contaminated herbicide). Additional studies (13) have shown that oral administration of 2,4,5-T containing ^ 1 ppm TCDD produced no teratogenic effects in rats at doses as high as 24 mg/kg/day. Furthermore, New Zealand White rabbits receiving a daily oral dose of 40 mg 2,4,5-T/kg on days 6-18 of gastation showed no clinical or gross pathological signs of adverse chemical effect. Litter size, number of foetal resorption, birth weights and sex ratios appeared to be unaffected by the chemical treatment. - 17 - �Williams (47) , has stated that TCDD can be formed in the manufacture of 2,4,5-trichlorophenol, the precursor to 2,4,5-T. The conditions required for its formation are high temperatures in the presence of base, conditions which can occur in the alkaline hydrolysis of 1,2,4,5tetrachlorobenzene to 2,4,5-trichlorophenol. No detectable dioxins have been found in 2,4-D. This is due to the fact that the precursor 2,4-dichlorophenol is made by direct chlorination of phenol and not by alkaline hydrolysis of 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene. To date, analytical methods have been developed and validated to a sensitivity of 0.1 ppm for TCDD in 2,4,5-T acid. Johnson (22) has summarized some of the information known about TCDD: (a) in solution it is rapidly degraded by ultraviolet light at wavelengths that appear in the spectrum of the sun. (b) the tetrachloro- dibenzo-p-dioxin has one-fifth the solubility of DDT in water and onesixteen hundredth the solubility of DDT in benzene. Thus, there is probably less tendency to concentrate in fat, but the question is really academic because the quantities of TCDD in the environment are exceedingly small, (c) speculative claims are widespread that 2,4,5-T residues on vegetation might be converted to TCDD if the dead foliage is burned. All available evidence to date indicates this conversion does not occur. The alleged precursor is in dilute form on the substrate, the reaction is bimolecular---the molecules must be formed close together to react. A laboratory experiment was conducted wherein agent Orange was applied to filter paper at a rate of 24 Ib/A. This is equivalent to approximately 10 Ib of 2,4,5-T acid equivalent per acre. The paper was - 18 - �burned and combustion products plus ash was solvent extracted and analyzed by gas chromatography. There was no TCDD detected at a sensitivity of 5 ppm. Environmental studies by Kearney et al. (24) indicate that TCDD is not biosynthesized by condensation of chlorophenols in soils, is not a photoproduct of 2,4,5-trichlorophenol, does not leach into the soil profile, is not taken up by plants from minute residues which might occur in soils, is not photodecomposed on a dry soil surface and is not translocated within the plant from foliar applications. TCDD could not be detected at a level of 0.05 ppm in tissue extract from 22 Bald Eagle carcasses. Examination of soil samples receiving heavy application of 2,4,5-T revealed no TCDD. It is concluded that environmental contamination by chlorodioxin impurities in 2,4,5-T have produced no measurable effects. Dr. Phillip C. Kearney (Leader, Pesticide Investigation, USDA, ARS, Beltsville, Maryland, Phone: 301-474-6500, Ext. 370) has reported (personal communication) that TCDD is degraded by microorganisms! In studies of soils containing 0.1, 1.0, and 10 ppm TCDD, 50% degradation was noted within one year. The proposal contained in the present report (Section VI) is based on the addition of 500 ppm Orange to the soil (via soil incorporation). If all the Orange contained 14 ppm dioxin (which it does not), then the concentration of dioxin would be 0.007 ppm on a per acre basis and 0.035 ppm on a 5-inch band treatment pattern (see Section VI) . - 19 - �Little research has been devoted to the nature and toxicological significance of trace amounts of impurities in pesticide chemicals. However, the observation that samples of 2,4,5-T did contain small amounts of TCDD has led to an increased interest in the nature of impurities in other herbicides. Recently, Huston (19) has iolated and identified three neutral contaminants in samples of production grade 2,4-D. Thes impurities interfered with the gas-liquid chromatographic analysis of 2,4-D for TCDD. The compound bis-(2,4-dichlorophenoxy)methane was present at a concentration of 30 ppm in commercial samples of 2,4-D. The other two compounds were positional isomers of the first and were present in much less concentration (1 and 10 ppm, respectively). The toxicological significance of these three compounds as impurities in production grade 2,4-D is not known. However (as Huston noted), from a study of the teratogenic effects of both production grade 2,4-D and purified 2,4-D, it appears that these impurities have no adverse effects at the levels administered in laboratory tests. - 20 - �SECTION VI: RECOMMENDATIONS From information provided in Sections I - V it is apparent that any technique for the disposal of 2.3 million gallons of Orange must most importantly be ecologically safe. jatd economically feasible. To be ecologically safe means that the 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) must be destroyed in such a manner as to preclude any hazard to man, wildlife, or to the ecology of the disposal site. Obviously, it is not the 2,4-D or 2,4,5-T that presents the disposal problem. If the Orange contained less than 0.5 ppm TCDD, it could be declared surplus and sold. Because the Air Force has no way (i.e., without the actual analysis of each drum for TCDD) of identifying the significantly contaminated lots, it becomes necessary to destroy all the agent! Research data by Young, Hunter, and Lehn ( 0 at Eglin AFB, Florida, showed that 5) massive amounts of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T were biologically destroyed by microorganisms in the soil. Moreover, Dr. Goulding's research in Oregon confirms that massive amounts of 2,4-D and other phenolic wastes can be biologically degraded within an acceptable time frame (1 1/2 years). Dr. Kearney's research at Beltsville, Maryland, confirms biologically degradation of TCDD. Therefore, it is felt that biological disposal of Orange by soil incorporation is an excellent means for destroying the agent. Economically, it is the cheapest! Dr. Goulding's disposal program in Oregon has been tasked with the destruction of 1 1/4 million gallons of herbicide waste or approximately 25,000 drums. He estimates (personal communication) that the disposal project will cost $60,000.00. It is proposed that a subsurface injection system be used to incorporate - 21 - �the herbicide into the soil at a depth of 6-10 inches. The injection could be done by using a D-8 CAT or similar heavy piece of equipment and utilizing a conventional agricultural subsoiler consisting of a vertical blade on which a chisel, or foot, is mounted at an angle of approximately 15° from horizontal. A piece of metal tubing should be attached to the blade (and terminating at the base of the chisel) in such a manner that a piece of hose from the injection pump could be inserted to permit deposition of the herbicide immediately behind the chisel. The equipment, with eight injectors (shanks), should be calibrated to apply 1,000 Ib/A of Orange. The eight shanks should be on 20-inch centers. During the process of application the overlying vegetative structure will be damaged (it will regrowJ). The soil structure itself, to a depth of 12 inches, will be drastically altered. To prevent the loss of soil moisture and to reseal the soil (thus minimizing volatility and damage from wind), a soil compacter (cultipacker) will be required. It is proposed that a drum emptying, cleaning, and disposal operation be established at the disposal site. Specifics on emptying the drum will depend upon how much efficiency is required in the operation. At the least, hoists and drums punches will be required. A rinse system can be designed into the emptying operation. The rinse should probably be diesel fuel. No effort should be made to reclaim the drums. Instead they should be crushed and placed in a shallow burial. If the soil is strongly alkaline (pH 9 or 10), the metal will degrade via calvanic action. - 22 - �CALCULATIONS AND COST ESTIMATES ASSUMPTIONS: 2.3 million gallons of Orange 8.6 pounds active ingredient/galIon 2 gallons of rinse/drum of Orange (total 92,000 gallons diesel fuel) Rate will be 1,000 pounds active ingredient/acre (500 ppm). Application via one D-8 CAT or equivalent piece of heavy equipment. (Estimated cost of D-8 CAT plus operator is $30.00/hour) Speed = 5 mph Eight shanks mounted on 20-inch centers, thus providing 13.33 foot swath. CALCULATIONS: 1 mile swath = 1.61 acres gallons/acre = 123 gallons/minute = 16.4 gallons/hour = 986 galIons/mile = 197 5 miles of injecting = 1,000 gallons, approximately. OTHER SPECIFICATIONS: Injection pump must be capable of pumping 25 psi (suggest obtaining a 50 psi pump). The pump must furnish 2.05 gallons per minute per shank (eight of them). Therefore, for 2.3 million gallons of Orange, it will require 19,544 acres, However, if retreating is acceptable (data indicate it is), then 9,772 acres will be required (less than 16 square miles). - 23 - �TIME: 2,426 hours of application time will be required. COSTS FOR D-8 CAT: The cost/acre for the D-8 CAT will be $3.72. The total for D-8 time (with operator) will be $72,780.00. OTHER EQUIPMENT COSTS: Drum Emptying Equipment = $5,000.00 Drum Cleaning Equipment = $10,000.00 Drum Crushing Equipment = $5,000.00 2 X 1,000 gallon reservoir units with flotation wheels = $7,000.00 Soil compactor (cultipacker) = $1,500.00 Eight-unit subsoil injector = $1,500.00 Pump plus plumbing = $1,750.00 Total $31,750.00 MANPOWER REQUIREMENTS: Drum-emptying Operation = 2 men (OTHER THAN D-8 OPERATOR) Drum-cleaning Operation = 2 men Soil Incorporating = 3 men General Utility = 1 man Supervisor = 1 man Total 9 men If the operation requires 240 days (rough approximate), suggest salary be established on a basis of one year. Thus, labor estimate at $15,000.00 per man is $135,000.00. If a per diem of $10.00/day/man, then total labor cost will be $156,600.00. - 24 - �TOTAL COST OF DISPOSAL OPERATION D-8 CAT plus Operator = $72,780.00 Other Equipment = 31,750.00 Manpower = 156,600.00 = $261,113.00 = 55,000.00 $296,113.00 OR $300,000.00 SUBTOTAL Estimated Cost of Monitoring for three years Estimated Total Outlay - 25 - �SECTION VII: SITE CRITERIA AND IMPLICATIONS FOR SELECTION During recent months it has become more apparent that the stigma attached to the disposal of Orange will make the task of finding a disposal site difficult, regardless of the technique employed. For this reason, it is important that the criteria for selection of a site for soil incorporation include not only physical and biological factors but also management and socio-political factors. PHYSICAL FACTORS From the standpoint of just physical considerations, the soil incorporation technique provides an array of alternatives as to the selection of site. In general, four major factors must be considered: 1. A minimum of 16 square miles must be available. 2. The site must be remote. It cannot be adjacent to lands currently in agronomic production. The actual amount of "buffer zone" will depend upon the type of crop and/or the use of the adjacent lands (e.g., recreation vs. irrigated alfalfa crops vs. dryland wheat. The alfalfa would be much more susceptible to either vapor or particulates blowing from the site). 3. The land must have a low-use potential, i.e., it should be marginal land. Moreover, the land should not be considered land that will be significantly productive in the foreseeable future. 4. Water resources must be sufficiently far away so as not to be contaminated. The actual distance will depend on annual rainfall - 26 - �and soil type. Once potential sites meet these criteria, the following should also be considered, a. The topography of the land must be relatively flat with a uniform surface. The sub-surface injection will be applied by heavy machinery and at relatively high speeds (5 mph) and thus, rough, rocky terrain would be unacceptable. The net grade of the land should be less than one percent in order to minimize surface runoff. Acceptability of the grade will be related to soil porosity and vegetative density. b. The texture of the soil should be sandy-loam or silty-sand. An acceptable soil porosity will be related to annual rainfall. High rainfall areas will dictate the need for less porous soils. The capacity for wind blow is inflenced by texture. A light, sandy soil is more mobile than a soil having some clay binder. c. The soil should have a pH of 8.5 to 9.5. This alkaline condition will minimize leaching of the herbicide. d. The organic matter of the soil may be minimal. Obviously, a soil organic matter of 0.1 to 1.0 percent would be good; however, it is unlikely that these levels will be in areas that meet other requirements. From a political point of view, consideration may want to be given to enhancing soil degradation by the addition of other waste materials, e.g., sewage sludges or waste oils. e. The area should not be characterized by rock outcrops or areas of marked deflation or dunes. The area should also have minimal surface erosion. - 27 - �f. Data should be available on subsurface geology and hydrology. The distance below the surface to clay-pan or impervious rock should be known. If fiault lines are present, the patterns of dips and strikes should be determined. Data on the water table for the whole site should be known. An area with a low rainfall (less than 12 inches) is acceptable. However, the distribution throughout the season of fchat precipitation may:be important in considering depth of penetration of the herbicide. High precipitation over a short interval of time may move the herbicide down into the soil profile (very unlikely for it to move more than a few feet). A high annual evaporation rate will prevent accumulation of water on the surface, but at the same time this may enhance codistillation of the herbicides. Such "vaporization" will be minimized by the alkaline soil. Research by this author is currently in progress to determine the exact parameters required for codistillation of Orange. g. Some additional items might include the availability of old "well logs" which might give soil profile data and the depth at which rock was found. The previous history of the site should be known so that if unexploded ordnance is present, the area can be avoided. BIOLOGICAL FACTORS The vegetation that characterizes a particular site is the result of many factors. Probably the most important factors would be precipita- tion and soil type. Land that has a low-use potential would typically have low annual precipitation and high soil pH. This "arid semi-desert" region would probably have temperature extremes in excess of 100 F in the - 28 - �summer to freezing occasionally in the winter. Such a region would be vegetatively characterized by such shrubs as greasewood (Sarcobatus sp.)> sagebrush (Artemisia sp.)> winterfat (Eurotia sp.), rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus sp.), saltbush (Atriplex sp.) and soapweed (Yucca sp.). Various species of aactus, small forbs, and native grasses will also be present. For use in the proposed program a shrub cover of 15-20% would be ideal. It was emphasized in Section VI that both the heavy machinery and the herbicides are going to damage and/or kill the shrubs and forbs in the disposal area. However, this will take a few months and during this time native grasses will increase. Dr. Goulding has noted that grasses can be established right on the soil incorporated rows: since the herbicide has been placed beneath the surface, toxic effects to the grasses are minimal. The isolation of the site can be important in view of damage to the plants. Perhaps Dr. Boysie Day (11) has said it best: I do not propose that the use of phenoxy herbicides is free of all hazards to non-target species. These materials are highly toxic to some plants, so much so that their use is prohibited or rigidly regulated in some agricultural areas. Minor drift and volatility of these herbicides can also affect sensitive vegetation outside of treated areas in range situations. However, such injury rarely goes unnoticed. If we see a paint-spattered automobile standing beside a freshly painted building, it requires no genius to discover what has happended. Similarly, the distinctive symptoms of injury to vegetation close to areas treated with 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T is just that obvious, and the cause of the damage is subject to the same preventive measures--learn how to do the job properly and be careful. Moreover, it should be remembered that the dead shrubs will help stabilize the soil from sind blow. - 29 - �Prior to initiation of the disposal program it will be important to have gathered vegetative data for a baseline study. The purpose of this is to give us a means of evaluating the change in the overall community following recovery of the site. Such baseline data as relative species density and vegetative cover will be required. Permanent linear transects should be established on and adjacent to the site. Aerial photography, including infrared pictures, should be made of the disposal area before, during, and after the disposal program. be established on the ground. Permanent photo points should Calculations on the "carrying capacity" of the site and an estimate of TDN (total digestive nutrients) should be made. As the vegetation is affected .by the herbicides, a profound influence will be exerted on the animal populations of the site. All available data indicate that toxicity of the agent will be of minor significance as compared to the destruction of the habitat. The toxicity of Orange was discussed in Section II. Research by Zielinski and Fishbein (51) indicate that of the formulations studied, the butyl ester's of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T disappeared more rapidly from body tissue of mice than did other ester formulations or the free acids. Moreover, the rapid elimination of the esters (2-24 hours) suggested that the herbicides were excreted unaltered from the animals. Surprisingly, Zielinski and Fishbein also noted that pretreatment of the animals enhanced the disappearance rate of the 2,4-D butyl ester. In view of the extreme toxicity of TCDD, concern will be Voiced over the possible plant uptake, via the roots, of this material from the incorporated rows. Data by Isensee and Jones (21) have indicated - 30 - �that TCDD uptake by oats and soybeans (a grass and a broadleaf) were very minimal, and the accumulation by plants was concluded to be highly unlikely. As with the plants, baseline data will be required on animal species and populations prior to the initiation of the disposal program. Relative estimates should be taken of the rodent, mammal, and bird populations. The dominant species of insects and reptiles should be characteEized. Tietjen ( 5 , Keith, Hansen, and Ward (25), and Pimentel (37) have noted 4) that treating vegetation with herbicides may alter the plant species composition, and thus the suitability of the habitat for certain mammals. However, Coulter (7) has suggested that herbicide treated areas may be used for "game food patches". This is a program in which cr-ops (grains or native grasses) are planted in a treated area in the "wild" environment and are harvested by game or other wildlife. Coulter notes that maximum yield is not necessarily a consideration and that these "patches" can be established on undesirable sites. Krefting and Hansen (28) have noted that deer showed no preference for either untreated or herbicide-stimulated (2,4,5-T) branch growth on browse species. Before leaving a discussion of biological factors, one additional idea should be proposed. If great concern is made over the effects on wildlife, it may be advantageous to employ a "striping" technique on the disposal site. This would involve leaving 1/4-mile strips of land untreated. Perhaps 10% of the area could be left untreated (thus, increasing the disposal area to approximately 18 square miles). This would allow many animal species to move to untreated areas, thus minimizing the damage to certain animal populations. - 31 - �MANAGEMENT FACTORS Management is the key to the success of this disposal program. The manager must be cognizant of such factors as: 1. The logistics of loading and unloading of the agent. 2. How to maximize injection of the agent, while minimizing the overall labor operations. 3. How to safely handle the agent and how to react to accidental spills. 4. What the requirements are for established roadbeds t£ and within the site. 5. What the requirements are for security of the disposal site. 6. What techniques can be used for site improvement. This would include the seeding of grasses and forages for wildlife and/or erosion control. 7. How to establish and effectively use a monitoring program for the site. A monitoring program is essential; not only to provide data on the progress of soil degradation, but perhaps more importantly to provide assurance that contaminants from the disposal site are not causing an "ecological hazard" to the surrounding community. should include two major areas: The monitoring program (1) monitoring chemical and physical factors, e.g., levels of herbicides and extent of volatility or particulate movement; and (2) monitoring the effects of the disposal program on plants and animals. The security requirement for the area will be influenced by the degree - 32 - �of public access. The security may involve only an occasional surveillance, On the other hand, if there are anti-military factions in the adjacent communities, fencing may be required. The planting of dead animals on the disposal site by radical individuals would not enhance public assurance of the safety of the disposal program. Fencing may also be essential if the monitoring program detects residue levels of herbicides or contaminants in food chain components. This is extremely unlikely, but the manager of the site should be aware of it. It is suggested that the management of the entire disposal program be submitted to a systems analysis. The use of a PERT flow system would help to identify points for decision and areas of commonality. This approach might eliminate duplication of efforts. SOCIO-POLITICAL FACTORS Throughout this entire proposal, reference has been made to the political environment requiring the disposal of agent Orange. Dr. Boysie Day ( 1 has perhaps summed it up by stating: 1) From the number and vehemence of published and spoken words in opposition to 2,4,5-T, the happiness occasioned by such a restriction (complete prohibition of use) should be widespread. . . I grant that it is of no political significance whether the alleged hazards of 2,4,5-T are real or imaginary. It is sufficient and justifiable to ban it when enough people want to ban it. The fact that this chemical has been extensively used in an unpopular war, combined with other doubts and suspicions, may yet turn the tide in its disfavor. Some of the socio-political considerations that will influence the selection of a disposal site will include: - 33 - �1. The distance of the disposal site from the point of origin of the agent. The selection of a dock, to which the agent must be brought, will need to be thoroughly studied. 2. The sensitivity of the areas through which the agent is to be transported. 3. The nature of the shipment itself. Certainly the transport of the nerve gas has taught the Department of Defense some lessons. The transport of the herbicide j.s_ critical. Everyday bulk shipments of herbicide cross the country. The transport of Orange would, by itself, be only a normal transport of herbicide, Whether the shipment is made in bulk or 300 drums at a time (railroad flatbed) will be an important decision. With proper site management, 4,000 gallons of Orange could be incorporated per day. Thus, shipment of 24,000 gallons (4,364 drums) could be transported on a weekly basis. 4. The place of storage of the agent prior to disposal will also be politically sensitive. If mass shipment is required, then storage at the disposal site will be most practical. 5. The final selection for the disposal site may well be in a state that has environmental laws reasonably compatible to the whole disposal program. This cannot be over emphasized: the nature and limitations of disposal laws incorporated into the state environment program must be_ thoroughly examined! They must be adhered to as closely as possible! - 34 - �6. The amount and route of a public relations program. An excellent public relations effort will minimize the impact of the disposal program. Proper homework must be done prior t£ the releasing of any news report! Considerations in this area would include the involvement of state personnel in the monitoring programs and in key management positions. - 35 - �SECTION VIII: LITERATURE CITED 1. Aly, 0. M., and S. D. Faust. 1964. Studies on the fate of 2,4-D and ester derivatives in natural surface waters. J. Agr. Food Chem. 12:541-546. 2. Audus, L. J. 1960. Microbiological breakdown of herbicides in soils. In Herbicides and the Soil. Blackwell Science Publishing Company. 3. Bollag, J. M., G. G. Briggs, J. E. Dawson, and M. Alexander. 1968. 2,4-D metabolism: Enzymatic degradation of chlorocatechols. J. Agr. Food Chem. 16(5):829-833. 4. Bollag, J. M., C. S. Helling, and M. Alexander. 1968. 2,4-D metabolism: Enzymatic hydroxylation of chlorinated phenols. J. Agr. Food Chem. 16(5):826-828. 5. Bollen, W. B. 1961. Interactions between pesticides and soil microorganisms. Ann. Rev. Microbiol. 15:69-92. 6. Colmer, A. R. 1953. The action of 2,4-D upon Azotobacter of some sugarcane soils. Appl. Microbiol. 1:184-187. 7. Coulter, L. L. 1972. The role of herbicides in wildlife production through creation and stabilization of habitats. Industrial Vegetati on Management 4(1):2-5. 8. Courtney, K. D., D. W. Gaylor, M. D. Hogan, H. L. Falk, R. R. Bates, and I. Mitchell. 1970. Teratogenic evaluation of 2,4,5-T. Science 168:864-866. 9. Crosby, D. G. 1969. Experimental approaches to pesticide photodecomposition. Residue Reviews 25:1-12. 10. Crosby, D. G. and H. 0. Tutass. 1966. Photodecomposition of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid. J. Agr. Food Chem. 14:596-599. 11. Day, B. E. 1972. Agricultural chemicals and range management. Down to Earth 27(4):11-13. 12. DeRose, H. R. and A. S. Newman. 1947. Persistence of growth regulators in the soil. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc. 12:222-226. 13. Emerson, J. L., D. J. Thompson, R. J. Strebling, C. G. Gerbig, and V. D. Robinson. 1971. Teratogenic studies on 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid in the rat and rabbit. Fd. Cosmet. Toxicol. 9:395-404. - 36 - �14. Fox, A, S., R. P. Jenkins, P. A. Andrileras, J. T. Holstun, and D. L. Klingman. 1970. Restricting the use of phenoxy herbicides. U.S.D.A. Agricultural Economic Report No. 194. 15. Frank, P. A. and R. D. Comes. 1967. Herbicide residues in pond water and hydrosoil. Weeds 15:210-213. 16. Hanks, R. W. 1946. Removal of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid and its calcium salt from six different soils by leaching. Bot. Gaz. 108:186. 17. Hernandez, T. P., and G. F. Warren. 1950. Some factors affecting the rate of inactivatioii and leaching in different soils. Proc. Am. Soc. Hort. Science 58:287. 18. House, W. B., L. H. Goodson, H. M. Gadberry and K. W. Dockter. 1967. Assessment of ecological effects of extensive or repeated use of herbicides. Defense Documentation Center, Defense Supply Agency. AD #824314. U.S. Dep. Com. Nat. Bur. Standards, Inst. Appl. Technol. 369 p. 19. Huston, B. L. 1972. Identification of three neutral contaminants in production grade 2,4-D. J. Agr. Food Chem. 20(3):724-727. 20. Irish, K. R., R. A. Darrow, and C. E. Mirarik. 1969. Information manual for vegetation control in Southeast Asia. Miscellaneous Publication 33, Department of the Army, Fort Detrick, Maryland. 21. Isensee, A. R., and G. F. Jones. 1971. Absorption and translocation of root and foliage applied 2,4-dichlorophenol, 2,7-dichlorodibenzop-dioxin, and 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin. J. Agr. Food Chem. 19(6):1210-1214. 22. Johnson, J. E. 1971. Safety in the development of herbicides. Down to Earth 27(1):1-7. 23. Johnson, J. E. 1971. The public health implications of widespread use of the phenoxy herbicides and picloram. BioScience 21(17):899-905. 24. Kearney, P. C., A. I. Isensee, C. S. Helling, E. A. Woolson, and J. R. Plimmer. 1972. Environmental significance of the chlorodioxins. Abstracts, Weed Science Society of America, St. Louis, Missouri, Abstract No. 28. 25. Keith, J. 0., R. M. Hansen, and A. L. Ward. 1959. Effect of 2,4-D on abundance and foods of pocket gophers. J. Wildlife Management 23:137-145. - 37 - �26. Klingman, G. C. 1963. Weed Control As A Science. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York. 421 p. 27. Klingman, D. L. and W. C. Shaw. 1967. Using Phenoxy Herbicides Effectively. U.S.D.A. Farmers Bulletin No. 2183, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 28. Krefting, L. W. , and H. L. Hansen. 1963. Use of phytocides to improve deer habitat in Minnesota. Southern Weed Conf . , Proc. 16:209-216. 29. Leopold, A. D., P. VanSchaik, and M. Neal. 1960. Molecular structure and herbicide absorption. Weeds, 8:48. 30. Loos, M. A., R. N. Roberts, and M. Alexander. 1967. Phenols as intermediates in the decomposition of phenoxyacetates by an Arthrobacter species. Can. J. Microbiol. 13(6) :679-690. 31. Martin, R. P. 1966. Effects of the herbicide 2,4,5-T on breeding bird populations. Proc. Okla. Acad. Sci. 46:235-237. 32. McNew, G. L. 1972. Interrelationships between agricultural chemicals and environmental quality in perspective. J. Environ. Quality 33. Montogomery, M. L., and L. A. Norris. 1970. A Preliminary Evaluation of the Hazards of 2,4,5-T in the Forest Environment. U.S.D.A. Forest Service Research Note PNW-116. 34. Newman, A. S., J. R. Thomas and R. L. Walker. 1952. Disappearance of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid and 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid from soil. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc. 35. Newton, M. 1971. Disappearance of 2,4,5-T from forest ecosystems. Abstracts, Weed Science Society of America, Dallas, Texas. Abstract No. 57. 36. Palm, C. E. (Chairman), et al. 1968. Weed Control Principles of Plant and Animal Pest Control. Volume 2. National Academy of Sciences. Washington, D. C. 471 p. 37. Pimentel, David. 1971. Ecological effects of pesticides on non-target species. Report from the Office of Science and Technology. Publication Stock Number 4106-0029, Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D.C. 220 p. - 38 - �38. Reigner, I. C., W, E. Sopper, and R. R. Johnson. 1969. Will the use of 2,4,5-T to control streamside vegetation contaminate public water supplies? Jour. Forestry 67:914-918. 39. Reinhart, K. G. 1965. Herbicidal treatment of watersheds to increase water yield. NE. Weed Control Conf. Proc. 19:546-551. 40. Rogoff, M. H. and J. R. Reed. 1956. Bacterial decomposition of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid. J. Bacteriol. 71:303-307. 41. Shennan, Jean L. and W. W. Fletcher. 1965. The growth in vitro of microorganisms in the presence of substituted phenoxyacetic and phenoxybutric acids. Weed Res. 5:266-274. 42. Sparschu, G. L., F. L. Dunn, and V. K. Rowe. 1971. Study of the teratogenicity of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin in the rat. Fd. Cosmet. Toxicol. 9:405-412. 43. Stojanovic, B. J., M. V. Kennedy and F. L. Shuman. 1972. Edaphic aspects of the disposal of unused pesticides, pesticide wastes, and pesticide containers. J. Environ. Quality 1:54-62. 44. Thiegs, B. J. 1962. Microbial decomposition of herbicides. to Earth 18(2):7-10. Down 45. Tietjen, H. P. 1967. 2,4-D herbicide, vegetation, and pocket gopher relationship, Black Mesa, Colorado. Ecology 48(4):634-643. 46. Walker, R. L. and A. S. Newman. 1956. Microbial decomposition of 2,4-D. Appl. Microbiol. 4:201-206. 47. Williams, C. S, 1972. The current status of phenoxy herbicides. Industrial Vegetation Management 4(1):6-11. 48. Winston, A. W., Jr. and P. M. Ritty. 1972. What happens to phenoxy herbicides when applied to a watershed area. Industrial Vegetation Management 4(1):12-14. 49. WooIson, E. A., A. L. Young, and J. H. Hunter. 1972. Chemical analysis for dioxin and defoliant residues in soil from Test Area C-52A, Eglin Air Force Base, Florida. Abstracts, Weed Science Society of America, St. Louis, Missouri, Abstract No. 173. - 39 - �50. Young, A. L., J. H. Hunter, and P. J. Lehn. 1972. Bioassay studies of soil cores from Test Area C-52A, Eglin Air Force Base, Florida. Abstracts, Weed Science Society of America, St. Louis, Missouri, Abstract No. 172. 52. Zielinski, W. L. and L. Rishbein. 1967. Gas chromatographic measurement of disappearance rates of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T acids and 2,4-D esters in mice. J. Agr. Food Chem. 15(5):841-845. - 40 - �GLOSSARY ABSORPTION - Movement of a herbicide from the surface into a body (e.g., from the soil solution into a clay particle). ACID EQUIVALENT - The theoretical yield of parent acid from an active ingredient. ACTIVE INGREDIENT - Actual amount of toxic material in a formulation. AEROBES - Microorganisms that have an oxygen dependent form of respiration. CARRYING CAPACITY - The number of animals that a given area of land can support without damaging the vegetation. COD1STILLATION - Phenomenon resulting from simultaneous "vaporization" of the herbicide and rapid water evaporation. CONIFERS - Pine trees including spruce and fir. DRIFT - The movement of material outside the intended target area. ESTERS - Chemical compounds formed by the elimination of water between a molecule of an alchol and a molecule of an acid. FACULTATIVE ANAEROBES - Microorganisms that can live either in the presence or in the absence of molecular oxygen. FORMULATION - A mixture of an active herbicide with carriers, diluents, or other materials. HERBICIDE - A chemical used for killing or inhibiting the growth of plants. LD5_ - The dosage required to kill 50% of the test organisms when given a single oral dose. PHYTOTOXIC - A term applied to any chemical that is toxic to plants. TERATOGENIC - A chemical causing the development of an abnormal fetus. VOLATILE - Refers to substances that evaporate or vaporize at ordinary temperatures on exposure with air. - 41 - � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange Description An account of the resource <p style="margin-top: -1em; line-height: 1.2em;">The Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange comprises 120 linear feet and spans the late 1800s to 2005; however, the bulk of the coverage is from the 1960s to the 1980s and there are many undated items. The collection was donated to Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in 1985 by Dr. Alvin L. Young (1942- ). Dr. Young developed the collection as he conducted extensive research on the military defoliant Agent Orange. The collection is in good condition and includes letters, memoranda, books, reports, press releases, journal and newspaper clippings, field logs and notebooks, newsletters, maps, booklets and pamphlets, photographs, memorabilia, and audiotapes of an interview with Dr. Young.</p> <p>For more about this collection, <a href="/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/alvin-l--young-collection-on-a">view the Agent Orange Exhibit.</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Box The box containing the original item. 131 Folder The folder containing the original item. 3772 Series The series number of the original item. Series VI Subseries III Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Young, Alvin L. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource June 10 1972 Title A name given to the resource Typescript: Disposal of Herbicide Orange by Soil Biodegradation: A Report of Findings and Recommendations https://www.nal.usda.gov/exhibits/speccoll/files/original/3aa3f31a0f87f7a6f9c6135b01db0689.pdf 34739886ff7b11411066958255fef90b PDF Text Text Item D Number °3684 AllthOP Young, A. L. D jj0t Scanned Corporate Author Report/Article Title Military Herbicides and Insecticides Journal/Book Title Year 197 Month/Day March Color Number of Images ° D 62 Deecrlpton Notes Monday, December 31, 2001 Page 3684 of 3802 �AFATl-TN-70-1 MILITARY HERBICIDES and INSECTICIDES by A.L. YOUNG, 1st Lt, USAF B.C. WOLVERTON TECHNICAL NOTES AFATL-TN-70-1 MARCH 1970 NON-EXPLOSIVE MUNITIONS DIVISION AIR FORCE ARMAMENT LABORATORY A'R FORCE SYSTEMS COMMAND • UNITED STATES AIR FORCE EGLIN AIR FORCE BASE, FLORIDA �MILITARY HERBICIDES AND INSECTICIDES A. L. Young, 1st Lt, USAF B. C. Wolverton �TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Introduction Abbreviations Defoliant Nomenclature Military Defoliants Defoliant Orange 2,4-D Herbicide 2,4,5-T Herbicide ' Phenoxy Herbicides Defoliant White Picloram Herbicide Defoliant Blue Dimethylarsinic Acid Herbicide" Insecticide Nomenclature Insecticide Classes Dursban Insecticide Fenthion Insecticide Malathion Insecticide Naled Insecticide Phorate Insecticide • Mevinphos Insecticide Phosphamidon Insecticide Carbaryl Insecticide Mirex Insecticide Ultra-low-volume Insecticide Application Decontamination of Organophosphate Insecticides Toxic Porperties and Treatment of Organophosphorus Insecticides • • ' .' Description of Terms 1 2 3 4 5 6 10 13 14 15 18 19 23 24 25 28 31 35 38 42 44 47 50 52 5.4 • 55 57 �INTRODUCTION This pamphlet has been compiled by the Assessments Branch of the Non-Explosive Munitions Division, Air Force Armament Laboratory, to acquaint Air Force personnel with information on military herbicides and insecticides. The herbicides mentioned in this pamphlet are those currently "in use in military programs. The insecticide information incorporated herein pertains to those insecticides in the Air Force inventory and those having potential application in military pest control programs. Requests for additional pesticide information should be directed to AFATL (ATMA), Eglin Air Force Base, Florida. �ABBREVIATIONS A acre or acres ai active ingredient bp boiling point ft foot or feet f g gram or grams gal gallon or gallons hr hour or hours inch inch or inches 1 liter lb pound or pounds * lethal concentration which kills 50% of the test organisms lethal dose, given as mg/kg of body weight, which kills 50% of the test animals y micron or microns rag milligram or milligrams min minute or minutes ml milliliter or milliliters mp melting point oz ounce or ounces | ppb ; parts per billion ppm ' parts per million ppmw part per million by weight psi pounds per square inch pt pint w weight . • . •' ' �DEFOLIANT NOMENCLATURE Military Code Trade Name Common Name Scientific Name Orange or Purple Brush Killer 2,4-D, 2, 4, 5-T 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid, 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid Pink 2,4, 5-T 2,4, 5-T 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid White . Tordon 101 picloram, 2,4-D 4-amino-3,5,6-trichloropicolinic acid, 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid Blue Phytar 560 G cacodylic acid, sodium cacodylate dimethylarsinic acid, sodium salt of dimethylarsinic acid �MILITARY DEFOLIANTS Military Designation Type Weight of Formulation Herbicide 8.6 Ib ai/gal Purple 50% n-butyl ester of 2,4-D, 30% n-butyl ester of 2,4,5-T and 20% isobutyl ester of 2,4,5-T Herbicide 8.6 Ib ai/gal Pink 60% n-butyl ester and 40% isobutyl ester of 2,4,5-T Herbicide 8.6 Ib ai/gal White 10.2% of the triisopropanolamine salt of picloram, 39.6% of the triisopropanolamine salt of 2,4-D, and 50.2% inert ingredients Herbicide 0.54 Ib ai/gal picloram, 2.0 Ib ai/gal 2,4-D Blue 22.6% sodium cacodylate, 3.9% dimethylarsinic acid, 73.5% inert ingredient (NaCl), and 5.0% surfactant Fast-acting desiccant 2.48 Ib ai/gal containing 12.7% arsenic Orange 50-50 mixture of 80% n-butyl esters of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T t �DEFOLIANT ORANGE Chemical Composition • Orange is a 50-50 mixture (V/V) of n-butyl esters of 2,4dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4,5-T). Origin Dow Chemical Co,, Amchem Products, Inc., Monsanto. Type Orange is an effective defoliant and herbicide used on a wide variety of woody and broadleaf plants. Properties and Formulations Orange is a reddish-brown to tan colored liquid soluble in diesel fuel and organic solvents, but insoluble in water. It has a mp of 7 C and a_ bp of 146 C (295 F). The specific density is 1.282 at 25 C. The viscosity is 940 centipoises at 20 F and 43 centipoises at 75 F. Orange is considered noncorrosive to most metals but deleterious to paints, natural rubber, and neoprene. The vapor pressure of Orange is <1 mm tig at 35 C. Thus, it is considered a volatility defoliant,and the vapors (drift) are toxic to broadleaf plants. Orange is formulated to contain 8.6 Ib ai/gal or a total ester weight of 10.7 Ib/gal. • . ' ' . ' " Toxicology The acute oral LD$Q of Orange for white rats is 566 mg/kg. Orange is characterized by low toxicity to fish and wildlife in the target areas during or after spray applications. Slight irritation may be caused by prolonged exposure to the skin. Orange is not absorbed by the skin. Rates Orange is used at the rate of 3 gal/A when applied to dense tropical canopy. It is applied at the rate of 1-1 1/2 gal/A on vegetation in temperate regions. Application When Orange is applied at the heavier rates, it is applied undiluted. When applied at lower rates.it is diluted with diesel fuel. �2,4-D HERBICIDE Chemical Structure 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid Origin Amchem Products Inc., 1942 Type 2,4-D is a selective, translocated, phenoxy herbicide used mainly in post-emergence applications. Properties and Formulations When pure, 2,4-D is odorless and crystalline. It has a mp^of 136 C and a bp of 160 C at 0.4 mm Hg. The crystals are soluble in dioxane (78.5 g/100 g), acetone ( 5 g/100 g), but not in water (0.06 g/100 g). 4 The specific density of 2,4-D acid is 1.565 at 30 C, while the oilsoluble amine salt (Dacamine) has a specific density of l.'OSOS at 20 C. r . ' ' . The pure acids and salts are nonflammable. However, commercial formulations of the4acid have a flash point minimum of 88 C, and some esters have a flash point minimum of 190 C. Most formulations may be used in relatively hard water; some amines are inhibited against the precipitation of hard water salts in water containing 1,000 ppm of dissolved salts. Free-acid formulations have been used in combination with liquid fertilizers, but amine salt formulations should not be mixed (as the concentrate) with soluble fertilizers or other solutions of highly soluble salt content, or in diluted solutions containing heavy metal ions. In the case of 2,4-D esters, an emulsion compatibility test should be made before mixing with other pesticides or fertilizers. �Most formulations.are noncorrosive to spray equipment-,--although some of the concentrates (esters) may be deleterious to painted surfaces. Most formulations have no shelf-life .limitations and are insensitive to light and temperature. Formulations include: a. Free acid. b. Sodium and ammonium salts - The salt formulations are usually water soluble. The ammonium salts are rarely found on the market, while the sodium salts are usually marketed only for use by homeowners. c. Amine salts - The alkylamines include monomethylene, dimethylamine, isopropylamine, triethylamine, and others. The alkanolamines include diethanolamine,: triethanolamine, and mixed triisopropanolamines. d. High-volatile esters - High volatile esters include methyl, ethyl, butyl, isopropyl, octylamyl, and pentyl esters containing various Ib ai/gal. e. Low-volatile esters - Low-volatile ester formulations contain esters that suppress 'volatility. These formulations include butoxyethanol, polyethylene glycol butyl ether esters, propylene glycol, tetrahydrofurfuryl, propylene glycol butyl ether, butoxy ethoxy propyl, . ethylhexyl, and isooctyl ester. f. Other formulations - Other formulations include 10-20% granules, emulsifiable concentrate of 3-6 Ib ai/gal, 6 Ib oil-soluble concentrate/gal, 95% wettable powder, and solids mixed with oil solutions, 2,4,5-T, and fertilizers. Toxicology The acute oral LD50 of the various formulations fall in the range of 300-1,000 mg/kg for rats, guinea pigs, and rabbits on a weight basis. The toxicity t6 cattle appears to be quite similar to that of laboratory animals, The toxicity of 2,4-D to albino rats will vary with the formulation. Formulation LDsp (mg/kg) Acid Sodium salt 375 666 Mixed butyl esters Isopropyl .ester 620 700 7 �Recent information suggests that 2,4-D (or a contaminant, in the formulation) may cause teratogenic (malformation) effects in fetuses of pregnant mice and rats when used at high dosage rates. However, statistical data have not been available to confirm this. Some formulations may cause skin irritation. Possible dangers through inhalation are not known, but are thought to be minimal. Pure 2,4-D aciid at 100 ppm caused slight mortality to fingerling bream and largemouth bass.. This is well above the rate used in practical applications. It is not harmful to wildlife under use conditions. Rates 2,4-D is commercially applied at 1/4-4 Ib ai/A in 40-100 gal of water. The military use of 2,4-D involves its formulation with 2,4,5-T in Orange. It is applied at the rate of 4.3 Ib ai/gal or 12.9 Ib ai/A as a defoliant' for brush and tree defoliation. Important Plants Controlled 2,4-D is widely used for control of broadleaf weeds in cereal crops, turf, pastures, and non-crop land. Most dict>t crops are susceptible at herbicidal rates. The esters are particularly effective on deep-rooted perennial species. The salt and heavy ester formulations are of sufficiently low volatility so that with care, they may be used near fairly susceptible crops if spray drift is prevented. Some of the important plants controlled include bindweed, duckweed; ' . • cocklebur, goldenrod, ivy, hoary cress, Jimsonweed, lambsquarters, locoweed,. • mustards, pigweed, plantain, Russian thistle, purslane, sunflower, willows, and most other broadleaf weeds. In addition, 2,4-D is used on aquatic weeds, for brush control, and as a growth stimulator. Application 1. General usage, broadleaf plants - When 2,4-D is applied for general use, the foliage should be wet to the point of runoff on perennials and hard-tokill plants. It is most effective on young, rapidly growing plants. A wetting agent may be added if desired. Higher rates should be used on perennial plants. The temperature during application should be between 50 and 90 F. 2. Carriers - The usual carriers include water, diesel oil, or oil-water emulsion, depending upon formulation used. Low volumes (e.g., 3-10 gal/A) are generally used for aerial applications, and higher volumes (up to 200 gal/A) are used for various ground applications. Surfactants have enhanced activity in many cases, and are particularly desirable when 2,4-D is carried in an oil-water emulsion. Agitation is needed with some formulations. . �3. Aquatics - Granules are mainly used for aquatic weed-control. They are applied evenly to the water surface (not to be applied to choppy water). Results should be visible in 4-6 weeks with control lasting 1-3 years. The granules can be applied in winter on ice surfaces just before the spring thaw. 2,4-D is harmless to fish at recommended rates. It should be applied when weeds are actively growing but prior to the formation of dense mats. 4. Foliar spray and basal bark treatment of brush - Bases of trees and shrubs should be sprayed to a height of 12-15 inch from the ground line. The area at the ground line should be completely watered. A delayed response can be expected. Certain woody plants will form new growth after treatment, and repeated applications may be necessary for complete control^ 5. Soil sterilant - Soil sterilant applications are applied in the late fall when the rains will carry the herbicide into the soil. In low rainfall areas (less than 6 inch annual rainfall), irrigation should follow treatment. The treatments are longer lasting in areas of limited rainfall. Precautions When spraying 2,4-D, drift should be avoided. Very susceptible plants include cotton, tomatoes, grapes, fruit trees, and ornamentals. Low-volatile esters may become volatile at 90 F and' above. Excessive 2,4-D salts in the soil may temporarily inhibit seed germination and plant growth. Application equipment must be thoroughly cleaned before applying other pesticides. When used as an aquatic herbicide, decaying weeds may off-flavor water for a short period. Agitation is required during spraying of this compound, except for the water-soluble forms. Additional Information . ' .. '.'•,'.-'.. Plant roots absorb polar (salt) forms of 2,4-D most readily. Leaves absorb nonpolar (ester) forms most readily. In most cases a rain-free period of 6-12 hr is adequate for effective plant control. The esters of 2,4-D tend to resist washing from the plant. Following foliar absorption, 2,4-D translocates within the phloem, probably moving-with food material. Following root absorption, it may move upward in the transpiration stream. Translocation is influenced by moisture and nutrient status of the plant. Accumulation of the herbicide occurs principally at the meristematic regions of the shoot and root. Low rates of 2,4-D undergo microbial breakdown in warm, moist soil. Rate of breakdown depends upon temperature, moisture, organic matter, and other soil characteristics. There is minor loss of 2,4-D from photodecomposition. Volatilization depends upon the formulation. The resultant average persistence of a 2,4-D application applied at recommended rates is generally 1-4 weeks. �2,4,5-T HERBICIDE Chemical Structure * 2,4,5-Trichlorophenoxyacetic acid ' Cl Origin Amchem Products Inc., 1944 Type ' 2,4,5-T is a translocated, selective, phenoxy herbicide applied postemergence and is effective on woody plants. Properties and Formulations the pure chemical is a white solid with a specific gravity, of 1,80 at . 20 C and amp of 154 C. It has a low vapor pressure -and is soluble in ethyl or isopropyl alcohol ,(590 ppmw) and water (238 ppmw). The technical material is nonflammable; however, flammability will vary with formulation. When mixed with hard water, formulations do not clog spray nozzles. In general, 2,4,5-T is considered noncorrosive, but some formulations are deleterious to painted surfaces. The shelf-life of 2,4,5-T is excellent. Numerous commercial concentrates are available in either the sodium, ammonium, or amine salt formulations, or in various ester formulations. Salts are soluble in water and insoluble in petroleum oils. Esters are insoluble in water and soluble in petroleum oils. "Brush killers" containing 2,4,5-T and 2,4-D are available commercially. The military defoliants Orange and Purple contain n-butyl esters of 2,4,5-T. Toxicology The toxicity (acute oral LD5Q mg/kg) of 2,4,5-T to albino rats will vary with formulation. 10 �Formulation Acid Mixed butyl esters Isopropyl esters . 500 481 495 When 2,4,5-T is used at recommended rates, it is suggested that hazards to wildlife are negligible. There is little or no biological activity of 2,4,5-T on insects, nematodes, or fungi. Recent information suggests that 2,4,5-T (or a contaminant in the formulation), when used at high dosage rates, may cause teratogenic (malformation) effects in fetuses of pregnant mice and rats; however, statistical data have not been available to confirm this. Rates 2,4,5-T is commercially applied at rates of 1-6 Ib ai/A or 1-3 Ib ai/100 gal of spray carrier. The military use of 2,4,5-T involves its formulation with 2,4-D in Orange and Purple. It is applied at the rate 'of 4.3 Ib ai/gal or 12.9 Ib ai/A as a brush and tree defoliant. Important Plants Controlled • 2,4,5-T is one of the most potent brush killers available. It effectively controls mixed species of susceptible woody plants growing on rights-of-way, • fence rows, industrial sites, ditches, and similar non-crop areas. Specific .; . plants that 2,4,5-T will control include ash, wild blackberry, hawthorne, oak, ivy, maple, chokeberry, mesquite, birch, elm, brambles, wild grape, honeysuckle, poison ivy, sumac, willow, and many other woody plants as well as most non-woody broadleaf plants. Application 2,4,5-T is used mainly on established plants (post-emergence), and is sprayed via conventional ground and aerial equipment. I 1. Usual carrier - The usual carriers are water, diesel of fuel oil, or an oil-water emulsion; it is applied at volumes of 3-40 gal/A. The lower volumes, applied by aerial equipment, are generally most effective when at least some oil is present. Additional surfactants often enhance activity, particularly at low herbicide rates. 11 �2. Foliage treatment - Foliage treatments are made during the growing season and after the foliage is well developed. All plant parts should be thoroughly wet with the herbicide. The best time for treatment is when the soil moisture is favorable for growth. Foliage should not be treated during periods of severe drought or in early fall when leaves have lost their healthy green color. To selectively take undesirable woody plants out of conifer trees, the stand should be sprayed immediately after annual growth is completed to avoid injury to the tender new growth.- For best results 2,4,5-T is usually applied to mesquite 45-90 days after it first begins to leaf out. 3. Basal bark treatment - Basal bark treatment may be done any time of the year. The herbicide should be mixed with oil and applied to the basal parts of stems or trees having a diameter of less than 6 inch. It is applied from ground line to 12-16 inch up the trunk. The trunk should be wet on all sides. Best results are obtained when the plants are not cut for 1 year. A delayed response can be expected. 4. Stump treatment - This treatment is used to prevent regrowth. It is usually applied with oil. The cut surface of the stump should be thoroughly wet and the sides of the trunk left exposed to the point of runoff. The treatment may be applied at any time of the year. Best results are obtained when applied to freshly cut stumps. 5. Frill treatment - Frill treatment is used on trees 6 inch in diameter or larger. The chemical should be mixed with oil and applied to the cut surfaces. Treatment may be at any time during the year. Precautions Drift must be avoided since non-target plants may. be damaged. Highly .-. susceptible crops include cotton, tomatoes, ornamentals, grapes, and fruit trees; however, almost all brbadieaves are injured. Contamination of irrigation ditches should be avoided. The same equipment should not be used to apply other pesticides to crop lanes. The recommended method of cleaning glassware and spray equipment is thorough washing with detergent followed by repeated flushings with water. Additional Information 2,4,5-T is relatively harmless to monocotyledonous plants (e.g., grasses). It is less effective than 2,4-D on many broadleaf plants, but more effective on woody plants. 2,4,5-T is absorbed through roots and foliage of plants. 2,4,5-T are more resistant to the washing action of rain. The esters of The translocation and persistence in plants of 2,4,5-T is similar to 2,4-D; however, the microbial degradation of 2,4,5-T is slower than 2,4-D due to the addition of another chlorine atom. 12 �PHENOXY HERBICIDES Formulation The phenoxy herbicides (e.g., 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T) are usually formulated as acids, salts, and esters. Salt and ester formulations usually are supplied as liquid concentrates. The salt concentrates form solutions (i.e., they are water soluble) when mixed with water. The ester concentrates form solutions when mixed with oil; they form milky-white emulsions when mixed with water. At temperatures below 90 F, the low-volatile esters are less likely to damage susceptible plants than high-volatile esters. However, if there are susceptible plants near, the salt formulations are the safest since they do not release enough vapors to cause damage. High-volatile esters are less expensive than low-volatile esters and can be used effectively and safely if no susceptible plants are growing nearby. I Ester formulations are more effec'tive than salts for killing plants that are growing slowly because of drought or cold weather. Esters usually are best for controlling plants in areas of low humidity; esters are formulated in soils and remain in moist contact on foliage longer and penetrate better than salts, which are mixed with water. Because they arie oily, esters are less likely than salts to be washed off foliage if rain i falls soon after their application. . • • • Types Avai 1 ab 1 e • . .' ' Salts Amine (triethanolamine, diethylamine, and triisopropanolamine) Sodium Potassium Ammonium • Esters High-volatile (methyl, ethyl, isopropyl, butyl, and amyl) Low-volatile (butoxyethanol, butoxyethoxy-propanol, isooctyl, and propylene glycol butyl ether) 13 ' �DEFOLIANT WHITE Chemical Composition White is a li-4 mixture of the triisopropanolamine salts of 4-amino3,5,6-trichloropicolinic acid (picloram) and 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D). Origin Dow Chemical Company has the proprietary formulation for White. Type White is a systemic defoliant effective against broadleaf plants and brush. Properties and Formulation White is a dark brown, viscous liquid that is soluble in water but insoluble in organic solvents and diesel fuel. It has a bp of 95 F and a specific gravity of 1.12 at 25 C. It has a viscosity of 343 centipoises at 50 F and 95 centipoises at 100 F. White is noncorrosive to metals and other materials used in spray equipment. White is formulated to contain 10.2% picloram, 39.6% 2,4-D, and 50.2% inert ingredients. White has 0.54 Ib picloram/gal and 2.0 Ib 2,4-D/gal. Toxicology # , ' • The acute oral LD50 of defoliant White for white rats is 3,080 mg/kg. White, applied directly to the eyes of rabbits, caused moderate transient eye irritation but no significant comeal injury. Studies on the lethal effects of White to three kinds of fish indicated that median tolerance limits ranged from 64 to 240 ppm. Rates For defoliation of dense vegetation,White is used at the rate of 3 gal/A. Application Because of its presistence in soils, White should never be applied on or near broadleaf crop species. Herbicidal action of White when applied to woody plants is slow, and full defoliation may not occur for several months after application. Most grass species are resistant to applications of White. 14 �PICLORAM HERBICIDE (Tordon) Chemical Structure 4-Amino-3,5,6-trichloropicolinic acid Cl NH2 Origin Dow Chemical Company, 1963 Type Picloram is a somewhat selective, translocated, pre- and post-emergence herbicide. Properties and Formulations . ' • • Picloram is a white powder with a chlorine-like odor. It decomposes before melting (215 C) and is moderately resistant to ultraviolet irradiation. The vapor pressure is 6.16 x 1Q-7 mm Hg at 35 C. The solubility of the pure chemical is 10,500 ppm for ethanol and 430 ppm for water. The estimated shelf life of picloram concentrate in storage is 3 years. Picloram is noncorrosive, nonvolatile, and nonflammable. The formulations include a 2 Ib ai/gal emulsifiable concentrate (Tordon 22K), 10% granules (Tordon 10K pellets), and 2% beads. White contains the water soluble triisopropanolamine salt in combination with 2,4-D (Tordon 101 mixture). This formulation consists of a 4:1 ratio (2 Ib ai/gal to 0.54 Ib ai/gal) of 2,4-D and picloram. Toxicology The acute oral toxicity of picloram is low. The LD50 values range from approximately 2,000 mg/kg of body weight for rabbits to more than 8,000 mg/kg for rats. 15 �In long term feeding studies, albino rats and beagle dogs were fed picloram In their rations at daily levels of 15, 50, and 150 mg/kg of body weight. At the end of 2 years of continuous feeding, no observable adverse effect was noted in any of the animals of either species as measured by body weight, food consumption, behavior, mortality, hematog- • ' logical and clinical blood chemistry studies, and urine analyses. Japanese quail, Bobwhite quail and Mallard ducks were fed picloram at rates from 100 to 10,000 ppm or more in their diets without reaching the LCso. Japanese quail were fed 100-1,000 ppm over a period of 8-20 weeks for each of 3 successive generations without effect on mortality, body weight gain, egg production, fertility or hatchability, and without post-treatment withdrawal effects. A triisopropanolamine salt formulation of picloram was tested against 5 species of fish at 50-82 F for periods of 24-96 hr. The 1X50 values were between 63 and 300 ppm of the formulation, equivalent to 20-94 ppm • acid equivalent. In tests with White in 5 species of fish, the 1059 values ranged from 75-241 ppm of the formulation (containing a 4:1 ratio of 2,4-D and picloram, as their triisopropanolamine salts). Formulations containing the triisopropanolamine salts of 2,4-D and picloram are more toxic to ramshorn snails than those without 2,4-D; however, none appear to be toxic at concentrations below 100 ppm in water. In a reproductive study lasting 10 weeks in a- solution containing 1 ppm picloram, many generations of Daphnia were produced without reduction of numbers. Analysis of Daphnia tissues showed no buildup of the compound above that occurring in the surrounding water. .Rates * , ' ' •* For thick stands of brush, the pellets or beads are applied at the rate of 6-8 Ib ai'/A distributed evenly over the entire area. The liquid formulations are used at rates of 0.5-3.0 Ib ai/A. Rates for controlling deep-rooted perennial weeds such as field bindweed and Canada thistle are usually 2-3 Ib ai/A. However, for annual weed control, rates as low as. 0.25 oz ai/A have been effective, particularly in combination with 2,4-D. The liquid potassium salt formulation is applied in water sprays in sufficient volume for uniform distribution. Important Plants Controlled This herbicide is excellent for general woody plant control and control of most perennial broadleaved plants. Most grasses are resistant and broadleaf weed control in grass crops is feasible. Most broadleaf crops are 16 �sensitive to picloram except cruciferous crops (e.g., cucumbers, squash and melons). The major broadleaves controlled are field bindweed, Canada thistle, perennial kelp, leafy spurge, and Russian knapweed. Application ....'.. ,,_.. ,.., . . v. Picloram may be applied with ground sprayers as a low-pressure spray. It should be used with enough water to wet the foliage and soil thoroughly, "and should be applied when plants are -growing actively and rainfall can be expected soon after treatment. It is used at higher rates when either a very heavy or a very light:rainfall is expected. It should be applied .aver the—roots. a£_waody.. plants, to be controlled. Aircraft applications may be used up to 3 weeks before frost. Granules are most effective for spring or early summer application. Precautions^ When picloram is used, drift should be avoided. It should not be applied under the drip line of desired trees. The same equipment should not be used to apply other pesticides on desired plants. Contamination of irrigation water should be avoided. In some states it may be applied only by licensed pest control operators. Very minute quantities of picloram will injure many broadleaf crop plants. Picloram leaches readily with water. Additional Information Grasses will be the first to reappear in the treated areas. Maximum results are not obtained until the material is carried by moisture into the root zone. The higher rates should be used to control brush on very sandy, rocky, or gravelly soils. At lower rates of picloram, grasses are'considered . resistant. The pellet formulations are intended more for woody plants, while the liquid is intended for perennial broadleaf control. Picloram is being experimented with as a plant growth regulator at extremely low rates. The half-life in soil at use dosages varies from 1-11 months. 17 �DEFOLIANT BLUE Chemical Composition Blue is a mixture of the herbicides dimethylarsinic acid (cacodylic acid) and sodium cacodylate. Origin Ansul Company has been the major producer of Blue; however,the Chapman Chemical Company, Diamond Shamrock Corporation, and Vineland Chemical Company also produce the Blue formulation., 222. Blue is a rapid-acting desiccant or contact herbicide that causes browning and dehydration of treated portions of plants. Properties and Formulations Blue is a clear yellowish-tan liqldd that is soluble in water but insoluble in organic solvents or diesel fuels. It has a mp of -22 F and is nonflammable. The specific gravity of Blue is 1.324 at 25 C,and it has a viscosity of 27 centipoises at 50 F and 10 centipoises at 95 F. It is corrosive to zinc and mild steel and considered mildly corrosive to aluminum. Copper, brass, and tin are not affected by Blue. Blue is formulated to contain 3.9% dim'ethylarsinic acid, 22.6% , . .. sodium cacodylate, 0.5% antifoam agent> 73.0%. inert ingredient (Nad) and 5.0% surfactant. It contains 2.48 Ib ai/gal with an arsenic content of 12.7%. The weight of Blue per gal is 10.9 Ib. Toxicology The acute oral I^SQ of Blue for white rats is 2,600 mg/kg. Dairy cattle fed Blue .for 60 days at the rate of 24.5 mg/kg gave no residue of arsenic in the milk and no storage of arsenic on a cumulative basis. Rates When Blue is applied at the rate of 3 gal/A to broadleaf herbaceous, woody or grass vegetation,it is an effective,rapid defoliant. For control of most grass species Blue can be applied at the rate of I gal/A. Application When Blue is applied at lower rates it should be diluted with water. Applications of Blue should not be made during or following precipitation. 18 �DIMETHYLARSINIC ACID HERBICIDE (Cacodylic Acid) Chemical Structure Dimethylarsinic acid Origin Dimethylarsinic acid is an old compound recently being used as a herbicide. It is produced by a number of manufacturers; however, the Ansul Company is the basic producer. Type Dimethylarsinic acid is a non-selective, post-emergent, foliar-contaqt herbicide. ', Properties and Formulations Dimethylarsinic acid is a colorless, crystalline solid. It has a mp of 200 C and is soluble in water ( 6 7 g/100 ml) and alcohol (20.6 g/100 ml), 6. but insoluble in ethyl ether. It is nonflammable,.compatible with hard water, mildly corrosive, and completely stable in storage. The most important formulations of dimethylarsinic acid are in combination with sodium cacodylate (the sodium salt of dimethylarsinic acid). For military uie, the most important formulation is Phytar 560 G (Blue). This formulation contains 22.6% sodium cacodylate, 3.9% cacodylic acid, 73.5% inert ingredient (NaCl), and 5.0% surfactanc. One gal contains 2.48 Ib ai/A having 12.7% arsenic. Other formulations include emulsifiable concentrate containing 65% formulation and 5.7 Ib ai/gal. Toxicology The methyl-arsenic bond in organic arsenical compounds such as dimethylarsinic acid lowers the acute toxicity much below that which is 19 �normally associated with inorganic arsenic compounds. Dimethylarsinic acid and its sodium salt have acute 1059 values on rats between 1,000 and 2,000 mg/kg. Most inorganic arsenic compounds have acute oral LD5Q values of 10-100 mg/kg. In commercial use of organic arsenicals, a hesitant attitude has often been noted. This is an unfortunate result of guilt by association with the scare word "arsenic." A subacute dose of 280 mg/kg (in rats) showed evidence of reduced activity of spermatogonia cells with some atrophic changes of the seminiferous tubules. It has a primary dermal irritation index to rabbits of 0.3 mgAg. In general, the organic arsenicals cause very mild or no skin irritation, depending on the acidity or alkalinity of each preparation and the skin sensitivity of the exposed individual. It is essentially non-irritating to the eye. Rates Dimethylarsinic acid is a contact herbicide which will defoliate or desiccate a wide variety of plant species. When used for defoliation, it is applied from 5-22 lb ai/A. When it is used for control of.cereal crops and grasses (and in the formulation Blue), it can be effective at rates of 1/4-1/2 lb ai/A. t Important Plants Controlled Current experimental uses of dimethylarsinic acid include cotton defoliation, weed control in citrus orchards, pre-commercial thinning of conifers, and control of undesirable hardwood. Commercial uses include control of such weeds as nutgrass, Dallisgrass, crabgrass, Johnsongrass,. . . . Bermudagrass, spurge, pigweed, purslane, lambsquarters, morningglory, •' Russian thistle, puncture vine, and dodder. " • ' ' . Application 1. General weed killer - For general use,2 quarts of a non-ionic surfactant are added per each 100 gal to get maximum spreading of the material. The foliage is thoroughly sprayed. Younger plants are more susceptible to the herbicide. . Directed sprays are used around trees and shrubs. For best results, the herbicide should be sprayed when the temperatures exceed 70 F. 2. Turf - Turf should be mowed closely before application and the foliage covered thoroughly. The turf will be dead within 2-4 days. With thorough watering,'reseeding may be accomplished within 5 days of treatment. 3. Defoliation - For defoliating, the foliage should be covered thoroughly. A second application is rarely necessary. 4. The following comments are applicable to Blue: 20 �a. Provided that reasonable climate conditions prevail, the rate of Blue per acre required to give effective plant control has been determined as 1.5-2.0 gal, which is equivalent to an approximate range of 3 1/2-5 Ib ai/A of dimethylarsinic acid (and its .sodium salt). b« It should be emphasized that one application of Blue will not give a permanent kill on deep-rooted perennial grasses. Several applications are necessary to control deep-rooted perennial species. c. Blue usually begins to show a pronounced effect in 2 days, and desiccating activity continues to a maximum in 8-10 days, depending on .climatic conditions. In some circumstances, however, effects take even longer. d. Temperature appears to be a factor in the performance of Blue. Warm temperatures during and following application accelerate the actiori of this herbicide. Excellent results have been obtained under conditions of cool nights and warm days coupled with low humidity, but the action appears to be much slower. On the other hand, slow herbicidal action appears to yield a longer-lasting effect with Blue. e. Because Blue is extremely water-soluble, rain, overhead irrigation, or even overnight dew tends to dilute and wash off the herbicide if such conditions exist soon after spraying. f. High levels of light intensity and long periods of illumination appear to intensify both the speed of herbicidal activity and the permanence. g. Alt.hough thorough coverage of vegetation is absolutely,necessaryfor maximum effect of Blue, this does not mean that'substantial runoff should occur. There is no effect on plants once the spray solution has contacted the soil; therefore, material applied to the soil is wasted. h. Laboratory tests have also shown that a threshold phytotoxic effect exists when Blue is applied to many species. This level is usually between 100 and 500 ppm. Therefore, spray solutions cannot be indefinitely diluted and still retain maximum effectiveness. On the other hand, very concentrated spray solutions have been applied at low volumes with excellent results. I Precautions The following precautionary information is more applicable to the inorganic forms of arsenic than to organic arsenicals. a. Symptoms of poisoning - The symptoms of subacute poisoning with arsenicals are usually a salty taste, a burning in the throat, and colicky pains in the stomach and intestines, A garlicky odor of the breath and skin 21 �is frequently present. The symptoms of acute poisoning are-headache, vomiting, diarrhea, dizziness, stupor, convulsions, general paralysis and death. The dose of arsenicals required to give these acute symptoms is from about 1 oz-1 Ib of active material for a normal-sized adult. b. First aid and antidotes - If liquid or dust should accidently enter the eyes, they should be immediately washed with water. If any irritation remains after washing, a physician should be consulted. If accidental oral ingestion occurs, the stomach should be emptied by vomiting and lavage with water, followed by a saline cathartic, such as sodium sulfate. BAL (Dimercaprol) is a specific antidote; it should be administered intramuscularly at the rate of 3 mg/kg of body weight every 4 hr for the first 2 days, every 6 hr on the third day and twice daily until recovery is complete. Additional Information u -'"""'~'~ ^ • ^ ^ • •"•« "" --J.. rr_—_._ f The phytotoxic properties of this herbicide are quickly inactivated on contact with the soil. It is suggested that this inactivation is a result of surface adsorption and ion exchange. There,.is no loss from photodecomposition and/or volatilization. The organic pentavalent arsenicals are considerably less toxic than inorganic trivalent arsenicals. There is no evidence of metabolism of the organic arsenicals by microorganisms nor of significant buildup of toxic residues in the soil. Dimethylarsinic acid is a very effective leaf defoliant for many species . when applied in dosages considerably lower than normally recommended for • desiccation. The leaf abscission layer on susceptible .species is1triggered by small amounts of the chemical.' Many plants so affected are able to regenerate new leaves within a short time and continue their life cycle with only a slight interruption. * When dimethylarsinic acid is applied in early plant growth stages in amounts far below that required for a phytotoxic effect, this compound produces malformed inflorescences at a later growth stage on many species. Seed production is reduced,and other abnormalities, possibly including sterilization of the pollen or ova, are indicated by the responses which have been observed. 22 �• INSECTICIDE NOMENCLATURE Trade Name Common Name Scientific Name Dursban Experimental No. M-3019 0,0-Diethyl-0,3,5,6-trichloro2-pyridyl phosphorothioate Baytex Fenthion 0,0-Dimethyl-O-[4-(methylthio)m-tolyl] phosphorothioate Malaphos Malathion 0,0-Dimethyl-S-l,2-di(ethoxycarbamyl) ethylphosphorodithioate Dibrora Naled Dimethy1-1,2-dibromo-2,2dichloroethyl phosphate Thimet Phorate 0,0-Diethyl-S-Cethylthiomethyl) phosphorodithioate Phosdrin Mevinphos 2-Carbomethoxy 1-methylvinyl dimethyl phosphate Dimecron Phosphamidon Dimethyl-2-chloro-2diethyl carbamoyl-1-methylvinyl phosphate Sevin Carbaryl N-methyl-1-naphthyl-carbamate . ' ..t Mirex Mirex Dodecachloroctahydro-1,3,4metheno-2 H cyclobuta (cd) pentalene i 23 * * ' •* *' '*-.''•' •' • • �INSECTICIDE CLASSES Class Insecticide Principle Pests Controlled Organophosphate Dursban Mosquitoes, cockroaches Fenthion Mosquitoes, flies Malathion. Mosquitoes, broad-spectrum Mevinphos Cutworms, aphids Naled Mosquitoes, grasshoppers Phorate Mites, Hessian fly Phosphamidon Aphids, moths Carbaraate Carbaryl Grasshoppers, fleas, mites Chlorinated . Hydrocarbon Mirex Fire ants 24 �DURSBAN INSECTICIDE Chemical Structure 0,0-Diethyl~0-3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridyl phosphorothioate Cl—f ,0 CH2 CH3 0 CH2 CH3 Cl—< N' Origin Dow Chemical Company, 1965 Has. Dursban is an organic phosphate insecticide. by contact, ingestion, and vapor action. Properties and Formulations It is effective insecticidally . . • • - Dursban is a white crystalline solid with a mp of 41.5-43 C' It has' a molecular weight of 350.5 and a vapor pressure of 1.87 x 10-5 mm Hg at 25 C and 8.15 x 10-5 mm Hg at 35 C. Dursban is insoluble in F^O, but soluble in acetone, carbon tetrachloride, chloroform, methylene chloride, xylene, kerosene, and' No..2 diesel fuel oil. Under normal storage conditions, most formulations are stable for indefinite periods of time'. The breakdown rate of Dursban increases as temperature and pH of the solution increases. Dursban is moderately residual on plant surfaces and quite residual on inert surfaces. In water solutions and soil, Dursban hydrolyzes at a half-life rate of 80-100 days. It is stable to ultraviolet light when in powder form, but 80% of plant application is lost to volatilization. Formulations of Dursban include wettable powders, granules, and emulsifiable concentrates. 25 �Toxicology The skin absorption LD5Q for rabbits is 2,000 mg/kg of body weight. The acute oral LD5Q for female rats is 135 mg/kg;for male rats - 163 j; guinea pigs - 500 mg/kg; chicks - 32 mg/kg; rabbits - 1,000-2,000 mg/kg. Dursban is highly toxic to marine shrimp, chironomid larvae and Daphnia, and may be quite toxic to freshwater trout. At a rate of 0.05 Ib/A, brown shrimp suffer 100% mortality and certain minnows 'suffer 50% mortality, while mullet and blue crabs seem to be unaffected. Dursban insecticide applied at routine use concentrations should not present any hazard to birds and other vertebrate wildlife. Rates Dursban is applied at rates of 0.05-1.0 Ib ai/A. The higher dosage rates should not be used where loss of fish, crustaceans, and lower components of the food chain would be significant. Phytotpxi city Dursban is non-phytotoxic when used at the recommended rates. Uses .Dursban is a broad-spectrum insecticide which is especially effective , 'against mosquitoes, household pests, and soil insects. , • . . .. Dursban is being tested for control of internal and external parasites of cattle and sheep, as well as experimentally on turf, crop plants, and around buildings. Important Pests Controlled Chinch bugs, cockroaches, houseflies, fleas, ants, earwigs, webworms, clover mites, ticks, and mosquitoes may be controlled by use of Dursban. Application When Dursban is applied to plant foliage or to a surface, the area should be covered thoroughly and treatment repeated when it becomes necessary. When Durs-ban is used for mosquito control, data which follow emphasize recommended rates: 26 �AMOUNT TO USE PER ACRE CONDITION OF AREA TO BE TESTED DURSBAN M (FL OZ) DURSBAN INSECTICIDE (LB) NO. OF ACRES 1 GAL. OF DURSBAN M WILL TREAT' Larval Control: None to Medium Vegetative Cover 0.4 to 0.8 0.0125 to 0.025 320 to 160 Larval Control: Medium to Heavy Vegetative Cover 0.8 to 1.6 0.025 to 0.05 160 to 80 Adult Control: Light to Medium Vegetative Cover 0.8 0.025 160 Adult Control: Medium to Heavy Vegetative Cover V 80 0.05 1.6 Precautions > . ' • . Dursban should not be used on any food or feed crops until registration has been granted. It should not be mixed with alkaline compounds. ' * ' * • • "' Dursban is fatal if swallowed, may be absorbed through skin, and may be injurious to eyes and skin, Additiona1 Informat i on , Dursban has' a very short residual life on plant foliage; however, on soil, wood, and concrete, it is effective for several weeks. It is very resistant to leaching in the soil. It will decompose slowly in warm moist soil and does not stain. Dursban is absorbed rapidly by plants and soil particles, but metabolized slowly. Dursban is absorbed slowly by fish, but metabolized . rapidly. The amount absorbed by fish is influenced by other organisms in the environment. Dursban is rapidly metabolized in mammals (it is not a cholinest'erase inhibitor when in pure form),and the detoxified products are eliminated via the urine and feces. 27 �FENTHION INSECTICIDE (Baytex) Chemical Structure 0,0-Dimethyl-0-[4-(methylthio3-m-tolyl] phosphorothioate CH3- \l . • // \-S Origin t Farbenfabriken Bayer A. G. in Germany, 1957. It is licensed to be sold in the United States by Chemagro Corporation. Type Fenthion is an organic phosphate.insecticide-acaricide with a long residual activity. Properties and Formulations . Fenthion is stable under normal conditions, but subject to hydrolysis. It is resistant to lime and can be applied to whitewash without deleterious effects; however, it is incompatible with highly, alkaline pesticides. Formulations include emulsifiable concentrates of 2, 4, and 8 Ib ai/gal, 25? wettable powders, 1 and 5% granules, 3% dust, 1% aerosol, and 225 and 22.5 mg/m'l injectable materials. Toxicology The acute oral LD50 of fenthion to rats is 200 mg/kg. The dermal LD50 is 330 mg/kg. Fenthion is readily absorbed through the skin. Fenthion is toxic to f|Lsh and birds (LD50 of 15 mg/g for ducks) and should not be used where wildlife conservation can be easily disrupted. Over/a 96-hr period, 0.58 ppm fenthion caused 50% mortality among oysters. Over a 48-hr period, 0.06 ppb caused 50% mortality among shrimp. 28 �Within a 48-hr period, 1.59 ppm fenthion caused 50% mortality-among juvenile fish (mullet). It has been reported that, during a 4-hr exposure, 1.0 ppm decreased the productivity of a phytoplankton community by 7%. Fenthion is highly toxic to mosquito larvae. Rates Fenthion is applied at 0.5-1.5 Ib ai/100 gal. Effective mosquito control can be obtained with rates of 0.05-0.10 Ib ai/A. Phytotoxicity Fenthion is considered non-phytotoxic when used at the recommended rates. Uses t Fenthion is registered for use as a mosquito larvacide, in households, on agricultural premises, and on ornamentals. It is being used experimentally on alfalfa, cotton, clovers, sugar beets, cranberries, rice, coffee, stored products, and many ornamentals. It is also being used on all types of livestock. The dust is used to control household pests. * Important Pests Controlled Important pests that can be controlled by use of fenthion include flies, mosquitoes, ticks, lice,, bedbugs, boll weevils, alfalfa weevils, crickets, armyworms, thrips, bollworms, coddling moths, aphids, leaf hoppers, spittle bugs, sawflies, ants, cutworms, grasshoppers, mites, and lygus bugs. Application • . . .','•••_... 1. Foliage and premises - For foliage, fenthion is applied evenly at a , uniform rate. Application should be repeated as necessary. It is resistant to lime and, therefore, may be applied to fresh whitewash without staining or losing its effectiveness. 2. Livestock - For use on livestock, it is applied as a ,l-.2% concentration as an overall spray using approximately 1 gal/animal. 3. Soils - In soils (Coachella fine sand) containing 0.15% organic matter, fenthion showed residual activity at 2 months,but not at 6 months when applied at 8-16 Ib/A. Fenthion showed no residual activity after 2 months of storage. Precautions Fenthion should not be used on food or feed crops until registration is cleared by the FDA. Only trained personnel should use fenthion in households. 29 �Excessive wetting of plastic, tile, or rubber should be avoided. To protect bees, flowering crops should not be sprayed with fenthion. Additional Information Fenthion is generally compatible with other pesticides except those which are highly alkaline. It is used on a no-residue basis. It has given control of insects in stored products from 4-16 months. When^applied to the sides of barns., it gave 100% control of mosquitoes after 42 weeks. It is sometimes mixed with paints. liguvon is the trade name when it is used as a livestock insecticide. Registration on many species of domestic animals is expected in the near future. The penetrative ability of fenthion controls mining insects. It is used for treating walls made of a wide variety of materials since it does not discolor or stain colored surfaces. 30 �.MALATHION INSECTICIDE (Malaphos) Chemical Structure 0,0-Dimethyl-S~l,2-di(ethoxycarbamyl)' ethylphosphorodithioate . o S \H II .p CH3 ' s o 0 II C 0 CM, CH2— C 0 CH2 CH: . CHs 0 Origin American Cyanamid, 1950 Malathion is an organophosphate insecticide-acaricide. It has been reported to be more effective than nal,ed as a larvicide at rates of 0.1-0.2 Ib ai/A. Properties and Formulations Malathion is a clear brown to colorless liquid with a slight characteristic odor. Its specific gravity is 1.2315 at 25 C. It has a bp of 156 C under 0.7 mm Hg with slight decomposition. Its viscosity is 17.57- centipoises' f ' at 40 C and 36.78 centipoises at -25 C. The refractive index at npZSC is . . 1.4985. The rap is 2.85 C. The weight of ultra- low-volume malathion per gal of formulation is 10.25 Ib. The solubility of malathion is 145 ppm at 25 C , in water. It is completely soluble in alcohols, esters, high aromatic solvents, and ketones, but exhibits poor solubility in aliphatic hydrocarbons. Malathion is stable for an indefinite period of time when stored under proper conditions. It is stable to light, but is decomposed when heated to an excessively high temperature. Malathion liquid concentrate attacks iron, tin plate, lead and copper and may gel if kept- in contact with iron or tin plate. No gelation has been observed in low concentration formulations . containing approximately 5% malathion. Malathion is broken down faster in the presence of alkali than in acid and is not residual on inert surfaces. It has a short residual life when used at low rates on field crops. 31 �Formulations include wettable powders of 25 and 50%, emulsifiable concentrate of 4, 5, and 10 lb ai/gal, dust 4 and 5%, 1, 2, and 4% aerosols, granules 5 and 10%, and baits. It is also mixed with Captan, Methoxychlor, DDT, sulfur, Zineb, Toxaphene, BHC, TDE, and others. -fc Toxicology Malathion is one of the least toxic organophosphate insecticides to man and other mammals. The acute oral 1,050 *n ^emale rats is 1 ° rag/kg; in males °° it is 1375 rag/kg. The acute dermal 1050 in female rats.is 4444 mg/kg; in males it is 4444 mg/kg. The 24 hr LC50 is 100 ppb for-rainbow trout, 170 ppb for redear sunfish, 45-120 ppb for bluegill sunfish, and 100 ppm for channel catfish. A rate of 0.1-0.2 lb ai/A provides a good margin of safety for birds. The optimal temperature for toxicity to insects is 26.7 C. Rates Malathion is applied at 0.1-2 lb ai/100 gal water or 0.1-3 lb ai/A. Phytotoxicity * Injury from malathion has been reported on Mclntosh and Cortland varieties of apples, as well as sweet cherries, certain European grapes, Bosc pears, cucurbits, string beans, and sorghum. Fruit spotting has resulted on nectarines. Uses . . . . Malathion is recommended for pest control on alfalfa, almortds, apples, ' • avocadoes, apricots, asparagus, artichokes, barley, beans, beets, blackberries, blackeyed peas, blueberries, boysenberries, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, carrots, cowpeas, cauliflower, celery, cherries, cloves, collards, corn, cotton, cranberries, cucumbers, currants, carrots, dandelion, dates, dewberries, eggplant, endive, figs, filberts, garlic,•gooseberries, grapefruit, grapes, grasses, guavas, hops, horseradish, kumquats, lemons, lettuce, limes, melons, lentils., nectarines, oats, okra, onions, parsley, parsnips, oranges, peaches, peanuts, papayas, pears, peas, pecans, peppers, mint, pineapples, potatoes, plums, prunes, pumpkins, radishes, rice, rye, sorghum, soybeans, spinach, squash, strawberries, chestnuts, sugar beets, tangerines, tomatoes, turnips, walnuts, watercress, and wheat. It is also recommended for pest control on cattle, poultry, sheep, goats, swine, greenhouses, agricultural premises, and poultry ranges. 32 �Important Pests Controlled . -.. Insects controlled by use of trialathion include aphids, mites, scale, flies, coddling moths, leaf hoppers, leaf miners, thrips, loopers, pear psylla, mealy bugs, Japanese beetles, lygys bugs, spittlebugs, corn earworms, chinch bugs, grasshoppers, army worms, boll weevils, bollworms, lice, ticks, ants, spiders, and mosquitoes. Application 1. When malathion is applied to foliage, it should be applied at a uniform rate with common application equipment. Treatment should be repeated as necessary. 2. For control of soil-borne insects, it should be disced into the top 6-8 inch of soil. 3. For treatment of livestock, individual animals or birds should be dusted or sprayed thoroughly. Malathion should not be applied to dairy animals within 5 hr of milking time. 4. Malathion should be prepared the day it is to be used. t 5. Malathion is used as a mist or fog for area control of adult mosquitoes. 6. Malathion can be used as a larvicide and protectant for stored grain. Precaution • • - . When malathion is being used, prolonged breathing of spray'mist should be avoided. Prolonged or repeated contact with skin should also be avoided. After malathion is used, skin should be washed thoroughly. Malathion reacts with heavy metals, especially iron. It is incompatible with alkaline materials. The ultra-low-volume concentrate may cause spotting on automobile paint finish and should be washed off immediately if automobiles are accidently sprayed. Additional Information Malathion can be applied on the day before harvest to some crops. It has more residual tolerances established for it than any other phosphate insecticide. When .malathion is mixed with alkaline materials, the initial kills are satisfactory, but residual toxicity may be decreased. Residue tolerances of 0, 2, 4, and 8 ppm have been established depending upon the crop it is registered for use on. Residue tolerances of 0 ppm in milk have been established. 33 • �APPLICATION RATE CHART The application rates apply only to_ malathion ultra-1ow-volume concentrate. Fluid Ounces Pests Crop Controlled Per Acre Alfalfa, Clover, Pasture Grasshopper 8 and Range Grass, Grass, Grass Hay, Nonagricultural Land (wastelands, roadsides, soil bank lands) Cereal Crops 4-8 Cereal Leaf Beetle Grain Crops Grassnopper Interval Between Last Application and Harvest May be" applied on day of harvest or grazing. Do not apply to alfalfa and clover in bloom. Do not •apply to seed alfalfa. Cereal Crops: 7 days of harvest or forage use. Grasses: May be applied on day of harvest or grazing. 7 days Corn: 5 days of harvest or forage use. Boll Weevil Cotton Safflower Soybeans Sugar Beets Corn Beans (lima, green, snap, Navy, red kidney, wax, dry, b lackey e) Blueberries Nonagri cultural Lands Beef Cattle — Feed Lots and Holding Pens 8-12 16 Grasshopper ' 8 Lygus Bugs 8-12 16 Early Season Insects Thrips Fleahopper 4-8 Leafhopper Grasshopper 8 Lygus Bug Mexican Bean Beetle Grasshopper 8 Japanese Beetle Green Cloverworm Grasshopper 8 Adult Corn Rootworm Mexican Bean Beetle Leafhopper Green Cloverworm Japanese Beetle Lygus Bug Blueberry Maggot Beet Leafhopper (on wild host plants) Adult Flies and Mosquitoes 34 0 day 3 days -of harvesting seeds 7 days of harvest or forage use 4 7 days, if tops are to be used as feed 5 days 8 1 day 8 0 day 0 day 6-8 0 day 10 �NALED INSECTICIDE (DIBROM) Chemical Structure Dimethyl-1, 2-dibromo-2, 2-dichloroethyl phosphate CH3 - 0 \ 0 \l|- Br -I Br I __________ _. n _______ /"»IT_____________/i ___^___ r* i . ( -—— -- ^j-j j ^_ _ ^ ^ CH3 - 0 „ Cl Origin Chevron Chemical Company (Ortho Division of Standard Oil), 1956. Type Naled is an organophosphate insecticide-acaricide which has both contact and stomach poison activity with brief residual effects. Properties and Formulations Naled is a yellow liquid with an rap of 26 C. It is soluble in fuel oil and xylene, but insoluble in water. It has a short residual activity. Approximately 90% of the naled applied under field conditions will hydrolyze within 48 hr of application. It is not stable in alkaline conditions and ' when it is in combination with certain reducing agents and metals, 'it wi-ir .'• • be converted to dichlorovos (2,2-dichlorovinyl dimethyl phosphate). Formulations of naled include emulsifiable concentrates containing 4, 8, and 14 Ib ai/gal. Dusts containing 4% naled are also available. Toxicology The acute L'Dcn of naled in albino rats is 430 mg/kg. The acute dermal LDso for rats is 800-1100 mg/kg. The acute LD5o in quail is 500-600 mg/kg. Ducks and pheasants are more resistant than quail. The L$5o of naled for rainbow trout is 70 ppb. The 48-hr LCso for mullet is 0.55 ppm. Over a 48-hr period, 0.30 ppm caused 50% mortality among juvenile blue crabs; in the same period of time, 5.50 ppb caused 50% mortality among adult pink shrimp. 35 �An application rate of 0.6 oz ai/A did not significantly affect either the fish or other wildlife in a mangrove area adjacent to Biscayne Bay in Bade County, Florida. Naled concentrate, applied by thermal fogging or by aerial application in concentrations normally used for marshland mosquito control, has little or no observable effects on test animals held in their natural environment. Rates For adult mosquito control, naled (Dibrom 14 concentrate) is aerially applied at the rate of 0.1-0.25 Ib ai/A. For insect control using ground applicators, naled is applied at the rate of 1-8 Ib ai/A in 40-100 gal water. # Phytotoxicity Some injury has been reported on apples, pears, cherries, beans, cotton, and also on ornamentals such as white butterfly rose, golden rapture, green wandering Jew, Dutchman's pipe, ornamental cherries, liquid amber, and chrysanthemums. Naled should not be applied to the Hegari variety of grain sorghum. It may also cause fruit spotting on nectarines. Uses Naled is used for insect control on alfalfa, apricots, beans, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, cauliflower, celery, chard, citrus,, clover, . • ., collards, cotton, cucumbers, eggplant, endive, filberts, grapes, hops, • '" kale, lemons, lettuce, melons, mustard greens', nectarines, oranges, onions, ' ; peaches, peas, peppers, plums, potatoes, prunes, pumpkins, sorghum, soybeans, spinach, squash, rice, strawberries, sugar beets, tomatoes, turnips, vetch, walnuts, agricultural premises, and greenhouses. Important Pests Controlled Important pests that can be controlled by use of naled include loopers, lead miners, cabbageworms, fleahoppers, bollworms, stinkbugs, cutworms, fruit flies, peach twig borers, spittlebugs, thrips, white flies, mosquitoes, gnats, and grasshoppers. Applicati ion 1. Fields - For control of insects in fields, naled should be applied when the insects first appear. The foliage should be thoroughly covered and treatment should be repeated only as necessary. 36 �2. Agricultural premises - Naled can be applied to agricultural premises when animals are present. However, contamination of food containers should be avoided. 3. Adult mosquito and dog fly control' — Adult mosquitoes and dog flies can be controlled by thermal fog or airplane applications of naled, Naled, as the concentrate, should be aerially applied using diesel oil or No. 2 fuel oil. Precautions - Naled should not be applied when the temperature is over 90 F. Applications of naled should be avoided during periods of heavy bee activity (e.g., daylight). Naled is incompatible with highly alkaline materials such as lime and Bordeaux. Because it will readily corrode most metals, all spray equipment must be cleaned (or decontaminated) immediately after use. When naled is being handled, solvent-proof gloves and face shield or goggles should be used. Naled may cause skin and eye damage. 37 �PHORATE INSECTICIDE (Thimet) Chemical Structure 0,0-Diethyl-S-(ethylthiomethyl) phosphorodithioate p. CH3 CH2 s CH2 S — CH2 CH3 0 Origin American Cyanamid Company, 1954 Type Phorate is a systemic, organophosphate insecticide-acaricide with considerable contact and fumigant activity. Properties and Formulations Technical phorate is a clear liquid with amp"of less than -15 C. The water solubility is quite low (approximately 50 ppm). It is miscible in xylene, vegetable oils, carbon tetrachloride, alcohols,'ethers' and esters.'. " . 'At room temperature, technical phorate is known to be stable for. at1 least 2 years. It is subject to hydrolysis under alkaline conditions. The commercial formulations have, satisfactory stability. Phorate may be lost from the soil by volatilization (about 25% occurring in the first hr after treatment), strong absorption on clay and organic matter, and partial degradation to the sulfoxide and sulfone. Phorate exhibits residual activity at 2 months, but not at 6 months when applied at 8-16 Ib/A to a Coachella fine sand containing 0.15% organic matter. Formulations of phorate include emulsifiable concentrates containing 6-8 Ib ai/gal, 10% granules, and 44% in carbon powder for seed treatment. 38 �Toxicology The acute oral LDgQ of technical phorate is 2-4 rag/kg for male rats. By single 24-hr skin contact, the LDgg of phorate for guinea pigs is approximately 20-30 mg/kg. In testing the dermal toxicity of the solid formulation, the solids were wet with just sufficient water to form a paste, and the paste was held in contact with the clipped trunks of guinea pigs continuously for 24 hr. Under these conditions, the LDgQ of a granular phorate formulation was 630 mg/kg. Rats were not affected by a continuous 8-hr exposure to an airstream near saturated.with vapor of technical phorate. This result demonstrated the low vapor pressure of the insecticide. * In general, phorate and its formulations should be considered poisonous by skin contact, inhalation or swallowing. Rates Phorate is applied at 1/2-3 Ib ai/A. 8 oz ai/100 Ib. Phytotoxicity It is used at the rate of . . . Phorate-treated plants have shown apparent plant stimulation and exhibit a much darker green color than untreated plants. Crops treated with phorate generally show increased plant vigor. ' • 9 .• ' • A slight chlorosis and marginal spotting has been reported on seedling plants under some 'conditions. Extensive field trials and grower use has indicated that the phytotoxicity did not persist when phorate was used according to the label directions; Injury may occur on tobacco and apples. Uses Phorate is commonly used on such crops as alfalfa, barley, beans, cotton, corn, lettuce, peanuts, potatoes, rice, sugar beets, tomatoes, wheat, and some ornamentals. 39 �Important Pests Controlled Important pests controlled by use of phorate include mites, aphids, thrips, leaf hoppers, leaf miners, psyllida, cutworms, rootworms, Hessian fly, foliar nematodes, flea beetles, white flies and Mexican bean beetles, Application Soil application — Phorate should not be used on muck soils. ; .'.y'?*"-<*• ' " Precautions Livestock should not be grazed on phbrate-treated crops,and animals should not be fed phorate-treated seed. Phorate should not be applied later than 60 days before harvest. Dosage rates higher than 4-8 oz/100 Ib of seed should not be used on wheat, oats, corn, peas, cucumbers, and beans.' To prevent detrimental effects on germination, excessive soil moisture should be avoided during application. Phorate is not to be sold for home-owner use on ornamentals. Accumulation in the soil, resulting in reduced stands and yields, may occur after use at high rates for a number of years consecutively. Exposure to open flames should be avoided.• Phorate is not compatible with alkaline compounds. When granules containing phorate are being used, they should be poured downwind to minimize exposure to handlers. Spillage should be removed and burned. Storage enclosures should be ventilated periodically. Phorate spills should be covered with an absorbent such as soda ash, •• lime, clay, or sawdust, swept up and buried, and the area washed thoroughly. , • with a full-strength liquid household chlorine bleach'. Empty containers should be decontaminated and disposed of as follows: drain pail completely, add 1/2 gal of water, 1/4 cup of detergent, and 1/4 Ib of lye, tighten closure, rotate pail to wet all surfaces and let stand for at least 15 min, drain completely and rinse several times with water. After this procedure is completed, the closure should be tightened and t"he pail punctured and crushed to prevent reuse. Personal safety precautions should be observed when decontaminating spills or empty containers. CD-I (formerly the All Purpose Decontaminant) developed by the Air Force Armament Laboratory will decontaminate phorate. 40 �Additional Information • No tolerances have been established for phorate; therefore, it can be used on a no-rresidue basis. Many studies to determine the rate of disappearance of toxic residues from crops following phorate treatment, as well as many analyses of mature crops from treated fields, have demonstrated that no residue problem exists if the insecticide is applied according to label directions. When taken up by the plant, phorate is rapidly oxidized to metabolites of increased toxicity to insects and mammals. These products gradually undergo chemical breakdown by hydrolysis to form various phosphoric and thiophosphoric acids and esters which have no appreciable mammalian toxicity. The toxic products disappear from the plants before harvest. 41 �MEVINPHOS INSECTICIDE (Phosdrin) Chemical Structure 2-Carbomethoxy-1-methyIviny1 dimethyl phosphate 0. 0 P' — CH3 CH, I * j . = : C.— )rr CH C 0— CH3 0 ' (alpha isomer) Origin Shell Chemical Company, 1953 Type Phosdrin is an organic phosphate insecticide-acaricide with contact and systemic activity. Properties and Formulations Phosdrin is a light yellow to orange liquid having a specific gravity of 1.24 at 14.5 C. The bp is 99-107 C at 0.03 mm Hg, and its density .(Ib per gal at 20 C) is 10.3. Phosdrin has a relatively high flash point ( 7 9 C , t a g open cup). . . . Phosdrin is soluble in water and organic solvents and is relatively stable in neutral and acid solutions. The half-life at pH 11 is 14 hr. It has a short residual activity, but very rapid action. Technical Phosdrin contains not less than 60% of the alpha isomer and not more than 40% w of insecticidally active related compounds. Other formulations include emulsifiable concentrates 2-4 Ib ai/gal, wettable powders 10, 20, and 25%, granules 1-5%, dusts 1-2%, water solution 2 Ib ai/gal, aerosols. Toxicology The oral 1050 for male rats is 6.1 mg/kg and 3.7 mg/kg for female white rats. The dermal toxici.ty is 4.7 and 4.2 nig/kg for male and female rats respectively. Great hazards in the use of Phosdrin are absorption through the skin by contact and through the lungs by inhalation. 42 �Rates - . „... Phosdrin is applied at 1/8-1 Ib ai/A. Phytotoxicity No injury has been reported from Phosdrin applications at recommended rates, and no harmful materials persist in the soil. There may be some systemic action characterized by rapid absorption into the plants and translocation throughout the foliar portions. Some crops may be sensitive to solvents used in certain formulations. Uses Phosdrin is commonly used on such crops as alfalfa, asparagus, apples, artichokes, barley, beets, broccoli, Brussel sprouts, cabbage, carrots, corn, cucumfc£r%> citrus, grapes, grasses, lettuce, onions, oats, okra, peaches,' potatoes, sorghum, tomatoes, watermelons and walnuts. Important Pests Controlled Important pests controlled by use of Phosdrin are aphids, leafrollers, orange tortrix, weevils, armyworms, loopers, corn earworms, cutworms, leafminers, chinch bugs, grasshoppers, lygus bugs, mites, and thrip. Application For foliar treatment, Phosdrin should be applied uniformly when insects first appear and application repeated as often as necessary .to-obtain control. •Aerosol formulations should be applied in greenhouses,, which should.remain tightly closed for 2 hr after treatment. ' '''.'• Precautions Streams or ponds should not be contaminated. Phosdrin is corrosive to steel and is incompatible with alkaline materials. All spray equipment must be decontaminated and cleaned immediately after use. Additional Information Phosdrin is compatible with insecticides and fungicides except strongly alkaline materials. Most crops may be harvested within 1 day after Phosdrin treatment. Phosdrin has a short residual activity and does not accumulate in soils. 43 �• PHOSPHAMIDON INSECTICIDE (Dimecron) Chemical Structure Dimethyl-2-chloro-2-diethylcarbamoyl-l-methylvinyl phosphate — CH3 II- -I ! p - o - C -C - C- N CH3 Origin CIBA Ltd,; 1957. Licensed to be sold in the United States by Chevron Chemical Company (Ortho Division of Standard Oil). Type Phosphamidon is an organophosphate insecticide-acaricide. Phosphamidon acts as a systemic toxicant and also has a relatively active contact action. Properties and Formulations Phosphamidon is a colorless liquid having a bp of 162 C at 1.5 mm Hg. and a specific gravity of 1.2 at 20 C. It is of low volatility* " It is relatively stable in non-alkaline solutions, but hydrolyzes quickly '.' in alkaline solutions. It has a half-life of 1.5-2.5 days under experimental conditions and persists for short periods in plant sap. It is soluble in water and organic solvents. It is available as a 94.3% concentrate for ultra- low-volume applications. Other formulations include emulsifiable concentrates of 4 and 8 Ib ai/gal, 50% wettable powder, and 3% dust. Toxicology --1 The acute oral LD^Q of phosphamidon is 28.3 mg/kg for albino rats. The acute dermal LD5g for rats is 143 mg/kg. Phosphamidon in the daily diet of dogs at 5 mg/kg for 90 days did not cause any adverse response, function or pathogenic effect. 44 �The acute dermal LD50 for albino rabbits is 267 mg/kg. Animals placed in an atmosphere containing 0.125 mg/1 of insecticide for 6 hr a day, S days a week for a period of 90 days did not show marked toxic effects. In fish toxicity studies, 1000 ppm solutions of phosphamidon were required for complete kills. Short term mortality studies of young salmon and trout in streams sprayed with the insecticide showed no differences from unsprayed controlled sites. Phosphamidon applied at 1 Ib ai/A did not affect oysters or the microorganisms used for food by oysters. No mortality to mourning dove adults or nestlings was.observed in a citrus grove that was sprayed with phosphamidon at 2.5 Ib ai/A. Phosphamidon was found to be toxic to bees upon contact. The toxicity to bees was, however, only slight 24 hr after an application at 0.5 Ib ai/A. The hazard to bees could be reduced by applying phosphamidon in the evening after bee activity has stopped. Rates Phosphamidon is applied at rates from 0.25-2 Ib ai/A in 50-200 gal of water. Phosphamidon concentrate is aerially applied at rates of 0.15-0.5 Ib ai/A. Phytotoxicity Injury following phosphamidon applications has been reported on cherries, apples, walnuts, plums, and peaches. . . Uses '• ' .' ' •'•'.' Phosphamidon is used for pest control on alfalfa, apples, beans, cabbage, cantaloupes, cotton, eggplant, lemons, peas, plums, grapefruit, prunes, potatoes, sugar beets, cucumbers, oranges, peppers, rice, tomatoes, watercress, walnuts, wheat, and ornamentals. Important Pests. Controlled The most important pests controlled by using phosphamidon include aphids, lygus bugs, leaf hoppers, thrips, coddling moths, grasshoppers, mites, scale, bollworms, Mexican bean beetles, whiteflies, leafminers, potato tuberworm, and stinkbugs. 45 �Application 1. Phosphamidon is applied thoroughly when insects first appear. It is then repeated as necessary. It is recommended for fruit trees during non-bearing years, or as a post-harvest spray. 2. Phosphamidon has a particularly high aphicidal activity and is applied at 4-8 oz ai/A for aphid and thrip control. Precautions Standard handling precautions should be adhered to as with other organophosphorus insecticides. Treated forage or crop residue should not be fed to livestock. Phosphamidon is incompatible with alkaline materials. Additional Information The effectiveness of phosphamdion becomes evident 1-3 days after application. The surface residual action is short and thought to be minor as a mode of action. ....... . Phosphamidon is absorbed by all parts of the plant. The systemic activity has been demonstrated where the insecticide is translocated from roots or stems to foliage, from the lower part of plants to foliage at the top of the plants, and from foliage to fruits. It penetrates into leaf tissue quickly without leaving persistent insecticidal residues on leaf, surfaces. Its effects on predators is, therefore, limited to a short time during and immediately following application. Heavy rains following treatment apparently diminish the quantity of insecticide retained in the foliage.. .; . 46 �CARBARYL INSECTICIDE (Sevin) Chemical Structure N-Methy1-1-naphthy1-carbamate -CII 0 •NH- -CH, Origin Union Carbide Chemical Corporation, 1957 Type Carbaryl is a carbamate insecticide, expressing contact and stomach poison action with long residual effects. It is a good general purpose insecticide; it is effective against many insects which have become resistant to chlorinated hydrocarbons and/or phosphates. Properties and Formulations Carbaryl has no odor. , . . * . ' ' The extent and rate of hydrolysis of carbaryl have not been determined, but the rate is apparently slow under most conditions. Under alkaline conditions, however, hydrolysis is rapid and complete. Carbaryl is formulated as an emulsifiable concentrate containing 13 lb ai/gal, 5 and 10% dusts, 50 and 80% wettable powders, 5 and 10% granules, and 97.5% aerosol, Toxicology Oral LDjQ in the male rat is 850 mg/kg. Dermal LDso is greater than 4,000 mg/kg. The carbamates are reversible inhibitors of cholinesterase. The reversal is so rapid that, unless special precautions are taken, measurements of blood cholinesterase of people or animals exposed to carbamates are likely to be inaccurate and always in the direction of appearing to be normal. 47 - ** �Concentrates may cause skin irritation as well as systemic poisoning. It is rapidly metabolized in animals and not secreted in the milk. Carbaryl is low in toxicity to fish. Rates Carbaryl is applied at 1/2-1 1/2 Ib ai/100 gal water or 1/2-2 1/2 Ib ai/A. Phytotoxicity Excessive dosages of carbaryl may retard germination of grasses. Injury may occur on tender foliage in the presence of rain or high humidity for several days. Injury has been reported on Mclntosh and York varieties of apples and some pears. Watermelons and Boston ivy have been injured; however, at normal rates, there is no adverse effect on plant growth or food flavor. Uses t Uses of carbaryl include pest control in alfalfa, apples, apricots, asparagus, barley, bananas, beans, most berries, carrots, cherries, citrus, corn, cotton, cucumbers, eggplant, grapes, grasses, lettuce, melons, oats, olives, peaches, peanuts, pears, peas, pecans, peppers, plums, potatoes, prunes, pumpkins, radishes, rice, rye, sorghum, soybeans, sugar beets,' tomatoes, turnips, walnuts, and wheat. It is also used on poultry, beefcattle, swine, sheep, and agricultural premises. . Important Pests Controlled Important pests controlled include aphids, coddling moths, leaf hoppers, scale, bollworms, armyworms, lygus bugs, Japanese beetles, boll weevils, peach twig borers, spittlebugs, thrips, grasshoppers, stink bugs, cucumber beetles, and ticks, fleas and mites on dogs, cats, and poultry. Carbaryl exhibits a degree of specificity; it will not kill house flies, carpet beetles or termites and gives poor control of several species of aphids. Application Carbaryl may be applied with common application equipment at a uniform rate and repeated as necessary. It should be applied when insects first appear. On livestock, it should not be applied more often than every 4 days. Carbaryl is used as a dust bath on poultry. 48 �Precautions' Carbaryl is incompatible with lime, lime sulfur, bordeaux, or other alkaline materials. It does not control spider mites. It is highly toxic to bees. Carbaryl should not be used on apples as an insecticide at blossom time if they are to be chemically thinned with other compounds* or over-thinning may occur. Additional Information __ Carbaryl is a very safe insecticide. No off-flavor has resulted on harvested crops. It may be applied within 1 day of harvest on some crops. It is compatible with most insecticides and fungicides. Some systemic action has been shown. Carbaryl controls the eggs of some insect species. Flies are tolerant to this compound. Residual action will last 5-35 days. depending upon growing conditions. Toxicity increases as the temperature increases. Residue tolerances of 10 and 5 ppm have been established on ' crops for which it is registered. Control should last for 1-3 weeks. 49 �MIREX INSECTICIDE Chemical Structure Dodecachloroctahydro-l,3,4-metheno-2H_ cyclobuta (cd) pentalene ci (:i Cl ' * a ^\c i PI L> J. n Cl Cl- V Cl \ Cl . Cl Origin General Chemical Division of Allied Chemical Corporation, 1958 HE6. ' Mirex is a chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticide which kills by contact and as a stomach poison. Properties and Formulations Mirex has a long residual life, indicating excellent stability., . , • • t *' • Mirex is noncorrosive to most metals. Formulations include 0.075, 2, and 4% bait. The bait may be either bran or finely chopped corn cob. Toxicology The oral LDJQ is 312 mg/kg for white albino rats. Mirex is not harmful to fish or wildlife when used.as recommended. Rates Mirex is mixed with bait material at the rate of 2/3 g Mirex/Ib bait. Mirex is applied at 1/2 Ib of mixed bait per ant mound. As a broadcast treatment it is applied at the rate of 5 Ib ai/A. 50 �Phytotoxicity Mirex is not generally used on plants, but no problems have been encountered when it is applied according to directions. Uses Since Mirex is used for control of ants, it is used on agricultural premises, livestock pastures, and crop lands. Important Pests Controlled Mirex will control most ant species, cutworms, wireworms, and earwigs. Application Mirex should be applied either individually to each ant mound or used as a broadcast treatment on highly infested areas. Livestock need not be removed from pastures during application. The application should be made when ants are the most active. New mounds should be treated as soon-as they appear; if ants are still active after 4 weeks, the mound should be retreated. In 1965, Mirex baits were applied to over 4,000,000 A in states from North Carolina to Texas infested with the imported fire ant. At the rate of 3.4 g/A, over 30,000 Ib of technical chemical were required. Precautions Only 1 broadcast application of Mirex.should be applied during a . 12-month period. Other insecticides used on the same area may interfere with the effectiveness of Mirex. •'• Additional Information Mirex expresses a delayed toxic effect to ants. This allows the worker ants to carry the bait into the colony and distribute it among the other ants. Ants will usually die within 3-4 weeks. Contamination of the bait by pesticides or fertilizers may make it unacceptable to the ants. Light rains have no apparent effects on the control obtained. Usage on crop pests is under investigation. 51 �ULTRA-LOW-VOLUME INSECTICIDE APPLICATION Note: The following article was taken from an information brochure published by the American Cyanamid Company, 1969. Part of the information was obtained from the Aedes aegypti Eradication Branch, CDC, U. S. Public Health Service, U. S. Department of Health,.Education, and Welfare, Atlanta, Georgia. Introduction During 1963, a revolutionary concept in aerial insecticide application was developed. This concept was the use of ultra-low-volume aerial sprays of insecticides for insect control. In 1964, field tests were initiated to evaluate the use of low-volume aerial sprays of undiluted technical malathion for control of adult salt-marsh mosquitoes. Since then, undiluted malathion has been used effectively on millions of treatment acres for the' control of various insects including mosquitoes. The growing interest in ultra-low-volume aerial insecticide application is a direct reflection of several advantages it offers over conventional spraying techniques. Because wider swath spacings are used, fewer flights are needed to cover acreage and, therefore, costly ferry and loading times are reduced. (Time can become a crucial factor in emergency control programs.) The use of undiluted technical material eliminates the need for mixing tanks and reduces the amount of ground equipment and personnel needed. Higher flight affords the pilot a greater safety margin. The overall effect of these advantages is to considerably reduce application costs and to eliminate some of the hazards normally associated with aerial application. These benefits, coupled with;malathion's outstanding performance against mosquitoes, make the ultra-low-volume method of applying technical malathion a .completely unique means of mosquito control. .Performance The outstanding results achieved in halting encephalitis outbreaks in Dallas and Corpus Christi, Texas, have initiated worldwide interest in mosquito control with the low-volume concept 'in aerial application. The techniques used in these operations are unique and are described below. City and state health departments were already involved in the detection of the epidemic when this mosquito-borne disease was brought to the attention of the U. S. Public Health Service. The U. S. Air Force 52 �made available C-123 cargo planes equipped to apply undiluted malathion at 3 fl oz/A. Previous research and trials by the U. S. Public Health Service showed that aircraft should operate in the early morning up to 7:30 A.M. before rising temperatures and air currents interfere with the deposition of,the insecticide. The aircraft spray system should produce a droplet size with a mass median diameter of 50-60 v with no more than 10% of the droplets above 100 y as determined by readings made from microscope slides coated with Dri-Film. Deposition of 10 particles or more per sq inch is considered necessary to achieve the desired biological effect. 150 was per and To achieve this spray pattern, the C-123 aircraft operated at mph on a 500-ft swath at a flight altitude of 150 ft. Each plane equipped with 42 Spraying Systems D2-13 nozzles, or 21 nozzles wing. The nozzles were placed on the boom at a 45° angle down into the wind. The pressure was 39 psi. In the Aedes aegypti programs conducted in Miami, Florida, and four South Carolina cities, a Twin Beech aircraft was employed to apply undiluted malathion at 3 fl oz/A. To achieve a droplet size spectrum similar to the one obtained in the Texas operations, the Twin Beech aircraft operated at 150 mph on a 300-ft swath. The boom was equipped with four Tee-jet 8004 nozzles set 45° down and into the wind, and the application was made at a flight height of 150 ft. The boom pressure was 100-110 psi. Generally, spraying should not be attempted when the wind is at or above 10 mph or temperatures are above 82 F. . •• These programs resulted in a better than 95% control and could not have been achieved without extensive research and study of the low-volume concept in aerial application. The prerequisites for such operations are a properly equipped aircraft, and personnel with specialized training and understanding of this new concept. 53 �DECONTAMINATION OF ORCJANQFHQSPHATE INSECTICIDES In case , of Insecticide spillage on aircraft or equipment, excess quantities .of thejiew Air Force inmeenicide neutralizing solution*. should be .applied! , After approximately £0-30 min of contact time^ the solution should be washed off. This decontaminant is very irritating td the eyes and can be irritating to the 9,kin i|ion prolonged contact j , it is, however, e^^letely water soluble and can be readily washfd from the skin of personnel or from equipment, When .large quantities of concentrated mevinphos or nal«i are neutralized, a high heat of reaction ©an be expected; therefore, precaution must be exercised, With sulfur-containing insecticides such as malathion, no heat is generated during decontamination using large quantities of the concentrate. All empty containers should be decontaminated by thorough rinsing with the new n»uttali2,iBg solution and allowed-.to ren»ain ift contact with the mixture 30-60 »in. *This formulation contains afppoximdtsly 2% lithium hydroxide hydrate dissolved in a minimal amoStet of wate"* (approximately 10% by volume), added to monoethanolanvine (MEA), techniespl ifrade (approximately 25% by volume), aad-diproiiylene glyeol itethyl 'ether, teehnieal grade (approximately 65% by volume). �TOXIC PROPERTIES AND TREATMENT OF ORGANOPHOSPHORUS INSECTICIDES Organophosphorus insecticides are, in general, excellent organic solvents and penetrate clothing and other clothlike materials. These compounds are absorbed by the skin as well "as by the respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts. Absorption by the skin tends to be slow, but, because the insecticides are difficult to remove, such absorption is frequently prolonged. Skin absorption is somewhat greater at higher temperatures and is much greater in the presence of dermatitides. The toxic effects of carbamate and organophosphorus insecticides are due to their ability to inhibit an essential nervous system enzyme, cholinesterase. The results of inhibiting cholinesterase will thus be (a) interference with the neuromuscular junction, giving rise to rapid •* twitching of voluntary muscles, and finally paralysis, which is of particular importance in the respiratory system; (b) interference with the autonomic nervous system at the cholinergic site; in general, the symptoms seen are those caused by excessive parasympathetic stimulation: pupil contraction, secretion of tears and saliva, and constriction of the bronchioles. Central effects may also occur, such as incoordination and paralysis of the respiratory center. • Signs and symptoms to watch for in man are: muscle twitching, sweating, pin pointing of pupils (miosis), headache, giddiness, nervousness, blurred vision, a pulling sensation in the chest area, salivation and other excessive respiratory tract secretion. In advanced cases convulsions, coma, and loss of reflexes are normally present. Pilots and other personnel working with-concentrated organophosphorus insecticides should have their cholinesterase blood level'established'and •' occasionally checked for depression. This measurement of exposure serves as a warning of impending toxicity and is useful in prophylactic programs. The Air Force Armament Laboratory (ATMA) has the capability and approval from the USAF Hospital Eglin for conducting cholinesterase blood level determinations. Treatment The onset of symptoms is rapid, and maximum'effects may develop within a few hours. It is thus important that medical care be- obtained without delay. Since the early symptoms of headache, malaise, etc., are easily confused with other diseases, it is important that workers exposed to the organic phosphates be instructed to report any such indications. Adequate atropinization is essential to relieve the muscarinic effects and to provide central respiratory stimulant action. An average adult may 55 �require from 12-24 mg total dose of atropine intravenously during the first 24 hr. Since this is far in excess of the usual therapeutic dose, the physician unacquainted with the mutually antagonistic action of this drug and the organic phosphate may be hesitant to employ such large doses. A general rule is that atropine should be administered until visible effects of atropinization are observed (dryness of the mouth and skin, pupil dilation, etc.)- Since, as pointed out above, the muscarinic effects are only a part of the action produced by heavy exposure, it is essential that the patient be treated symptomatically with artificial respiration, postural drainage, warmth, etc. 56 �Esters - Chemical compounds formed by the elimination of water between a molecule of an alcohol and a molecule of an acid. Formulation - The manner in which the active ingredient and the carrier are mixed. Growth Regulator - Compounds that upset an organisms's growth and metabolic processes. Herbaceous - Referring to plants with non-woody stems and which normally die back to the ground in the winter. Herbicide - Any compound used to kill or inhibit the growth of plants. Nonselective Herbicide - A compound that kills all plants it comes in contact with. Parts Per Million (ppm) - The number of parts by weight or volume of a given compound in one million parts of the final mixture, Pesticide - Any substance or mixture of substances used to control plant and animal life. t Post-Emergence Herbicide - A chemical applied to the foliage of weeds after the crop has emerged from the soil. Pre-Emergence Herbicide (residual) - A chemical applied at time of seeding or just prior to crop emergence to kill weed seeds and germinating seedlings. , . •. . • . . . t ' ' * - . - Residual Herbicide - A plant killer-that persists in the soil, killing plants as they germinate. •• Soil Sterilant - A compound which, when applied to the soil, prevents the growth of all vegetation for a relatively long period of time. Surfactant - Materials used in pesticide formulations to impart emulsifibility, spreading, wetting, dispersibility or other surface-modifying properties. Systemic - A compound which, when taken up by the plant, is made effective throughout the plant's whole system. Usually refers to insecticides that kill insects which eat the juices of treated plants. Translocated - A chemical which is taken up by a plant and moved throughout its system. 58 �Vapor Drift - Movement of vapors from the area of application*. A problem with highly volatile materials. Volatile - Refers to substances that evaporate or vaporize (change from a liquid to a gas) at ordinary temperatures on exposure with air. Wettable Powder - A solid formulation which, upon the addition of water, forms a suspension used for spraying. Wetting Agent - A material which, when added to a spray solution, causes the spray to spread over and wet the plant surfaces more readily. 59 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange Description An account of the resource <p style="margin-top: -1em; line-height: 1.2em;">The Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange comprises 120 linear feet and spans the late 1800s to 2005; however, the bulk of the coverage is from the 1960s to the 1980s and there are many undated items. The collection was donated to Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in 1985 by Dr. Alvin L. Young (1942- ). Dr. Young developed the collection as he conducted extensive research on the military defoliant Agent Orange. The collection is in good condition and includes letters, memoranda, books, reports, press releases, journal and newspaper clippings, field logs and notebooks, newsletters, maps, booklets and pamphlets, photographs, memorabilia, and audiotapes of an interview with Dr. Young.</p> <p>For more about this collection, <a href="/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/alvin-l--young-collection-on-a">view the Agent Orange Exhibit.</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Box The box containing the original item. 129 Folder The folder containing the original item. 3684 Series The series number of the original item. Series VI Subseries III Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Young, Alvin L. B. C. Wolverton Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1970-03-01 Title A name given to the resource Military Herbicides and Insecticides https://www.nal.usda.gov/exhibits/speccoll/files/original/973cde914c75521679649cbf8b576ddd.pdf 0fd50df007805531d31d4c364be88749 PDF Text Text Item D Number 03555 Author D NotSMnnBd Young, Alvin L. Corporate Author RODOrt/ArtlGlO TitlO Research Handling /Exposure Notes and Proposed Research Projects, 1969 Journal/Book Title Year 000 ° Month/Day Color O Number of Images 13 DBSCriptOD Notes Includes 2 color photographs of a sprout. Monday, December 31, 2001 Page 3655 of 3802 �, PEOPOSED RESEAHCH PROJECTS Lt Alvin L. Young 7 February 1969 ASSIGNED IN-HOUSE PROJECTS - 1968/1969 Work Unit 009, Project 2552 (AFATL), "Biological Detection of Herbicidal Drifts". This project will involve developing biological monitoring techniques for detecting phenoxy herbicide (e.g., Agent Orange) drift from the spray-equipment trials being conducted on Test Area C-52A (TA C-52), Eglin AFB Reservation, Florida. Work Unit, Oil, Project 2552 (AFATL), "Residual Effects of Herbicides". This project will involve developing chemical and biological assays for determining levels of herbicides (Agents White, Orange and Blue) in soils of Test Area C-52A. Work Unit 00 04, Project 5066 (AFATL),"Vegetative Studies of a Herbicide-Equipment Test Area". This project will involve conducting vesetative/ecological studies on Test Area C-52A durine and following completion of all sprayequipment development programs on TA C-52A. Task 01, Project 51?2 (ADTC), "Development of Tracer Methods for Detection of Herbicidal Drift1. This project will involve evaluating various elemental additives mixed with Agents Orange and White that can be used to determine if plant damage found off-targets was caused by USAF defoliants. �RHKimJAL Lt Young 28 September .1.96!) PHOTOGRAPH Treatment Core '['?, Range C-52A 0 - 6 inch depth 1.0 days after initiation o if the bio a s s ay SOYBKAN s -^==^=^^--'-rl'-.t-- ,''*'! -• Control Core (,'."? Range C-S2A 18 - 24 Inch Increment �M .\U-x-Ui l A of �ft U- 15-&5J A-T-wA I mew ���1-2- /C /.; U-.i-f A & <*•&_._ joi* ._n~Sp..lI.f $&•*£ £ui ��(-<? ~(O �-7 7 'eY 77 ' 12. U c^ricfljLv\ ��21 Qtc, - Ouf <H*iL d£ ~ i. JjX Vjx^UAw^Wi"^ Ri^ts <Y T(^)P 3 Cvv^_ 0>i*gAi — 0^ij/nA �O Vji. Kr I k Hf IO 1 kr- v ^ fhe -JJ^I �� Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange Description An account of the resource <p style="margin-top: -1em; line-height: 1.2em;">The Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange comprises 120 linear feet and spans the late 1800s to 2005; however, the bulk of the coverage is from the 1960s to the 1980s and there are many undated items. The collection was donated to Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in 1985 by Dr. Alvin L. Young (1942- ). Dr. Young developed the collection as he conducted extensive research on the military defoliant Agent Orange. The collection is in good condition and includes letters, memoranda, books, reports, press releases, journal and newspaper clippings, field logs and notebooks, newsletters, maps, booklets and pamphlets, photographs, memorabilia, and audiotapes of an interview with Dr. Young.</p> <p>For more about this collection, <a href="/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/alvin-l--young-collection-on-a">view the Agent Orange Exhibit.</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Box The box containing the original item. 129 Folder The folder containing the original item. 3655 Series The series number of the original item. Series VI Subseries III Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Young, Alvin L. Title A name given to the resource Research Handling /Exposure Notes and Proposed Research Projects, 1969 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange Description An account of the resource <p style="margin-top: -1em; line-height: 1.2em;">The Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange comprises 120 linear feet and spans the late 1800s to 2005; however, the bulk of the coverage is from the 1960s to the 1980s and there are many undated items. The collection was donated to Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in 1985 by Dr. Alvin L. Young (1942- ). Dr. Young developed the collection as he conducted extensive research on the military defoliant Agent Orange. The collection is in good condition and includes letters, memoranda, books, reports, press releases, journal and newspaper clippings, field logs and notebooks, newsletters, maps, booklets and pamphlets, photographs, memorabilia, and audiotapes of an interview with Dr. Young.</p> <p>For more about this collection, <a href="/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/alvin-l--young-collection-on-a">view the Agent Orange Exhibit.</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Box The box containing the original item. 127 Folder The folder containing the original item. 3582 Series The series number of the original item. Series VI Subseries II Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Young, Alvin L. C.E. Thalken D.D. Harrison Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1979 Title A name given to the resource Persistence, Movement and Decontamination Studies of TCDD in an Ecosystem Treated with Massive Quantities of 2,4,5-T Herbicide, Abstract and Presentation Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange Description An account of the resource <p style="margin-top: -1em; line-height: 1.2em;">The Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange comprises 120 linear feet and spans the late 1800s to 2005; however, the bulk of the coverage is from the 1960s to the 1980s and there are many undated items. The collection was donated to Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in 1985 by Dr. Alvin L. Young (1942- ). Dr. Young developed the collection as he conducted extensive research on the military defoliant Agent Orange. The collection is in good condition and includes letters, memoranda, books, reports, press releases, journal and newspaper clippings, field logs and notebooks, newsletters, maps, booklets and pamphlets, photographs, memorabilia, and audiotapes of an interview with Dr. Young.</p> <p>For more about this collection, <a href="/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/alvin-l--young-collection-on-a">view the Agent Orange Exhibit.</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Box The box containing the original item. 127 Folder The folder containing the original item. 3581 Series The series number of the original item. Series VI Subseries II Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Young, Alvin L. W.J. Cairney C.E. Thalken Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Chemosphere Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1983 Title A name given to the resource Persistence, Movement and Decontamination Studies of TCDD in Storage Sites Massively Contaminated with Phenoxy Herbicides Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange Description An account of the resource <p style="margin-top: -1em; line-height: 1.2em;">The Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange comprises 120 linear feet and spans the late 1800s to 2005; however, the bulk of the coverage is from the 1960s to the 1980s and there are many undated items. The collection was donated to Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in 1985 by Dr. Alvin L. Young (1942- ). Dr. Young developed the collection as he conducted extensive research on the military defoliant Agent Orange. The collection is in good condition and includes letters, memoranda, books, reports, press releases, journal and newspaper clippings, field logs and notebooks, newsletters, maps, booklets and pamphlets, photographs, memorabilia, and audiotapes of an interview with Dr. Young.</p> <p>For more about this collection, <a href="/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/alvin-l--young-collection-on-a">view the Agent Orange Exhibit.</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Box The box containing the original item. 127 Folder The folder containing the original item. 3580 Series The series number of the original item. Series VI Subseries II Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Young, Alvin L. L.G. Cockerham Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Chemical in the Environment, Chemical Testing and Hazard Ranking--The Interaction between Science and Administration Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1982-10-01 Title A name given to the resource A Long-Term Field Study of 2,3,7,8-TCDD Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange Description An account of the resource <p style="margin-top: -1em; line-height: 1.2em;">The Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange comprises 120 linear feet and spans the late 1800s to 2005; however, the bulk of the coverage is from the 1960s to the 1980s and there are many undated items. The collection was donated to Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in 1985 by Dr. Alvin L. Young (1942- ). Dr. Young developed the collection as he conducted extensive research on the military defoliant Agent Orange. The collection is in good condition and includes letters, memoranda, books, reports, press releases, journal and newspaper clippings, field logs and notebooks, newsletters, maps, booklets and pamphlets, photographs, memorabilia, and audiotapes of an interview with Dr. Young.</p> <p>For more about this collection, <a href="/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/alvin-l--young-collection-on-a">view the Agent Orange Exhibit.</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Box The box containing the original item. 127 Folder The folder containing the original item. 3579 Series The series number of the original item. Series VI Subseries II Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Young, Alvin L. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Abstracts: Third Annual Meeting Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1982 Title A name given to the resource Abstract: A Long-Term Ecosystem Study of 2,3,7,8-TCDD Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange Description An account of the resource <p style="margin-top: -1em; line-height: 1.2em;">The Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange comprises 120 linear feet and spans the late 1800s to 2005; however, the bulk of the coverage is from the 1960s to the 1980s and there are many undated items. The collection was donated to Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in 1985 by Dr. Alvin L. Young (1942- ). Dr. Young developed the collection as he conducted extensive research on the military defoliant Agent Orange. The collection is in good condition and includes letters, memoranda, books, reports, press releases, journal and newspaper clippings, field logs and notebooks, newsletters, maps, booklets and pamphlets, photographs, memorabilia, and audiotapes of an interview with Dr. Young.</p> <p>For more about this collection, <a href="/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/alvin-l--young-collection-on-a">view the Agent Orange Exhibit.</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Box The box containing the original item. 122 Folder The folder containing the original item. 3375 Series The series number of the original item. Series VI Subseries II Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Young, Alvin L. P. J. Lehn Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1976 Title A name given to the resource Abstract: Absence of TCDD Toxicity in an Aquatic Ecosystem Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange Description An account of the resource <p style="margin-top: -1em; line-height: 1.2em;">The Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange comprises 120 linear feet and spans the late 1800s to 2005; however, the bulk of the coverage is from the 1960s to the 1980s and there are many undated items. The collection was donated to Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in 1985 by Dr. Alvin L. Young (1942- ). Dr. Young developed the collection as he conducted extensive research on the military defoliant Agent Orange. The collection is in good condition and includes letters, memoranda, books, reports, press releases, journal and newspaper clippings, field logs and notebooks, newsletters, maps, booklets and pamphlets, photographs, memorabilia, and audiotapes of an interview with Dr. Young.</p> <p>For more about this collection, <a href="/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/alvin-l--young-collection-on-a">view the Agent Orange Exhibit.</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Box The box containing the original item. 112 Folder The folder containing the original item. 3091 Series The series number of the original item. Series V Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Young, Alvin L. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1984 Title A name given to the resource Typescript and coverletters: Correspondence between Professor LeMoan, Faculte de Pharmacie, and Alvin L. Young regarding the publication of a manuscript "A Case Study in Ecotoxicology: Long-Term Field Exposure of Peromyscus Polionotus to Dioxin" to honor Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange Description An account of the resource <p style="margin-top: -1em; line-height: 1.2em;">The Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange comprises 120 linear feet and spans the late 1800s to 2005; however, the bulk of the coverage is from the 1960s to the 1980s and there are many undated items. The collection was donated to Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in 1985 by Dr. Alvin L. Young (1942- ). Dr. Young developed the collection as he conducted extensive research on the military defoliant Agent Orange. The collection is in good condition and includes letters, memoranda, books, reports, press releases, journal and newspaper clippings, field logs and notebooks, newsletters, maps, booklets and pamphlets, photographs, memorabilia, and audiotapes of an interview with Dr. Young.</p> <p>For more about this collection, <a href="/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/alvin-l--young-collection-on-a">view the Agent Orange Exhibit.</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Box The box containing the original item. 111 Folder The folder containing the original item. 3084 Series The series number of the original item. Series V Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Young, Alvin L. L. G. Cockerham Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Chemicals in the Environment: Chemical Testing and Hazard Ranking - The Interaction between Science and Administration. Proceeding of a International Symposium. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1982-10-01 Title A name given to the resource Abstract: A Long-Term Field Study of 2, 3, 7, 8 -TCDD https://www.nal.usda.gov/exhibits/speccoll/files/original/cba5cc8332e625de238e3affc2bfd0b2.pdf 8e02b5179a3dea6b31380eecd218a5e0 PDF Text Text Item D Number °3074 Author Young, A. L. D Corporate Author Typescript: Abstract: Long-Term Field Studies of a Rodent Population Continuously Exposed to TCDD Journal/Book Title Year 000 ° Month/Day Color D Number of knagee 3 DBSCrtatOn NOtBS Includes letter to Don Lamb from Alvin L. Young, 21 Dec 1979 telling Lamb about the abstract. Tuesday, November 13, 2001 Page 3074 of 3112 �DEPARTMENT OF THE AIR FORCE USAF SCHOOL OF AEROSPACE MEDICINE (AFSC) BROOKS AIR FORCE BASE, TEXAS 78235 21 Dec 79 Dr. Don Lamb Mobay Chemical Corporation P.O. Box 4912, Hawthorn Road Kansas City, MO 64120 Dear Dr Lamb Please find attached our abstract.of a proposed presentation to the 1980 Symposium on Avian and Mammalian Wildlife Toxicology, to be held in Louisville KY, March 1980. We would be pleased to submit a manuscript for publication in an ASTM Symposium Proceedings. For matters of correspondence please use the following address: Dr. Alvin L. Young Epidemiology Division (SAM/EK) USAF School of Aerospace Medicine Brooks AFB TX 78235 Phone: 512- 536-2127 Thank you for your consideration of our presentation for the 1980 Symposium. Sincerely ALVIN L. YOUNG, Major, USAF, Ph.D. Consultant, Environmental Sciences 1 Atch Abstract �LONG-TERM FIELD STUDIES OF A RODENT POPULATION CONTINUOUSLY EXPOSED TO TCDD A.L. Young and C.E. Thalken Epidemiology Division USAF School of Aerospace Medicine Brooks AFB,f&-?8235 (. .vJvi rvJ ,^.v c ' x ,.,, • ' .. Field investigations were conducted during 1973-1978 on populations of the beach mouse, Peromyscus polionotus, from a unique 3.0 km2 military test area (Test Area C-52A, Eglin AFB FL) that was sprayed with 73,000 kg 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4,5-T) herbicide during the period 1962-1970. No residues of 2,4,5-T were detected at 10 parts per billion in any soil sample collected during 1971-1972. Residues of 2,3,7,8tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) were still present in 1978. During 1974-1978, 54 soil samples were collected to a depth of 15 cm on the test area. TCDD levels ranged from <10 to 1,500 parts per trillion (ppt). The median concentration was 30 ppt while the mean was 164 ppt. Liver tissue from 36 individual beachmice inhabiting the test site contained » V," ;.£».». ^ V , 300 to 2,900 ppt TCDD. A close relationship between soil and liver levels of TCDD was observed, i.e., high liver levels of TCDD were consistent with high soil levels of TCDD.; Whole body analysis of fetuses from test area females indicated apparent placenta! transport of TCDD. Histopathological examinations were performed on 255 adult or fetal beachmice from the test area and a control area. Examinations were performed on the heart, lungs, trachea, salivary glands, thymus, liver, kidneys, stomach, pancreas, adrenals, large and small intestine, spleen, genital organs, bone, bone marrow, skin and brain. Initially, the tissues were examined �on a blind study basis. All microscopic changes were recorded including those interpreted as minor or insignificant. The tissues were then reexamined on a control versus test basis, which demonstrated that the test and control mice could not be distinguished histopathologically. The mean number of fetuses per observed pregnancy was 3.1 and 3.4 for the test area and a control area, respectively. A single female beachmouse is capable of producing litters every 26 days. At this frequency, the animals collected in 1978 may have been at least 50 generations removed from the population studied in 1973. A two-factor (treatment and year) disproportional analysis of covariance of organ weights revealed that liver weights for pregnant females were significantly heavier (P<.01) between the control and test area beachmice, and these differences were consistent over the five years of observation. These studies suggest that long-term, low level exposure to TCDD under field conditions has had minimal effect upon the health and reproduction of the beach mouse. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange Description An account of the resource <p style="margin-top: -1em; line-height: 1.2em;">The Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange comprises 120 linear feet and spans the late 1800s to 2005; however, the bulk of the coverage is from the 1960s to the 1980s and there are many undated items. The collection was donated to Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in 1985 by Dr. Alvin L. Young (1942- ). Dr. Young developed the collection as he conducted extensive research on the military defoliant Agent Orange. The collection is in good condition and includes letters, memoranda, books, reports, press releases, journal and newspaper clippings, field logs and notebooks, newsletters, maps, booklets and pamphlets, photographs, memorabilia, and audiotapes of an interview with Dr. Young.</p> <p>For more about this collection, <a href="/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/alvin-l--young-collection-on-a">view the Agent Orange Exhibit.</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Box The box containing the original item. 111 Folder The folder containing the original item. 3074 Series The series number of the original item. Series V Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Young, Alvin L. Thalken C. E. Title A name given to the resource Typescript: Abstract: Long-Term Field Studies of a Rodent Population Continuously Exposed to TCDD Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange Description An account of the resource <p style="margin-top: -1em; line-height: 1.2em;">The Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange comprises 120 linear feet and spans the late 1800s to 2005; however, the bulk of the coverage is from the 1960s to the 1980s and there are many undated items. The collection was donated to Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in 1985 by Dr. Alvin L. Young (1942- ). Dr. Young developed the collection as he conducted extensive research on the military defoliant Agent Orange. The collection is in good condition and includes letters, memoranda, books, reports, press releases, journal and newspaper clippings, field logs and notebooks, newsletters, maps, booklets and pamphlets, photographs, memorabilia, and audiotapes of an interview with Dr. Young.</p> <p>For more about this collection, <a href="/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/alvin-l--young-collection-on-a">view the Agent Orange Exhibit.</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Box The box containing the original item. 107 Folder The folder containing the original item. 2960 Series The series number of the original item. Series V Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Young, Alvin L. C. E. Thalken D. D. Harrison Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Proceedings of Western Society of Weed Science Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1981 Title A name given to the resource Persistence, Bioaccumulation , and Toxicology of TCDD in an Ecosystem Treated with Massive Quantities of 2,4,5-T Herbicide Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange Description An account of the resource <p style="margin-top: -1em; line-height: 1.2em;">The Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange comprises 120 linear feet and spans the late 1800s to 2005; however, the bulk of the coverage is from the 1960s to the 1980s and there are many undated items. The collection was donated to Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in 1985 by Dr. Alvin L. Young (1942- ). Dr. Young developed the collection as he conducted extensive research on the military defoliant Agent Orange. The collection is in good condition and includes letters, memoranda, books, reports, press releases, journal and newspaper clippings, field logs and notebooks, newsletters, maps, booklets and pamphlets, photographs, memorabilia, and audiotapes of an interview with Dr. Young.</p> <p>For more about this collection, <a href="/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/alvin-l--young-collection-on-a">view the Agent Orange Exhibit.</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Box The box containing the original item. 094 Folder The folder containing the original item. 2398 Series The series number of the original item. Series IV Subseries IV Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Young, Alvin L. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1984-09-01 Title A name given to the resource Typescript: Presentation to International Symposium on Technological Response to Chemical Pollutions, September 20, 1984, entitled, "The Seveso Dioxin Episode: The Awakening of Worldwide Concern for Environmental Contaminants" Subject The topic of the resource herbicide toxicology health monitoring