1 15 23 https://www.nal.usda.gov/exhibits/speccoll/files/original/8e3b6862babe506cdb17e86408a1ddf8.pdf e4e353606bfd939c66930a6ea5a959a3 PDF Text Text Item ID Number AUthllP CorUOI'BtB Author 00095 Agerton, Bobby M. ^'r Force Armament Laboratory, Ervironics Office (DLV), Eglin AFB, Florida Roport/Artido TltlB A Study of Agronomic Plants Grown on Herbicide-Contaminated Soils: Final Report: May 1974-August 1974 Journal/Book Title Year 1975 Month/Day Januar v Color NumbEiroflmaDes 21 Doscrlpton Notes Project soee Friday, December 08, 2000 Page 95 of 106 �AFATL-TR-75-8 A STUDY OF AGRONOMIC PLANTS GROWN ON HERBICIDE-CONTAMINATED SOILS ENVIRONICS OFFICE JANUARY 1975 FINAL REPORT: MAY 1974 - AUGUST 1974 Approved for public release; distribution unlimited. AIR FORCE ARMAMENT L A B O R A T O R Y AIR FORCE SYSTEMS COMMAND* UNITED STATES AIR FORCE EGLIN AIR FORCE BASE, FLORIDA �UNCLASSIFIED SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS PAGE (When Date Entered) READ INSTRUCTIONS BEFORE COMPLETING FORM REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE 1. REPORT NUMBER 2. GOVT ACCESSION NO 3. RECIPIENT'S C A T A L O G NUMBER AFATL-TR-75-8 4. TITLE fond Subtitle) 5. TYPE OF REPORT ft PERIOD COVEREID A STUDY OF AGRONOMIC PLANTS GROWN ON HERBICIDE-CONTAMINATED SOILS Final Report May 1974 - August 1974 6. P E R F O R M I N G ORG. REPORT N U M B E R 7. AUTHOR^; Bobby M. Agerton Richard C. Crews B. CONTRACT OR G R A N T NUMBERfsJ 9- PERFORMING O R G A N I Z A T I O N NAME AND ADDRESS 10. PROGRAM ELEMENT, PROJECT, TASK A R E A 6 WORK UNIT NUMBERS Environics Office (DLV) Air Force Armament Laboratory Eglin Air Force Base, Florida 32542 Project 5066 1 I. CONTROLLING OFFICE NAME AND ADDRESS 12. REPORT DATE Air Force Armament Laboratory Armament Development and Test Center Eglin Air Force Base, Florida 32542 13. NUMBER OF PAGES T«. MONITORING AGENCY NAME ft ADDRESS^/ dltteront Irnm Controlling Office) 15. SECURITY CLASS, (of this report) January 1975 20 Unclassified 15a. DECLASSIFICATION 'DOWNGRADING SCHEDULE 16. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT (ol this Report) Approved for public release; distribution unlimited. I'. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT (ol the abstract entered in Block 20, if different trom Report) (I. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES Available in DDC 9. KEY WORDS (Continue on reverse side It necessary ana Identity by block numbar) -lerbicide long-term environmental/ecological effects TCDD (2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin) )efoliant Testing 2,4,5-T 2,4-D Herbicide Residues 5. A B S T R A C T (Continue on reverse side If necessary and Identify by block number) From 1962 to 1970, massive quantities of herbicides were sprayed on test areas at Eglin AFB Fteservation, Florida, to evaluate developmental aerial spray systems. Questions were recently •aised about the potential ecological and environmental effects on the test areas. Therefore, a study was conducted to determine if soil that nad received massive quantities of herbicide would support seed germination, vegetative growth, and fruit production of seven selected agronomic crops. The study showed that the level o-F heraicides which remained in the soil was not high enough to prevent germination, plant growth, or fruit production. |%n FORM "U 1 JAN 73 EDITION OF 1 NOV 65 IS OBSOLETE UNCLASSIFIED SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS PAGE (When Data Entered) �i ASSIFIFH SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS PAGEfHTien Data Enta-ed) UNCLASSIFIED SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS P AGEC^/ion p a(a Knitted) �PREFACE This technical report discusses a portion of the work performed at the Air Force Armament Laboratory, Armament Development and Test Center, under Exploratory Development Project 5066 during the period May 1974 through August 1974. « The sources and manufacturers of materials and equipment used in this study are identified for reference only and do not constitute endorsement of the companies or products by the United States Air Force. This technical report has been reviewed and is approved for publication. FOR THE COMMANDER E A. FARMER Chief, Environics Office 1 (The reverse of this page is blank) ��TABLE OF CONTENTS Section I II Page INTRODUCTION 5 MATERIALS AND METHODS 6 III RESULTS 10 IV DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS 19 3 (The reverse of this page is blank) ��SECTION I INTRODUCTION Test Area (TA) C-52A, Eglin AFB Reservation, Florida, was used to evaluate developmental aerial spray systems from 1962 to 1970. During this period massive quantities of herbicides were sprayed in order to study various spray parameters. This repetitive application of large quantities of herbicides has raised questions about the potential long-term ecological and environmental effects on the test site and surrounding areas of TA C-52A. Four herbicides accounted for most of the materials used. These are White (10.2 percent triisopropanolamine salt of picloram, 39.6 percent triisoprcpanamine salt of 2,4-D, and 50.2 percent inert ingredients), Blue (22.6 percent sodium cacoclylate, 3.9 percent dimethylarsin'c acid, 73.5 percent Inert ingredients, and 5.0 percent surfactant). Purple (50 percent n-butyl ester of 2,4-D, 30 percent n-butyl ester of 2,4,5-T and 20 percent isobutyl ester of 2,4,5-T), and Orange (50-50 mixture of 80 percent n-butyl ester of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T). It was subsequently determined that two of the herbicides, Purple and Orange, contained the impurity called TCDD (2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin) which is highly toxic and a teratogen, causing fetal deformities (Reference 1). The actual herbicide deposition levels on the test area are not known and can only be estimated using the Spray-aircraft flight paths, application rates, and the meteorological conditions under which test spraying was done. Subsequent to the actual testing, some of the herbicide residue has undoubtedly been translocated by wind and water movement. It was reported in Reference 2 that the test area was ecologically recovering and that the active herbicide ingredients were down to the parts-per-billion range. The purpose of the effort reported here was to determine if the soil that had received massive quantities of herbicide had recovered sufficiently to support seed germination, vegetative growth, and fruit production of selected agronomic crops. Reference: 1. Sparschu, G. L, et al:"Teratogenicity of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorochibenzo-p-dioxin in the Rat." Food Cosmet Toxicol 9 (3) 405 (1971). 2. Young, A. L.: Ecological Studies on a Herbicide Equipment Test Area (TA C-52A). Eglin AFB Reservation. Florida, AFATL-TR-74-12, Air Force Armament Laboratory, January 1974. �SECTION II MATERIALS AND METHODS An area on the sourth end of TA C-52A was selected as the site for an experimental vegetative plot (Figures 1 and 2). This area was estimated to have received approximately 2,000 pounds per acre of active herbicide ingredients (mostly 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T) and was devoid of vegetation. The soil of this area was well drained, acid soil of the Lakeland Association. The area surrounding the plot had a sparse population of broomsedge (Andropoaon virginicus). switchgrass (Panicum virgatum). wooly panicum (Panicum lanuginosum). and low growing grasses and herbs. A spot on the northeast section of TA D-51, (3 miles west of TA C-52A) (Figure 1 through 3), where no herbicide had been applied, was selected as a control site. This area was selected because of its similarity to the experimental plot with respect to terrain, soil type, rainfall, and wind conditions. Since TA C-52A had been used as a bombing and gunnery range prior to its use as a herbicide test area, the experimental plot had to be checked and cleared of hazardous material by Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD) personnel. As mentioned above, there was no vegetation on the experimental plot, however the control plot at TA D-51 had to be cleared of a few scattered grasses. A 3 by 7 meter section was fenced with 1/4-inch mesh hardware cloth at each of the locations. A canopy of cheesecloth was placed over each plot to provide partial shade during seed germination and seedling establishment. A sheet of rubberized material was stretched around the windward sections of the fence to protect young plants from wind damage and to reduce moisture stress. The soil on both plots was orepared by tilling to a depth of approximately 30 centimeters. The experimental plot was prepared on 6 May 1974 and the control plot on 9 May 1974. Soil from each plot was taken to the laboratory where the pH was found to be 4.0 for the experimental plot and 4.6 for the control. It was determined that the soil at both plots was too acidic for the plants to be used in this study and that it should be elevated to a pH more conducive to growth of the selected plants. On 9 May 1974, 5.8 kilograms of lime and 1.4 kilograms of commercial fertilizer (13-13-13) were applied to both plots prior to planting. After 12 days, the pH readings of the soils in the experimental and control plots were 5.6 and 5.8, respect vely. An additional 453 grams of fertilizer were applied to each plot at monthly intervals thereafter. On 13 May 1974, seven rows 3 meters in length were prepared on each plot. On the same day one row each of Bahia grass (Paspalum notatum variety Pensacola), millet (Panicum miliaceum variety Browntop), radishes (Raphanus satuvus variety Scarlet), and beans (Phaseolus vulgaris variety Tennessee Bunch) was planted. Tomato seeds (Lycopersicon esculentum variety Spring Giants) had been germinated in a greenhouse and allowed to grow for 3 weeks prior to planting. On 14 May 1974, one row of peanuts (Arachis hypogaea variety Starr) and on 15 May 1974, one row of cotton (Gossvpium hirsutum variety Dixie King III) were planted. One hundred and ninety liters of water were applied to each plot twice weekly. This water volume was calculated to be equivalent to 1.91 centimeters of rainfall weekly. Examination of the soil indicated that this amount of water was sufficient to saturate the soil and provide �EXPERIM CONTROL PLOT Figure 1. Eglin AFB Reservation Showing Locations of Control and Experimental Plots �Figure 2. Experimental Plot Located on TA C-52A Figure 3. Control Plot Located on TA D-51 �enough moisture for the plants during early stages of development. Natural rainfall was supplemented as needed to provide this amount of water as a minimum until the plants reached a point in development where the demand exceeded the amount being applied, and then the amount of water was doubled. Rainfall data recorded during this investigation are shown in Table 1. TABLE 1. RAINFALL DATA ON CONTROL AND EXPERIMENTAL PLOTS [Each value is the total amount since the previous date] DATE CONTROL (cm) EXPERIMENTAL (cm) 20 May 1.02 1.27 24 May 1..52 3.81 28 May 0.51 0.25 3 Jun 2.54 1.52 6 Jun 1.02 0.76 17 Jun 0.51 0.00 5 Jul 1.27 2.03 . 6 Jul 3.81 0.76 7 Jul 1.78 0.51 12 Jul 1.02 0.25 20 Jul 3.30 1.27 23 Jul 3.81 1.27 26 Jul 1.52 4.06 31 Jul 6.35 6.86 5 Aug 5.08 3.30 9 Aug 1.78 0.76 11 Aug 0.00 1.78 16 Aug 1.52 4.06 20 Aug 0.00 1.27 Plant-height measurements were taken 31 May, 7 June, 18 June, 9 July, 19 July, and 13 August. Height was considered to be from ground level to tip of uppermost leaf. Twenty plant heights were measured along rows where more than 20 plants were present; the plants to be measured were selected randomly except that no more than two measurements per foot were taken. If 20 plants or less were present, then all plants were measured except on 3 May when only 10 were measured. Diameter and weight of radish roots were determined on 18 June when they were considered to be mature. The weight of beans produced was determined as they matured and were harvested, and a cumulative total was run for each plot. No production data were available on tomatoes or peanuts because of insect and worm damage on tomatoes and vandalism of peanuts. No data were gathered on Bahia grass seed production because these plants had not matured at the scheduled terminc'tion of the study. The data on experimental and control plants were statistically compared using the analysis of variance test at the 95, 99, and 99.5 percent confidence levels. �SECTION III RESULTS A reasonable percentage of the seeds of all species planted for this study germinated. Quantitative data were not recorded, but no gross differences were detectable in the germination time or percentages between the control and experimental plots. The germination of cotton seed on both plots was less than that expected, but subsequent tests of seeds from the same lot under the controlled environmental conditioning of a greenhouse resulted in only 80 percent germination. Seedlings of all species appeared healthy (Figures 4 through 15). Without exception, the plants on the control plot grew larger, produced more and larger fruits, and yielded higher weights than those from the experimental plot (Tables 2 and 3). The differences observed were all statistically significant except those of the bean fruit weight. Growth measurements of several species showed a reversal on the 19 July measurements, but this apparently was due to temporary conditions. The first two measurements taken of millet showed the control to be slightly smaller. This cifference was not statistically significant and the initial growth rate differential was reversed during the remainder of the time. Control plants overtook the experimental plants in all grow~h and reproduction aspects before the test period was ended. 10 �Figure 4. Control Browntop Millet Figure 5. Experimental Browntop Millet 11 �Figure 6. Control Peanuts yf ^ • ^™ Figure 7. Experimental Peanuts 12 . •*!(, '', 1 �<w > Jf '""A.. . Figure 8. Conirol Beans Figure 9. tlxperimental Beans 13 �Figure 10. Control Cotton ,€ Figure 11. Experimental Cotton 14 �Figure 12. Control Radishes Figure 13. Experimental Radishes 15 �Figure 14. Control Tomatoes Figure 15. Experimental Tomatoes 16 �TABLE 2. PLANT HEIGHT IN CENTIMETERS 30 May Control vs Experimental 4.9 + 2.4(10) Bahia Grass I Millet Cotton Peanuts Radishes Beans v s 4.0 + 1.2(10) 9.1 + 5.3(10) vs 9.9+3.0(10) 6.7+2.5(11) vs 4.5 + 3.2(7) 6.6+ 2.0(10) vs 4.2+ 1.1(10) ns ns -l 6.2 + 3.8(10 vs 3.0+ 1.5(10) , 15.3 + 3.0(10) VS Tomatoes n s A ' 9 . 5 + 1.6(10) 20.5 + 3.9(6) vs ns 20.2 + 2.6(5) ' 7 June Control vs Experimental 12.3 + 2.3(20) vsi 7.7 + 3.9(20) 25.7 + 10.0(20) vs ns 28.2 + 11.1(18) 11.1 + 5.4(11) vs ns 6.4 + 3.4(7) 120+3.5(20) vs A /.6 + 1.3(20) 13.0 + 3.6(20) vs -i 7.4 + 1.9(20) 27.1 + 3.8(20) vs -i 16.3 + 3.0(20) 33.0 + 7.5(6) vs ns 27.4 + 3.3(5) DATES OF MEASUREMENTS 18 June 9 July Control Control vs vs Experimental Experimental 25.1 + 3.6(20) 18.2 + 3.9(20) vs A 13.0 + 2.2(20) 44.9 + 10.6(20) vs ns 39.8 + 6.4(20) 18.5+9.4(11) vs 8.0 + 3.9(7) 19.7 + 5.3(20) VS a 9.3+ 1.4(20) 32.5 + 3.7(18) vs i 19.0 + 3.4(20) 36.1 + 5.1(20) vs ^ 19.6 + 3.1(20) 52.1 + 5.5(6) vs -i 37.6+ 1.1(5) LEGEND ns = not statistically significant * = P < 0.05 t = P < 0.01 -i - P < 0.005 P is the probability that the statistically significant difference is due to change. Numbers are represented as mean ±_ standard deviation VS 19 July Control vs Experimental 28.7 +4.1(20) vs i 23.6 + 4.5(20) No new growth A 19.6 + 4.5(20) 60.4 + 9.6(20) vs i 50.6 + 6.8(20) 41.2+ 18.1(11) VS 40.0+21.2(11) vs t 14.2 + 5.3(5) 39.8 + 5.5(20) 1 11.9+5.1(5) 37.2 + 5.3(20) VS i 19.1 + 2.9(20) 40.9 + 5.0(20) vs -i 24.5 + 2.3(20) 80.4+ 10.1(6) vs 64.8 + 12.7(6) VS ' 18.1 + 3.9(20) No new growth No new growth A 13 July Control vs Experimental 41.5+4.8(20) VS A 28.0 + 5.9(20) 46.9+ 24.1(11) VS . 1 17.0 + 5.6(5) 43.5 + 4.7(15) vs -1 26.4 + 4.7(20) �TABLE 3. ADDITIONAL MEASUREMENTS OF RADISHES AND BEANS Vegetative Structure Weight (g) Radishes Control vs Experimental Beans Control vs Experimental 00 17.5 + 5.3(17 vs 7.1 + 4.1(20) 30.1 + 23.9(20) vs 15.2 + 6.1(20) Millet Control vs Experimental Fruit Weight (g) Root Length i (cm) 10.0 + 2.6(17) vs t 7.9 + 1.6(20) A 5.4 + 2.0(20) vs 4.8 + 1.9(20) ns 0.19 + 0.05(5)@ vs 0.18 + 0.04(5)@ LEGEND ns = not statistically significant * = P < 0.05 t = P < 0.01 A = P < 0.005 @ = Each of the five weights contained 100 seeds. P is the probability that the statistically significant difference is due to change. Numbers are represented as mean +. standard deviation. Number in parenthesis is number of plants measured. Root Diameter (cm) 20.4 +4.9(17) vs 15.1 + 5.1(20) ^ �SECTION IV DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS This experiment was designed to determine if seeds could germinate, develop into mature plants, and produce fruit in a barren area that had received heavy applications of herbicides over a long period of time. It was determined by this work that the level of herbicide remaining in the area is not high enough to prevent seed germination or growth of sensitive agronomic plants. The prime factor limiting the seed germination and growth observed during this experiment was the physical and physiological stresses related to wind and drought on the plants. The experimental test area was much more open than the control area and strong winds and moisture stress were more prevalent. Despite measures taken to alleviate the effects of the wind and artifically supplementing rainfall, the experimental plants frequently were excessively dry, and the protective windscreen was blown down on several occasions. The prevailing winds on the experimental plot caused quick evaporation of moisture and formation of a crust on the upper layer of the soil. Therefore, wind appeared to be the major factor proventing vegetation from returning to the barren area. Seeds falling to the soil from the surrounding plants either do not adhere to the soil sufficiently for germination or the moisture is not sufficient to support germination and growth. It is not known if the fruit from the crops grown in this experiment could be used for human consumption. There is evidence that TCDD can be taken up and translocated in oats and soybeans (Reference 3). However, no plants or fruit from this experiment were tested for TCDD uptake. Additional experiments are needed to determine if TCDD or other herbiciderelated residues were present in these plants. This experiment determined that a wide variety of agronomic plants can reach maturity and produce fruit in an area that previously has received massive applications of herbicides. It was believed that environmental conditions other than the residual effects of herbicides were responsible for less growth of plants on the experimental plot. Reference: 3. Isenbee, Alan R. and Gerald E. Jones. "Absorption and Translocation of Root and Foliage Applied 2,4-Dichlorophenol, 2,7-Dichlorodibenzo-p-dioxin, and 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-pdioxin." J. Aar. Food Chain. 19 (6) 1210 (1971. 19 (The reverse of this page is blank) ��INITIAL DISTRIBUTION AFSC (DLW) AFSC (SDWM) USAF (SAMI) ASD (ENYS) AMRL (HEF/Maj Hilgendorf) AU (AUL-LSE-70-239) USAF Env Health Lab (CC) AF (EHL) Naval Ammo Depot (Code 501-A3) USNWC (Code 454/N. Rumpp) USNWC (Code 753 Tech Lib) « . Picatinny Arsnl (SMUPA-FR-L) Picatinny Arsnl (SMUPA-AD-D-R-4) Deseret Test Ctr Tech Lib NASC (Code AIR-5323) USMOS (Tech Lib) DDC NASA Mississippi Test Fac (Mr Wolverton) U of W. Fla. (Dr Hopkins) Edgewood Arsenal (SMUEA-SA) ARL (LJ/Dr Tiernan) AFSC (SO AFSC (VN) AFVI/L (DEE) AFWL (LR) AFRPL (DYSS/Dr Malone) AEDC (Mr Hickerson) NWC Env Eng (Mr. Ouimette) AMD (RD/Maj Beatty) USA Natick Lab (Kaplan/Levison) Gulf Breeze EPA USAF (SAM) ASD (ENYEHM) Ogden ALC (MMNOP) USA FA (DFLC/Capt A Young) ADTC (CSV/Maj Conrad) ADTC (SD/Maj Syarto) TRADOC (TAWC-LOf AFATL (DL) AFATL (DLOSL) AFATL (DLJ) AFATL (DLV) 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 12 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 1 20 21 (The reverse of this page is blank) � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange Description An account of the resource <p style="margin-top: -1em; line-height: 1.2em;">The Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange comprises 120 linear feet and spans the late 1800s to 2005; however, the bulk of the coverage is from the 1960s to the 1980s and there are many undated items. The collection was donated to Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in 1985 by Dr. Alvin L. Young (1942- ). Dr. Young developed the collection as he conducted extensive research on the military defoliant Agent Orange. The collection is in good condition and includes letters, memoranda, books, reports, press releases, journal and newspaper clippings, field logs and notebooks, newsletters, maps, booklets and pamphlets, photographs, memorabilia, and audiotapes of an interview with Dr. Young.</p> <p>For more about this collection, <a href="/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/alvin-l--young-collection-on-a">view the Agent Orange Exhibit.</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Box The box containing the original item. 011 Folder The folder containing the original item. 0095 Series The series number of the original item. Series II Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Agerton, Bobby M. Richard C. Crews Description An account of the resource <strong>Corporate Author: </strong>Air Force Armament Laboratory, Environics Office (DLV), Eglin AFB, Florida Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1975-01-01 Title A name given to the resource A Study of Agronomic Plants Grown on Herbicide-Contaminated Soils: Final Report: May 1974-August 1974 Subject The topic of the resource crop production herbicide application Eglin AFB ecological impact https://www.nal.usda.gov/exhibits/speccoll/files/original/bc1804a2f6b618ed036aef8922802bbf.pdf 75fa6a836658458bb117ba2fc7d4f971 PDF Text Text Item IDNumber: Author Corporate Author oooe? Oliver, Kelly H. Vitro Corporation of America, Eglin AFB, Florida Report/Article TltlO An Ecological Study on the Effects of Certain Concentrations of Cacodylic Acid on Selected Fauna and Flora ~ Journal/Book Title Year 1966 Month/Day September Color 0 Number of hnauos 34 OeSCrlptOU NOteS APGC-TR-66-54, Contract No. AF08(635)5150, PGVE task no. 394-65 Friday, December 01, 2000 Page 67 of 91 �APGC-TR-66-54 CO An Ecological Study on the Effects of Q Certain Concentrations of Cacodylic Acid on Selected Fauna and Fiora by K e l l y H. O l i v e r . J r . Gary K. Parsons C. T. Huffstetier VITRO SERVICES WISION V I T R O CORPORATION OF A M E R I C A , EGLIN SFB, F L O R I D A SEPTEMBER 1966 of thiy dociunotit is nn.limitod) AIR PROVING GROUND A(« 5Y5TIMS COMMAND • UNITED r»TAYI5 Alfe FORCE BASE, �An Ecological Study on the Effects of Certain , Concentrations of Cacodylie Acid or. Selected Fauna and Flora by Ko.lly i!. Oliver, Jr. Gary li. Parsons C. T. Huffs botier Vitro Services Division, Vitro Corporation of America, Eclin AFB, Florida (Distribution of this document' is uiiliitn'tod) �FORLWOKD Tin's work was carried out !>y the Chemical-Biological Laboratories of Vitro Services Division, Vitro Corporation oi" America, under Air force Contract AF OB (6jJ5)-5150. 'llic w o r k ' i s a result- of IT.VC task 59^-65 performed in tlio period 2'^ April 1965 to 26 July 3965. Tliis ir./estimation was carried out liy Kelly 11. Oliver, Jr., Biological I,,-ibor.'t1 ory t ' l i i o f , 0. II. P.-n-snns, C. T. l!ui't'?t-o.t'ler, !). I]. McSurlfy, and J. II. Sew(?ll. This tcelinioal report lias }><•. . revie«veJ and is approved. X -"s^- •-" — -•—- — - . R. A. SOUKUP, Colonel, USAF Director of Technical Support �ABSTRACT A study has been made of the effects of cacodylic acid on the flora and fauna of specific ecotones.. Approximate lethal dosages have been determined for .specific plants and anir.als-under certain conditions. The five ecotones, sandhills, hammock, grasslands, pond, and stream are briefly characterized and the effects of cacodylic acid on the Inhabitants of each are summarized. Hi ��CONTENTS FOREWORD . ABSTRACT » Section I. Pago Introduction • II. The Sandhill Community 2 III. The Hammock 6 IV. The Grassland or Secondary Succession V. Algal Productivity as a Function of Concentrations of CaucKiylic Acid VI. VII. 1 9 11 Oxygen Analysis 14 Direct Effect of Caccdylic Acid on Local'Pond Fauna. 17 VIII. Summary 22 Selected Bibliography 23 TABLES AND FIGURES Tables I. Dominant Trees of Sandhill Community II. Dominant Vertebrates of Sandhill Community III. Effect of Cacodylic Acid on Sandhill Community IV. Characteristic Trees of a Hammock V. 2 2 4 6 Partial Lifit of Vertebrates in the Hammock. Community 6 VI. Effect of Cacodyljc Add on Grassland Community .... 9 VII. Chlorophyll Analysis Relative to Concentrations .... VIII. Dissolved Oxygen Changss Due to Various Concentrations of Cacodylic Acid . • v 12 15 �IX. Kf foots of Three Concentrations of Cacodylic Acid on Ga.mbua_la .............. ,.......;.... ............. 18 X. Effect of Different Concentrations of Cacodylic Acid on GsJflbURJLa ................ . .................. 19 XT.. XII. Effect of Cacodylic Achi on N. maculatus . '. ---- '. . . . Effect of Cacodylic /Vcid on Bufo Tadpoles 19 ......... 20 1. Chlorophyll production by Algae as a Function of the Concentration of Cacodylic Add ............... 13 Vigil rot; 2 . Percent Oxygen Reduction......................... . .46 vi �INTRODUCTION Cacodylic aclcl (dimethylaroenic acid or alkargcn) is a pentavalent organic arsenical. It is a,co]crises crystalline compound which is odorlc:.F. ani soluble in wb.ter. Its formula is (C!lo)2AsOO!i; its m<. Ijcular weight, 138.0; its melting point, 2000C. It is a herbicide. compounds of arsenic, such as cacodylic acid, can be separated into three groups according ' • valence. The groups are plus or minus 3 and pluj !3. The pcntavalent t-rsenicals are less toxic to man and animals than the trivalentj organic arsenicals are less toxic to man than inorganic arsenicalc. The flora and fauna of any region are closely related to the nonliving environment. Each environment has specific types of flora and fauna within this relationship whi^h form plant-animal ccffiiiiurilties. Five of lhes;y communities are found in this areaj the sandhills, the hammock, the grass coverod ranges, the pond, and the stream. In each commurV.-y, green plants, as converters of solar energy to fee.,, provide tin foundation for all other forms of life. Any consideration of the effect', of a herbicide on local flora and fauna must encompass not only direct effects to living organisms, but also indirect effects resulting from the destruction or modification of the plant life. This paper descrioe' the indirect as well as direct effects cacodylic acid will have on local communities. These tests were conducted at Eglin Air Force Base, in Northwest Florida. T' �SECTION H ' THE SANDHILL' COMMUNITY The CMndliilla predominate over the Eglin Reservation. Sand hill soil la characterised as lo&cc; and-'-rell drained, lac kin/: a hardpan, and composc-d jf auricl with some organic material. TABLR I: DOMINANT TREES OP SANDHILL COMMUNITY ! cjLaiu.a (Chapm.) Vacey ^ Sand pine Mill Longleaf pine Bai'tr. Blue jack oak Que_rcu£__laeyi_s Walt. Turkey oak Qu g. r c u 3 R t e 1 1 a t a (Aane) oarg. Sandpost oak Qu e j' qu^ vl r $ J nJL 8.n?i (Michx.) S?rf,. Sandlive oak Some of the common undcrctory shrubs and grtissoc, are scotchbroom, gopher apple, deer's tongue, broornsedge, and yucca. The sand' pine and turkey oak;: are the dominant trees; however, stands of live, post, and bDuejack oak are common. Pines are more fire resistant than the oaks; thus, periodic fires have maintained the population predominance of pine? in this community. IVHLK II: DOMINANT VT- .tTEliRATES OF SANDHILL COMMUNITY Ordor Choicnia turtle Gophorus_jKj."..,yi^^nius (Dauain) Gopnei1 tortoise �Suborder Lacertilia ' S_colopo_rur, uiuUUc.tug (latreillu) 5lIl:!I!iiiif?J[i'l££.v'ilJ';<xA:L:l'!Iea^lii'' k. Vence lizard ''^'J' -^•''-nc:^ race runner Suborder Serpenteo Hole rod on f>ij|Hi'j I" Southern nc-nnose snake Coluber conotrlotor (Dunn ana Wood)Black racer Ma r t i c oph i ^ . v ( 1, lujvt (Ghaw) ^nj;: :imajite^u_5 (Peauvoia) Coach whirEastern oiamor.dback Birds Ord^r "Falconirorme:1, :es aimx L- Turkey vulture •ieyer') Black vulture Hl2. (Wilson) Mis'sisaippi kite Red tailed hawk Order Columuiformoo Z^enaidure. n'.aoi'ojjra L, iMou ruing love Order Piciforjnos Yellow shafted flicker Order PasGcriforrnes Tyranny 3>_^?lTHi;^u3 Cor vu s b r a c hy rl i_yn oj i cu, (Howe 11) Eastern kins bird Crow Bluejay Mirnus _po l;.'.'3lotj:._o& L . F.astern mocking bird Pi p 13. o _e r;/_t } i ^JiL'^i?-?1^ ^ Red -eyed trov;hee �0 rd e i1 La^emorpha Eastern cottontfi.il Order Rodentia Eastern fox squirrel L. Order A r t i c d u c ty]a Hog Odo.::oileus virgin ianur. Whitotalled doer METHOD: A survey line was made throuch a typjcal sandhill .-jcrmr,unit,y. Kod squaro plots were i;tak'.--d out and sprayed with ea!,-odylic acid .in water at rates of 2, •>, and 3>) Ibs/acrc. After one month the effects of cacodylic acid on the plotr. were recorded, TABLE III! EFFECT OF CACODYLIC ACID ON SANDHILL COMMUNITY _j? }^2/^--^e ___ 3Q j-fa/^lTj/.^-. Sand pine Leaves dead Dead Turkey oak l ^Q% leaf brown Dead Gand post oak •50$ leaf brown Dead Blue jack oak Dead Dead Fern 30$ leaf brown 3.:otohbroom Living but defoliated Deer tongue • Li. vine. Yui'ca Living Wire, 1 rnn a J.Jvine, I.on^leaf piiio Ceind live oak Dead Dead Dead Partially defoliated Dead �A 6 Ib/acre concentration, sprayed . . July'19'^j in the sand16 hJll area, produced | 0 browning of loaves of the plants sprayed. ;$ Two weeks later no change in the effects had occurred. In the 30 Ib/acrc plot all pines were dead after 14 days, and the oaks were 75','i defoliated. In the 2 Ib/acre plot no damage .to the plant? occurred. DISCUSSION A single application of ?. Ib/acre cacodylic acid on the sandhills did not greatly modify the community. Repeated applications at this rate of the herbicide, or applications of heavier concentrations, would mod if;: the community. A complete kill would require applicatlone on the order of ^Q Ib/acre. The plots were sprayed during a period of heavy and frequent rain, which reduced the effect of the herbicide since much of it was washed from the leaves of the plants. Sandhill fauna would not be directly affected by field concentrations of cacodylic acid. Any change in the plant community will indirectly affect the fauna, especially the species which are highly specialized and unable "o adapt to environmental modification. Naturally, a denuded area such as the southern portion of the grid will support only those organisms which decompose the dead plant material. The predicted p/cgression of a sprayed sandhill community would be as follows: Following the initial kill, fast growing legumes and grasses would be the dominant inhabitants. Gradually the oaks and pines would grow back and the area would again become a sandhill community. Tho complete cycle would take an estimated 20 - 30 years. �• • ;. • '- SECTION III '..THE HAMMOCK The hammock Is rhavactorl st'i c of nt-ream hpri s and low ares.? throughout the reservation. The soil is vury moist, poc \y ^drained, and composed of organic material. Hammocks rai -ly burn and fire resistant pines do not become established. The canopy is very dense with the understory consisting of ferns, mosses, and vines. Young hardwoods are found in areas where the canopy is open. TABLE IV: CHARACTERISTIC TREES OF A HAMMOCK Magnolia.^ ^randjlf lora L, • Magnolia Msffn_p_liam virgin iana L. Swamp magnolia Myrica •inodora Bartraru Bayberry Myrica cerj-fera L. Wax myrtle Qs;t r y a v i_rg i nl ana (Mill) Koch 1 ^ _ _ Hop-hornbeam k- r f lojiclajmni Watet' oak Ellis H_y s s a gylv a U.£a L. Polecat tree ' •'-'• Ilex opaca Alt. Swamp tupelo •? Sv?amp cyrilla American holly Wild ftrape, smilax, ferns, and mosses form the understory and ground vep.etat.ion in the hammock. TABLE V: PARTIAL LIS1 OF VERTEBRATES IN THE HAMMOCK COMMUNITY Order Urodela Eir^^G^^'lH.^Xymiyil (Stejneger) Dusky salamander Plethodon glutinosus (Allen and ~ ~ : ~ ~ Slimy salamander �-4 Order Anura Hyla squirella^ (' Latrellle ) Green tree frog cineiea (LeConte) Reptiles Rain frog Barking tree frog '' Suborder Lacort-ilia Lygosoma late rale (Say) Brown skink ^iol3.s^c£irolrj.,nen_sjis ( Vo i g t ) Green anole Eumeco^ laticeju' (Sctoeider) Broad headed skink Suborder Serpentes E^pjTe_jybscleta (Holbrook) Rat snake Birds Order Falconi formes But_G_o__linca.t_us (Ridgway) ' Red shouldered hawk Order Strigiformes Common screech owl Otus a bio L. Order Passeriformes Thryotho rus ludoyic ianu_s (Lat>Vani)~~ Carolina wren Toxostoma rufum L. Brown thrasher Pyrrhuloxia cardinalls L. Cardinal Mammals Order Marsupialea L. Opossum Order Rodentia S^ciurus caj;oj.inensj.s (Gmebin) Gray squirrel Glauc_onys___yolang_ L. Flying squirrel �Order Camivora Procyon Jlot£r L. ' . ' Raccoon. Hog Odocoilcus virginianus (Zimmennann) Whitetailed deer The boundary between the sandhill and hammock communities , termed ecotone, has some characteristic plants not common to cither community. Gallbcrry, palmetto, and blackberry brambles are common alon^ this boundary. METHOD: A survey lino was constructed through ecotone into the hammock. Species distribution of plants was not uniform, so individual plants wore sprayed at rates corresponding to 2 and 30 Ib/acre. Evaluation of spray was made two weeks after application. RESULTS: Heavy rains minimized the effects of the 2 Ib/acre spray rate on the harjr.ock flora. The 30 Ib/acre concentration was sprayed during a dry period and after two weeks all treated plants wore defoliated or the leaves were completely brown. DISCUSSION Heavy concentrations of cacodylic acid greatly modify the hammock community. Direct damage to flora has the indirect effect . rf a reduction and modification of associated aniral population. Direct effects of cucodylic acid on fauna will be outlined in a separate part of this paper. �. : '.SECTION iv THE GRASSI/^D OH SECONDARY SUCCESSION Ranges on the Egliu Reservation, are In a stage of secondary succession due to human modification of the sandhill community. Vegetation in these areas "consists of broomsedgcs, wiregrass, palmettos, and yucca. The older ranges have typical sandhill dominants. i,c., oaks and pines with a heavy ground cover of grasses. The fauna of these areas ace not all characteristic of the sandhill community. Exceptions include populations of quail, meadowlarks, and field sparrows. • METHOD: A total of five plots were sprayed on the grassland. The 2 Ib/acre, 15 Ib/acrc, and 3° Ib/acre plots were one rod scuare and were sprayed 22 June 1965. Two 10 foot square plots were treated at a rate of 6 Ib/acre on 16 July 19&5. After two weeks photographs were taken of the rod square plots. On 22 July 1961;; a four-week evaluation of these plots was made. TABLE VI: LFFECT OF CACODYLIC ACID ON GRASSLAND COMMUNITY 6 July 1965: The 2 Ib/acre plot had a 50$ kill overall. 22 July 1965: 6 July 1965: 22 July 1965: 6 July 196"5: 22 July 1965: The 2 Ib/acre plot showed almost complete Recovery. The vegetation had riot grown to normal height. Broomsedgfcs, wiregrass and oaks were living. The 30 Ib/acre plot showed 3.00$ kill overall. The 30 Ib/acre plot showed little recovery with the exception of wiregrass , The 15 Ib/acre plot produced a 75 - 90$ kill overall. The 15 Ib/acre plot showed limited recovery. Ten to 15$ of the surface area was covered with green vegetation. The vegetation was below normal height. Wiregrass, oaks, and broomsedges were living. The 6 Ib/acre plots were observed 22 July 1965 and showed damage to exposed leavers, i.e., those on upper half of plants. 2 August 1965j the lower leaves were brown. On �DISCUSSION . . . . The grassland showed ino'e recovery from a heavy application of cacodylic acid than tither the sandhill or hammock community, since the vegetation consists of fast growing grasses and legumes Heavy rains during June and early July also tended to hasten recovery. 10 �SECTION. V ' ALGAL PRODUCTIVITY AS A'FUNCTION OF CONCENTRATIONS OF CACODYLIC ACID Algae, the most important single link in the life process of the pond, have the dual function of oxygen and primary food production. A reduction in either of. these factors would decrease the number of consumers supported by the pond. Chlorophyll, extracted from vilgao, etui be used as an indicator of primary productivity and varies with the amount of algae present. A study of the effect::; of a herbicide on algae productivity can be accomplished by comparing the amount of chlorophyll in a controller! sample with the amount of chlorophyll In samples containing various concentrations of the herbicide. The some holds true f~>r an oxygen analysis. o CHLOROPHYLL ANALYSIS MKTHOD: Six 300 m.l. oxygen sampling bottles were filled with pond water containing heavy but equal concentrations of algae. One bottle was used as a control while the other five were inoculated wjth varying field concentrations of cacodylic acid. The sample bottles were then placed in the pond from which the water samples were taken to maintain field environmental conditions. After 2^; hours the saixples were returned to the lab for analysis. The above process was repeated for a ^8 hour comparison. ?J\- Hour Series; The contents of each bottle were filtered through 07;t"5" nifcrorfMlllipore filters at the rate of one filter for -ivory 100 ml. of liquid. Each of three filters with their algae content collected from each of these water samples was placed in 25 rcl. of acetone to extract the chlorophyll from the algae and to dissolve the fil'cer. The samples were then centrifuged and the supernatant liquid pour«d into Spectronic-20 tubes for reading.. The Spectronic-2C was pet on a wave length of ^30 millimicrons and was zeroed with an ace;lone blank. Variables were read and recorded below. Ji8 Jiour £eries_: Modification of the above procedure was necer,"sTiry ducf'To "Heavy concentrations of algae present in the water samples. Two standard BOD bottles were used for each variable. The two bottJc-o for uauh concentration were thoroughly mixed and 100 ml. from each bottle was placed in two centrifuge tuber, resulting in a total of four tubes per concentration of cacodylic acid. The four s-.ur:ples were centrifuged for ten minutes anJ the supernatant liquid discarded. The samples' of algae from each bottle were then :r:ixc-r.i with ?',i ml.'of acetone resulting in one mixture of acetone and algae from each of the two samples. The II • �amount of alf.ae prnnerit 1n r-,i?h mixture .it this-'time Weiss equal to the-amount of alnjae present in .100 ml. of the original sampler;. The acetone-algae mixture was then centrifuged for ten minutes to clear the supernatant of debris. The clear supernatant filtrant containing acetone and chlorophyll was placed in Spectronic-20 tubes for reading. This process was duplicated for the above two samples as a check on procedure. Each concentration of cacodylic acid war, processed in this manner. The Spectronic-20 readlncs below were made with a wave length of ^30 millimicrons and an average of the four camples from each' concentration of cacodylic acid recorded. TABLK VII: CHLOROPHYLL ANALYSIS RELATIVE TO CONCENTRATIONS OF CACODYLIC ACID ^8 Hour Group Percent Li^ht Control Percent Light Transmitted 31$ 5.i;3 ppm 42^ ppin l t - 83.0 ppm 162.0 . 20$ ppm 5.53 ppni is equivalent to a spray rate of 2 Ib/acre over a surface of water fone foot in depth. A spray rate of 15 Ib/acre will result J.n a jU% reduction in pond productivity after 48 hours. 1,? �'. v-f ;••*-• Or 10 •p •p •H S w § •p 'tiO 20 25 ^ 30 •*.— w I"" (1) *««...— — — ' 50 55 I Control 5.53 27.6 55-3 83-0 Concentrations of cacody.lic acid in pprn FIGURE 1 Chlorophyll Production by Algae as a Function of the Concentration of Cacodylic Acid 13 162.0 �SECTION VI ' .- . - OXYGEN ANALYSIS MKTIIOD: For each tiorios of tesU, six 300 ml. BOD bottles wore filled with pond water containing equal amounts of alr.ae. One of thor.o water camples was used ay a control ami the reniainini', five were mixed with cacodyllc acid in concentrations of S.''3> ''?•''> 'j^'3> &3.0, and Iu2.0 ppm respectively. These con''cntrutlon:* were barfed on field spray rates varying from 2 to 60 pounds per acre. The cample bottles wore placed in the pond from which the samples were taken to maintain normal temperature and l.li'.ht condition!*,. Analysis of the oxygen content was made at ?J>, •'.B, 'ftl, and 96 hours. Another ^roup of samples was made with dlstilled water and war. analyzed after 2^ hours to check tl'ie off-:.:l o:' cacodylic acid on the free oxygen in the water. Analysis war, ..-anvU-'j out in the laboratory. ANALYSIS: Two n:l. of N'jiSO;t were added to each water sample, followed by 2 >rl. o.'1 alkaline iodi.de azide well below the surface of the water. The bottles were stoppered- and inverted to mix the reagents. A precipitate was formed. Two ml. of -.'oncentratcd H;xjO;f were allowed to run down the neck of the bottle. Once a^ain the bottles were inverted to assure a complete fixation of the oxygon. Then 200 ml. of ch-'- supernatant liquid were decanted into a beaker an'I 2 ml. of a starch indicator were added. This solution was t'r.on titrated with 0,2[3N sodium thiosulfate. The amount of sodium thiosulfate used in m.illiliters in equivalent to the amount of dissolved oxygen in the original sample in milligrams per litev or parts per 'aililon. �TAliLK VIII: Concentrations Cacodylic Acid Control DIGKOLVKTJ OXYGKM CiiAMGf-;:; RELATED TO SEVERAL CONCENTRATIONS OF CACODYI/IC ACID Distilled Mrs. Ji8 llrs . 6.9 '.9 5.53 27.6 ' ppm 6.8 .9 • 6 .7 t\ .8 .s 6.5 .'5 '_; 55«3 ppm 83.0 ppm <>.<i 6.6 .5 .2 5.8 U.7 ppm 6.6 .3 72 H r s . 96 Hrs . 7 .0 6 .8 5 .0 1Jt • 6 .5 5 .H ^.5 162 . . ;fi- ' .5 n.o Oxygen in mg/liter 5-53 pPm is equivaler.t to a cpray v-ate of 2 Ib/acre over a surface of water end foot in depth. Cacoclylic aciJ did not reduce the 02 content in distilled water; therefore, the- reduction of 02 in pond water is a result. of the detraction of alf.ae. The 2't, ^8, 72., and Q6 hour tests were all made with different water ja. pies, thus they contained varied amounts of dissolved oxygen and alf.aej however, within the groups the same trend is evident. DISCUSSION Any condition which approaches or exceeds the limits of tolerance for a given organism is sc.id to be a limiting factor. Oxygen, in small lentic habitats, is relatively scarce 'and tends to become one of the major limiting factors to aquatic animal life. Algae, in many of the small ponds found in this area, are a primary source of oxygon for the aquatic animals .supported by these pond.?, communities. Cacodylic acid, when introduced in field concentrations into a pond, reduces the amount of algae which may reduce the amount of oxygen belcrf the tolerance of -the pond' z inhabitants. Thi.--- condition could result in a decrease of the number of aquatic organisms for any given area. 1'. �100 Distilled water :\T\ ppm Cacodylic acid FIGURE 2 Percent Oxygen Reduction �N viz DIKKCT EFFECT OF CACODYLIC; ACID Oil LOCAL PONT) FAUNA Although the main effect of cacodya-ic acid on pond fauna is indirect through the removal of primary producers suet, as algae, there is an immediate direct effect only when concentrations greater than 30 Ib/acre arc used. Testing has been limited to representative phyla which could be obtained In quantity. Following is «• Hat of the more eoirimon fauna found in the area of the experimental pond ificxuding those spe~ci.es tested: • Fishes Order CyprinodonitJ.tor Gambusia afi'inis GTra'rd) Gambu.sia (Mosquito fish) 0 r d e r Cy p r 1 n i t o rm c s Not rop i s mac u la tu^s (Hay) Tailligiit shine r Order Percifonnes Mlcroptorus salmoldes [Lacepede Largemouth black bass Amphibians Order Urodela Notophythalmu:•> viridesceris (Rafinesque") Order Anura B.uf^J^err^jitt^ig^ (Bonnature) Newt Southern toad Acris Bryll^_s (Lc Gonte) Cricket frog ^f^jL-P^.ASIHL (Schreber) Leopard frog Re p_ti ] e S| Suborder Serpentcs Florida banded watersnake Cottoninouth moccasin Ancistrodon 17' �Or.ler OroeoclilJa xs P- j-.s s. J-PP *-c'-n.s- i: Allir.ator Order Odonata Pant, a la. r.p. ' ! Sprawling nymph - Dragon fly • GvTi;v.:anr.ha nervosa ClirnbinjT nymph - Dragon fly e ru >a. 3 no 1 d cs !'lH~ r> ^ lC 22L-Q no; Th.1r\y f i s h were placed in each of four 6-litor IjTleT'imoy/'er 7Ta:;kr, , throe of wiiie'n c o n t a J n e d 100, 1000, arid 30,000 pp'ii cu •O'.lyllc acid, r e s p e c t i v e l y . The fourth f l a n k was used as a c o n t r o l . Counts 01' the livhif, f i s h were made at;' 1, ?., '!-, ?•», -'18, and 72 hours. T!io wator volume in each cane was four liter. 1 ;. TAB.LK IX: EFFECT OF THREE CONCENTRATIONS OF CACCDYLIC ACID ON GAM:>U_GIA Live Fisi-. at Indicated Time 1 Ilr. Control 30 100 pprn 30 1000 ppiti 30 1:3 10, DOG ppm 2 Hrr,. ; i Hrs. 2'1 Ill's. . ; -l8 Mrs. 72 Mrs. 30 30 30 30 . 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 Hi 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 At ' 8 hours the lethal -.lose of caoodylic acid which kills ' 30;' uf I. hi-: i£«i£V,lif-;J:i1L^l.1Jjli£ •'G 'jet,waen 100 and 3000 ppm. l i . - ' ^ ' ' ' ^ ^ Twenty I'ifc'-h were placed in each: of seven 6-liter iO^?'''^-'' Krji7nir.oy?r Tlar.k;; ...icntainin-: 300, lr_-8, 2-,-l., 398, 631, and 1000 ppm, rc'L-.pfvtivoly. The s'-vnajnin*; flar.k wa:: a i-GMtro] . The rjounts were ir,ad>:' at 1, 2-:i-, ^h, and 72 :\our^. 18 �TABLE X: EFFECT OF DIFFERENT CONCENTRATIONS OF CACODYLIC ACID 'ON GAMBUglA . Live Fish at Indicated Time " Hour 24 Hours '0 20 20 19 100 ppm 20 4 0 158 ppm 20 13 18 251 ppm 20 393 pprn Control 48 Hours • 72-Hours 18 .' 17 18 16. 20 18 . . . 16 12 12 631 ppm 20 18 18 12 1000 ppm 20 16 12 0 A partial explanation for the fluctuation in the percent kill versus concentrations was the larger size of. the Gambusia in Experiment Two. . . ' " The LD50 for Gambujsj.a aff Jni_s at '48 hours approached 1000 ppm. , ma£ulajbu£ - Taillight shiners Experiment Three: Ten Taillight shiners were placed in each of Five 6-liter ErTenmeyer flasks containing 158, 398, 631, and 1000 ppm respectively with the remaining flask being a control. Live fish counts were made at 1, 24, 48, and 72 hours. TABLE XI: EFFECT OF CACODYLIC ACID ON NOTROPIS MACULATUS 1 Hour 24 Hours 72 Hours 48 Hours 8 10 9 158 ppm 10 9 9 9 398 ppm 10 10 10 9 6 631 ppm 1000 ppm 10 10 10 5 10 7 6 2 Control At; 48 hours the LD[30 for shiners approaches 1000 ppm. 19 ' �Expe.rimont Four; Tests vrere also eonduc'.ed on small (4 H - 5") MlcrVpt"fus saTraoidjss - Lar^emou'th black bass. Gambusia were pTa"Ju.Tti ICiOO ppm cacodylic acid for 24 hours, tlien f"ed~ to the bass. .-This test was carried out. over a period of two weeks with no apparent e f f e c t on the bass. Amphibians; Fifty fiufo tadpoles were placed in each of four 6-liter Erlenmeyer TTas'ks containing 100, 1000, and 10,000 ppm cacodylic acid respectively with the remaining flask being used as a control. Live counts were made at 2, 18, 24, 48, and 72 hours. TABLE XII; EFFECT OF CACODYLIC ACID ON gUFO TADPOLES 2 Mrs. 18 Hrs. 50 50 • 100 ppm 50 50 1000 ppm 50 '50 10,000 rpm 50 Control 24 Hrs. 72 Hrs. 50 . 48 Hrs. 50 50 50 50 50 29 0 - 0 0, 0. 0'. 0 The LD50 for jjufjo larvae at 48 hours is between 100 and 1000 ppm. Insec^ts; Tests were attempted, to determine the direct effects of cacodylic acid on the iirjuature sta(r,e of two species of dragon fly, Pantala__sp. and Gy7ia_cant_ha_: nervosa. This was not an extensive ("xpcrl.ment and due~To~Tne'"c anrial>aTistic nature of insect lai^va, valid results were not obtained. In the time limits of this test series, no deaths directly attributed to cacodylic acid (in 1000 ppm) occurred. These data indicate that whnn concentrations of cacodylic acid approaching 1000 ppm are reached in a pond, a reduction of at least 50$ of the small animals can be expected within 48 hours. . 20 �• . :; DISCUSSION • . • Cacodylic acid can be expected to produce environmental modifications in local communities when sprayed at concentrations exceeding 2 Ib/acro. 'The high, solubility of this chemical v/ill hasten, recovery of the plant llf.c. Cacodylic aci.i had a low toxicity to the animals tested in an 18 hour period. It is not possible, to predict tho effects of this herbicide on local i'lora and fauna who:i the basis of the prediction is the direct effects of the herbicide on each species. A realistic prediction must be based on a knowledge of the total ecology of a community. This paper has stressed the ecological approach in an attempt to predict the effects of cacodylic acid. A complete evaluation can be made only when large areas are sprayed and studied for a period of several months. A quantitative study of Lh« effects of cacodylic acid on a stream community, and choctawhatchee Bay is both difficult, and costly. No attempt has been made to predict- what the effects will be. Known characteristics of arservicals include 'a cumulative effect which may be misleading. Spector (1J5'3) states that rabbits are killed when injected intravenously with 250 mg/kg of cacodylio acid; thus, animals eating contaminated plants could conceivably be killed in an area where a lev; area concentration has been applied. 21 �SECTION VIII Th-i sandhills, the predominant biotic community on the Ef.lin Reservation, would undergo mcdiricatj.cn .of the riora at spray rates of 6 Ib/aere or creator. Three weeks after the application o.f '30 lb/acro eacodylie acid on the hammock community, all exposed plants were defoliated or Gi-a.-.sland plot;:, sprayed at rates up to 30 Ib/aero eacodylic add showed come recovery after four weeks. Cotton plants showed recovery from a 2 Ib/acrc spray rate 'of cacodylie acid after three woeko. Al^al productivity,' mcar.ured as the amount of chlorophyll and dissolved oxygen was reduced by concentration.1? above 2 Ib/acre. Pond, vertebrat.es tested had an ID'30 at concentrations approach' in^ 1000 ppm in u8 hours. The effects of eacodylic acid on stream and bay habitats were vi ot tested. �• '• " BIBLIOGRAPHY . ' -. . APHA, AWWA, and FSIWA." "WJr.klcr Method, Unmodified and Alcterborc (Azide) Modification." J.n STArmAH_D_N[KTHOD3__pf _the INDUSTRIAL WASTES. 10th ed., pp. 2y2-2';o7~T9T7D • • . Blair, Frank W., Albert P. Blair, Pierce Brodkorb, Fred R. Caglo, George A. Moore. VERTEBRATES of the UN] TED STATES. McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc. The 'M7fpT('nTtx>ps'" Co". , York/ Pa 7, p. 819, 19'37. Ehinan, P. J. "Much-Maligned Arsenical^ arc a Valuable Class of Herbicides..". .Aer. Chom. (Reprint) Mar. Odunij E. P. F imdj.m e n t a lr. of ECO LOG Y . ?nd ed . W. B. Saundcrs, Col., Philadelphia arid London, p"' J46, Pennak, Robert W. "Odcnata." In Robert W. Pennak, FRESIl-VfATER INVERTEBRATES of the United State n. Ronald Press Co., New ~YorT. " Research Department of the Chemical Products Division, The Ant;ul Company. "Toxicity and Safe Handling of 'Ansar1 Herbicides." The Ansul Co., Marine ttt,-, Wise. 5^1^13. Bull. p. 2.Small, J. K. - MANUAL of the SOUTHEASTERN FLORA. N. C. Press, Chapel liill. p. 155^ 19*33" The Univ. of Spector, William S. Handbook of Toxicology . Vol. I, WADC Technical Report 55-lC, WrTght. "Air Development Center, Air Research and Development Command USAFj, 19135West, E. and Arnold, L. E. TIE MTIVFJ TREES OF .FLORIDA. Rev. ed. Univ. of Fla. Press, Gainesv1TIe7'~pT"2lT5", 115 : 23 ��JIli£LiSSJrlHL Security Classification DOCUMENT CONTROL DATA • R&D (Security rf»*a//tc«tiun of ttttr body ct abttmcl mnd mtttnfng «nnor«rion mult b» «»nlfff«J wtttn Ihe qveraff ttpatt tm rtmmiliftl) I OSIfilNATIN O A C T I V I T Y (CorpaiHt ualhotl - H C t > O H T 1 £ C U R . tY C L Unclassified Vitro .Services;of- America F.glin Air Force I'.ase, Florida GROUP 1 nEPORT T I T L E Ah Ecological Study on. the Effects of Cc.r.tuin. Concentration.^; of Cacodylic Acid on Selected Fauna and Flora 4 O E S C O I P T I V E NOTES fT>p» ol rtpvrl tnd Inttunvt d«<».J . Final report, ?3_April 1965 to 26 July 196[j 5 AUTHORW (Lftl nurne. flr»t n«me, lnlli«/; Kelly H. Oliver, Jr. "Gary H. Parsons " C. T. Huffetetier S REPOHT D A T t . . T ? * TQT*i-''0 oif PASO __^ I * 'ft. . T** -I NO Of nt.f» Nonei_ _ C C N T H A C T OR G R A N T HO. AF 08(63b)!3150 6. PROJtC .' MO APGC-TR-66-5'* PGVE task No. 39^-65 lib O T H E R '•"PORT N(X5; (Any othnmjmbtri tfi*/ m»y 6» tftj* r«po... C, 10 A V A I L AOIU: TV/LIMITATION NOTICES Distribution of this document is unlimited. It. S U P P L E M E N T A R Y NOTES Available in DDC 12 SPONSORING M t L I T A R V A C T I V I T Y Air Proving Ground Center Eglin Air Force Base, Florida J ABSTRACT A study hag been made of the effects .of cacodylic acid on the flora and fauna of 'specific ecotones. ' Approximate lethal dosages have been determined for specific plants and animals under certain conditions. The five ecotones, sandhills, hammock, grasslands, pond and stream, are briefly characterized and the effects of .:acodylic acid on the inhabitants of each are sumuarize.d. 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For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange Description An account of the resource <p style="margin-top: -1em; line-height: 1.2em;">The Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange comprises 120 linear feet and spans the late 1800s to 2005; however, the bulk of the coverage is from the 1960s to the 1980s and there are many undated items. The collection was donated to Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in 1985 by Dr. Alvin L. Young (1942- ). Dr. Young developed the collection as he conducted extensive research on the military defoliant Agent Orange. The collection is in good condition and includes letters, memoranda, books, reports, press releases, journal and newspaper clippings, field logs and notebooks, newsletters, maps, booklets and pamphlets, photographs, memorabilia, and audiotapes of an interview with Dr. Young.</p> <p>For more about this collection, <a href="/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/alvin-l--young-collection-on-a">view the Agent Orange Exhibit.</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Box The box containing the original item. 007 Folder The folder containing the original item. 0067 Series The series number of the original item. Series II Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Oliver, Kelly H. Gary H. Parsons C.T. Huffstetler Description An account of the resource <strong>Corporate Author: </strong>Vitro Corporation of America, Eglin AFB, Florida Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1966-09-01 Title A name given to the resource An Ecological Study on the Effects of Certain Concentrations of Cacodylic Acid on Selected Fauna and Flora Subject The topic of the resource herbicide blue ecological fate Eglin AFB https://www.nal.usda.gov/exhibits/speccoll/files/original/242e9831f00d87684e79c9d549d091b5.pdf 2f573894b9b5eb6a07576ba79942d504 PDF Text Text Item ID Number °0195 Author Dean of Facu| ty. United States Air Force Academy, Colo RODOrt/ArtldO TltlO Annua l Research Progress Report No. 10, Covering Period: 1 July 1974 - 30 June 1975 Journal/Book TItIo Year 1975 Month/Day Color Ju| y n Number of Images 23 DBSCriptOD NOtOS ^ne following pages relating to the collection and Dr. Alvin Young's research interests were scanned: cover, title page, iii-xi, 32-38 Monday, January 22, 2001 Page 207 of 341 �DEAN OF FACULTY UNITED STATES AIR FORCE A C A D E M Y , C O L O R A D O Annual Research Progress Report No. 10 JULY 1975 COVERING PERIOD 1 JULY 1974 - 30 JUNE 1975 �Annual Research Progress Report No. 10 Covering Period 1 July 1974 - 30 June 1975 This document has been approved for public release and sale; its distribution is unlimited. This is the fourth published Annual Research Progress Report; the editions previous to 1972 were published as Semi-Annual Progress Reports. Further information desired on any project may be obtained by writing to the department listed for the principal investigator, USAF Academy, Colorado 80840. ��TABLE OF CONTENTS Page I. SCIENTIFIC AND ENGINEERING INVESTIGATIONS A. Department of Aeronautics 1 1. Laser Exhaust Plum Analysis 1 2. Microturbulent Plasma Heating 1 3. Roll Reversal in Canard-Configured Missiles . . . . 2 4. Wing Section Optimization 3 5. Magnetic Annular Shock Tube 4 6. Unsteady Separated Flow Interaction with an Airfoil/Flap Combination 4 Aerodynamic Holography 5 7. B. Department of Astronautics and Computer Science . . . . 1. 6 Investigation of the Advanced Logistics System (ALS) 6 2. Development of GT-40 Software 7 3. Computer-Based Information System 7 4. ARPANET Feasibility Study 8 5. Advanced Instructional System Language Design . . . 9 6. PDP-11 Cross Assembler 9 7. Investigation of Source Code Programs to Determine Criteria for "Software Quality" 10 8. Data Administrator Report 10 9. Information Retrieval System for AFTEC 10 Pilot Scheduling Program 11 10. 111 �11. 11 12. DMS II Implementation 13 13. Communication Network Simulation 13 14. C. TEACHER, a Computer-Assisted Instruction Program for the Air Force Academy Emulation of a PDP-11 Computing System on the Burroughs 6700 Computer 14 Department of Chemistry 15 -* 1. High Energy Density Electrochemical Cells 15 *£ 2. Chemiluminescent Gas Phase Reactions 17 D. Department of Civil Engineering, Engineering Mechanics, and Materials 18 1. Automated Finite Element Mesh Generator 18 2. Analysis of Fracture Surfaces by Scanning Electron Microscopy 19 Development of Oxidation-Resistant Columbium Alloys 19 Validation of the Soil Stabilization Index System with Manual Development 20 Polymer Tether Line Evaluation for Balloon Technology 21 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Solar Energy 8. Computer Applications in Civil Engineering 9. E. Blending Function Surface and Mesh Generator ... Racking Strength of Masonry Shear Walls 22 23 .... 24 Department of Electrical Engineering 1. Digital Communications Performance Monitor 2. High-Speed Interface for Parallel Digital Processing in Real Time Systems iv 23 25 .... 25 26 �3. Generalized Field Data Acquisition System 27 4. USAFA Solar Heating of Military Family Housing (AFA 141-5) 27 Investigation of Thin Film Thermal Detectors for High-Power Applications 27 Implementation of Digital Filters on Microcomputers 28 5. 6. F. Department of Life and Behavioral Sciences 28 1. Human Engineering Study on Helmet-Mounted Displays 28 2. Monocular and Binocular Processing of Information Displayed Independently or Simultaneously in Each Visual Hemifield 29 Behavioral and Physiological Correlates of Varying Noise Environments 30 3. 4. The Validity of Various Measures in Predicting Pilot Training Performance 5. 31 The Use of Biofeedback Techniques in Stress Management Training 31 Lipids and Lipoproteins in USAF Academy Cadets 7. . . I—-"10. 11. 2. Determination of Parameters for a Model of Environmental Quality for USAF Installations . . 32 ... 32 Radiochemical and Fluorescent Bioassay of TCDD and 2,4,5-T Herbicide 33 Lead as an Indicator of Environmental Quality in Airport Environs 34 Disposal of Herbicide Orange by Soil Incorporation and Biodegradation 34 Ecological Studies on a Herbicide-Equipment Test Area (TA C-52A), Eglin AFB Reservation, Florida . . 36 Ultrastructural Studies of Liver Tissue from TCDD- Exposed Beach Mice (Peromyscus polionotus) v 37 �G. Department of Physics 38 1. Lasers, Unstable Resonators 38 2. D(y,n) Assay Methods in Serum 39 3. Radionuclide Studies 39 4. Concentration Effects in Ferrofluids •} i 5. Measurement of Relative Concentration of 0~ £>°2 ^ and 0 P Using Electron Paramagnetic Resonance . . . '4.CI 1' '" 41 6. Atmospheric Transmission Modelling 41 7. Optical Resonance and Doppler Broadening 42 8. Photon Scattering from K-Shell Electrons 42 9. Grade Analysis, Department of Physics 42 10. Computer Computations, Nuclear Weapons Simulation . 11. 12. 13. II. Visual Perception: Human Retina Horizontal-Vertical Bias in the Visual Perception: Human Color Vision 43 A Physical Investigation of 44 44 Mountain Lee Wave Forecasting .45 GENERAL RESEARCH IN THE HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES A. Department of Astronautics and Computer Science . . . . 1. 2. B. Adapting Computer Assisted Instruction Techniques for the USAFA Library 46 Library Circulation and Acquisition Accounting System 46 Department of English and Fine Arts 1. 2. 46 47 An Annotated Checklist of Criticism for Robert Penn Warren's All the King's Men 47 A Collector's Checklist for Robert Penn Warren 48 vi . . �3. 4. A Descriptive Bibliography of Robert Perm Warren, 1917-72 48 Writing Technical Reports for an Uninformed Audience 48 5. . . 49 6. C. Classical Rhetoric and the Teaching of Writing Milton's Persuasive Rhetoric in Paradise Regained . 49 Department of Economics, Geography, and Management 1. Inflation: 2. . . Methods of Predicting Trends The Economic Impact of Defense Programs 50 51 3. Expert Opinion Encoding 4. 50 51 Comparative Study of Human Adjustment to Earthquake Disasters in CENTO Countries 52 5. Impacts of International Migration of Turks . . . . 53 6. Energy Resource Maps 53 7. Capturing Judgment Policies: Performance Ratings 8. 9. Cadet Performance Rating: Capturing A Field Study of 54 Judgment Policy54 Communication in Research and Development: Technical and Managerial Influences 55 10. The Technological Gatekeeper 11. Communication in Research: 57 A Longitudinal Study 12. A Longitudinal Study of Performance Rating . 57 .... 58 13. Priorities in Education 58 14. Political Overboundedness and the Urbanization of Rural Settlement Patterns 58 The Use of Spatial Probabilistic Models in the Analysis of Urban Poor-Quality Housing Regions 59 15. vii . . �D. Department of History 59 1. A History of the United States Air Force 59 2. Billy Mitchell: 60 Crusader for Air Power 3. Oral History Program 4. 60 The Harmon Memorial Lectures in Military History 5. The Military and Society: . 61 The Proceedings of the 1972 History Symposium 61 The Military History of the American Revolution: The Proceedings of the 1974 History Symposium . . . 61 Air Force Images of Research and Development and Their Reflections in Organizational Structure and Management Policies 62 The Development of Aircraft and Doctrine in the Royal Flying Corps, 1912-1914 62 9. The Army and Its Air Corps 62 10. Nevada's Fighting Irishman: of Nevada 6. 7. 8. Senator Pat McCarran 11. American Military Missions to Korea: 12. 13. E. 63 1882-1896 . . Threat Articulation in an Era of Detente: cal Parallels and Contemporary Problems Histori- Black Spies in America's Wars Department of Law 1. 63 63 63 64 Payment from Academy Endowment Fund of Expenses of Attending Meetings of Technical, Scientific, or Professional Organizations 64 Due Process Requirements in the Disenrollment of Service Academy Cadets 64 3. Proposal for "Honor Probation" Procedures 65 4. Administration of Accused Cadets during Investigation of Cheating Allegations 65 2. viii �5. The Law of Armed Conflict 65 6. The Law of Air Bombardment in its Historical Context 66 F. Department of Political Science and Philosophy .... 1. Japan's Nuclear Option: An Examination of Political, Technical, and Strategic Factors 2. 66 66 The Relationship of the Department of Defense to Congress: Exchange and Influence 67 3. Political Staffing: A View from the District . . . 68 4. The Sino-Soviet Conflict: Strategic Policy 5. Israel and the P.L.O.: tion 68 Insurgent Strategies 6. Implications for U. S. 7. 69 Persistence or Transforma69 The Energy Crisis and U.S. Foreign Policy 69 8. Political Violence and Insurgency 70 9. The Oil Weapon and U. S. Foreign Policy 70 10. Petropolitics and the Atlantic Alliance 70 11. The Limits of American Military Intervention in the Persian Gulf 71 12. Counterforce in an Era of Essential Equivalence . . 71 13. 71 NATO's Strategy and Its Alternatives 14. A Student's and Armchair General's Guide to Strategy 15. The Evolution of Soviet Behavior in the Middle East as a Function of Changes in the Interactive Environment—1950-1970 16. Defense Policy in a World of Limited Resources 17. 72 The Military and Public Administration ix 72 . . 73 73 �18. 74 19. G. Ethics Textbook The Employment of Tactical Air Power in the 1970's and 1980's: A Study in the Strategic Theory of B. H. Liddell Hart 74 The Academy Library 1. 2. III. 74 Library Regulations: A History and Survey of Public, Research, School, Special, and State Libraries 74 Air Force Graduate Education Policy 74 RESEARCH AND ANALYSIS OF SPACE AND WEAPONS SYSTEMS A. Department of Astronautics and Computer Science . . . . 76 1. Air-to-Air Fire Control Research 76 2. Backup Space Navigation System 79 3. Independent Stability and Control Analysis for the Navigation Demonstration Satellite-1 of the Global Positioning System - (GPS) - NAVSTAR 81 Investigation of Highly Eccentric Cislunar Orbits for Artificial Earth Satellites 82 5. Global Positioning System ORBIT Configuration . . . 83 6. Stability Augmentation System for the A-10 Aircraft 84 4. B. 84 1. C. Department of Electrical Engineering 84 Skylab LUMS Department of Mathematical Sciences 85 1. 85 2. IV. Strategic C3 Study Group Evaluation of LES-8 and LES-9 Space Experiments . . 86 MANPOWER, PROCUREMENT, AND LOGISTICS STUDIES A. Department of Economics, Geography, and Management x . . 87 �1. Variable Obsolescence Rates 87 2. Viability of the 'On-Site1 Concept for Program Management of Major Weapons Systems during the Development Phase 87 The Validation and Use of the Abnormal Economic Fluctuation Clause in Government Contracts . . . . 88 4. Item Essentiality 88 5. Low-Level Demand 89 6. Productivity Tracking System for an Air Logistics Center Section: A Case Study 89 7. Life Cycle Cost of an Automobile 90 8. Quality Measurement in Procurement 9. Evaluation of Defense Contractor Management Proposals 91 10. Production Learning Curves 92 11. Base Level Procurement Productivity 92 12. Fightermaker 93 3. B. ... 90 93 1. Transportation/Assignment Algorithm Study 93 2. C. Department of Mathematical Sciences The Multicriteria Assignment Problem 94 Department of Political Science and Philosophy 1. D. .... 95 The Navigator and Professional Discrimination . . . 95 The Academy Library 1. 96 The American Society of Information Science Manpower Study XI 96 �use the emulator because of its program tracing and dumping features. All programming and testing of the emulator will be completed during the fall semester of 1975. C. Department of Chemistry 1. High Energy Density Electrochemical Cells _._ Principal Investigators: Lieutenant Colonel Lowell A. King, Captain John K. Erbacher, and 1st Lt Charles L. Hussey, Frank J. Seiler Research Laboratory (AFSC), and Lieutenant Colonel David W. Seegmiller and Major Armand A. Fannin, Jr., Department of Chemis—2 _ •__ —•—— -* T~>C/>P vrO . try Sponsored by the Frank J. Seiler Research Laboratory, Air Force Systems Command (AFSC) Work during this reporting period has focused primarily in the following three general areas: (1) the aluminum chloride/sodium chloride physical property measurements on and aluminum chloride/sodium chloride/potassium chloride systems, (2) pelletized aluminum chloride/ alkali metal chloride electrolyte batteries, and (3) mathematical analysis of various physical property data. In the area of physical property measurements, the phase diagram for the AlCl3/NaCl/KCl has been determined. This investigation has led to the possibility of compounding very low melting ( 0 ° ) very low 10C, vapor pressure electrolytes. In support of the thermal battery project, work is continuing in the area of measuring the heat of fusion of various electrolyte compositions. This data is essential for design of batteries using chloroaluminate electrolytes. Research was done and is continuing on pelletized aluminum chloride thermal batteries and has been extended to the investigation 15 �of alternative means of employing chlorine gas as the active cathode material. The inconvenience of precharging the battery cell to generate chlorine gas in the cathode compartment has been eliminated by employing a catholyte consisting of NaAlCl/ electrolyte, strong oxidant, and graphite. Chlorine gas is generated in situ through oxidation of the melt. Nineteen oxidizing agents have been examined with constant current coulometry to assess their value as cathode materials. Four of these have been found suitable for use in aluminum chloride pelletized thermal batteries: CrOo, KMnO/, MnO~, and CaCrO, . Patent applications covering the use of these materials are currently in progress. A variety of melts other than the standard 50 mole % AlClo-NaCl have been tested as electrolytes: 60-40 mole % AlCl3-NaCl, 50-40-10 mole % and 59-32.2-8.8 mole % AlCl-j-NaCl-KCl ternary melts. A technical report covering this work is in the final stages of completion. The mathematical analysis of the physical property data has included the reduction of AlClg vapor pressure data over a large density range below 300 C. The parameters for several equations of state, formulated from that of van der Waals' and its modifications, have been evaluated for AlClg. From these equations of state, the pressure and density of A1C1-, vapor can be predicted to within 2% at all useful temperatures. This information will be used to predict vapor pressures and concentration changes of sodium chloroaluminate. electrolytes. Work is in progress on surface fitting in multivariate systems for reduction of data involving pressure, temperature, volume, and 16 �composition. Least squares techniques are applied simultaneously to all variables to minimize the distance to the surface. A system was developed for temperature measurement based on the use of inexpensive platinum resistance elements. The calibration of these elements is performed by fitting resistance data for the element to similar data for an Air Force Reference Standard Thermometer. Standard Callender equation parameters are obtained using a Wang 720C programable calculator. An accuracy of .OIK on the 1968 International Practical Temperature Scale is obtained. This innovation allows simul- taneous use of thermometers with .OIK accuracy in several locations without the expense of multiple Reference Standard Thermometers. Publications "Densities of Liquid Aluminum Chloride-Sodium Chloride Mixtures. I. Single Phase Liquid Region," Armand A. Fannin, Jr., Fred C. Kibler, Jr., Lowell A. King, and David W. Seegmiller. J. Chem. Eng. Data 19, 266 (1974). (Also published as Seiler Research Lab TR-74-0020 with data tables. ) FJSRL (NC) Technical Memorandum TM 75-1, January 1975, "Calibration of Platinum Resistance Elements," Armand A. Fannin, Jr., Fred C. Kibler, Jr., and Lowell A. King FJSRL (NC) Technical Memorandum TM 75-2, February 1975, "Calibration Program for Platinum Resistance Elements," Armand A. Fannin, Jr., and Lowell A. King 2 . Chemiluminescent Gas Phase Reactions Principal Investigators: Captain William E. McDermott and Major John T. Viola, Department --of.... Chemistry Associate Investigators: Captain Scott A. Shackelford, Frank J. Seiler Research Laboratory (AFSC) , and Cadet David A. Ferguson Sponsored by the Air Force Weapons Laboratory (AFSC) and the Frank J. Seiler Research Laboratory (AFSC). 17 �New or improved lasers operating in the visible or near-infrared have potential applications to the Air Force. has concentrated in two areas: Work this reporting period the characterization of a heterogenous reaction producing singlet molecular oxygen developed in this laboratory and the investigation of an XeF?-fueled HF laser. The heterogeneous reaction between gaseous Clo and a saturated solution of NaOH and ^ 2 to produce gaseous singlet oxygan ( ^ ('Ag)) 0 C has been studied spectrophotometrically verifying the evolution of singlet oxygen. The kinetics of the solvation of Clo (gas) on an NaOH solution has been measured in terms of the probability of gas phase removal per wall collision. In this study, a simple recording manometer was developed to follow the decrease in pressure in the reacting system. The XeF^-fueled HF laser investigation has centered on construction of a flash photolysis laser system and its characterization using V a known, kinetically simple laser mixture \ D. Department of Civil Engineering, Engineering Mechanics, and Materials 1 . Automated Finite Element Me sh Generator Principal Investigator: Major Richard H. Danhof, Department of Civil Engineering, Engineering Mechanics, and Materials Sponsored by the Air Force Flight Dynamics Laboratory, Air Force Systems Command (AFSC) The finite element method has gained widespread acceptance in recent years among both the industrial and governmental technical communities. Using this method of analysis, however, involves the preparation of a great deal of input data, especially if the problems are complex. 18 �4. The Validity of Various Measures in Predicting Pilot Training Performance Principal Investigators: Majors J. M. Koonce and D. C. Prather, Department of Life and Behavioral Sciences Sponsored by the Frank J. Seller Research Laboratory (AFSC) This study is arranged in two phases to determine the validity of certain performance measures in predicting pilot training success. The first phase will use a digit-canceling side-task along with a basic two-dimensional tracking task for the prediction of Air Force Academy cadet performance in T-41 aircraft training. The second phase will investigate the use of performance in a General Aviation Trainer Flight Simulator (GAT-1) while responding to a side-task as predictors of T-41 performance. All measures will be retained for correlation with the cadets' subsequent performance at Undergraduate Pilot Training (T-37 and T-38 aircraft). 5. The Use of Biofeedback Techniques in Stress Management Training Principal Investigators: Captains R. G. Eggleston and K. E. Parker, Department of Life and Behavioral Sciences Sponsored by Frank J. Seller Reserach Laboratory (AFSC) The purpose of this study is to examine the possible uses of muscle relaxation training through biofeedback techniques as a stress manager. The principal concern has been to develop a program which will aid the student in overcoming stress anxiety associated with both the preparation and taking of college course achievement examinations. A preliminary program including an audio tape series on muscle relaxation and biofeedback training has been developed and is currently being evaluated. Final results of this study will be available by 30 June 1976. 31 �6. Lipids and Lipoproteins in USAF Academy Cadets Principal Investigator: Major E. L. Arnold, Department of Life and Behavioral Sciences Sponsored by the Aerospace Medical Division/KDOP (AFSC) This is a continuing project to obtain data on blood serum lipid and lipoprotein levels in order to evaluate what changes are attributable to natural maturation, to diet, and to the environment (social pressure, exercise, altitude, etc.) of USAF Academy cadets during their four years at the Academy and two years following graduation. Blood samples have been periodically collected from cadets in the Class of 1976 for analyses of serum lipids, lipoproteins, and related factors. Less frequently, estimates have been obtained on lean body mass for correlation with the lipid data. Estimates have also been made per- iodically of caloric intake, of the composition of the diet, and of the degree of emotional stress experienced by the subjects of the study. Pub lie a t i on s and JP r e &ent_a t_ions_ Clark, D. A., Arnold, E. L., Foulds, E. L., Brown, D. M., Eastmead, D. R., and Parry, E. M., 1975, "Serum Urate and Cholesterol Levels in Air Force Academy Cadets," Aviation, Space and Environmental Medicine. (In press.) 7. Determination of Parameters^ for a Model of Environmental Quality for USAF Installations Principal Investigators, Captains L. J. Biever, A. L. Young, °^^ M. A. Thomas, ami G. R. Coultar, Department of Life and Behavioral Sciences Sponsored by Frank J. Seiler Research Laboratory (AFSC) This project was initiated in February, 1975. The objective of this study has been to identify those physical, chemical, and biological 32 �parameters that will determine environmental quality on USAF installations. Using the Air Force Academy as a study area, methodology is being developed for collecting, organizing, storing, and analyzing environmental data produced as the result of the activities of on-base military agencies and nonmilitary organizations such as the U. S. Soil Conservation Service, U. S. Forest Service, Colorado State Fish and Game Department, and local academic institutions. Data collected will be incorporated into a model which will identify environmental deficiencies and predict environmental degradation. The use of such a model could result in a more efficient management of funds and manpower while improving base environmental quality. 8. Radiochemical and Fluorescent Bioassay of TCDD and 2,4,5-T Herbicide Principal Investigator: Captain James Cupello, Department of Life and Behavioral Sciences Associate Investigator: Captain A. L. Young, Department of Life and Behavioral Sciences The Environmental Protection Agency currently limits the commercial use of 2,4,5-T herbicide due to the lack of environmental data on the highly teratogenic (birth-deforming) contaminant TCDD (2,3,7,8tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin) found in all 2,4,5-T formulations. The consequence of such a use limitation directly affects the fate of a large USAF surplus inventory of Herbicide Orange (a 2,4,5-T formulation). Although TCDD occurs in all 2,4,5-T formulations, its presence is measured only in parts per million of concentrated herbicide. 2,4,5-T formulations are applied in shrub control programs, the 33 When �concentration of TCDD introduced into the environment is in parts per trillion. Analytical techniques available for following the fate of TCDD in the environment lack sensitivity and specificity. This study has been initiated to determine whether radiochemical and fluorescent techniques can be used in detecting environmental concentrations of TCDD in biological systems. 9. Lead as an Indicator of Environmental Quality in Airport Environs Principal Investigators: Major C. E. Thalken, Lieutenant Colonel L. R. Klinestiver, and Captain A. L. Young, Department of Life and Behavioral Sciences Sponsored by Frank J. Seiler Research Laboratory (AFSC) Many airports, e.g., Peterson Field, Colorado Springs, Colorado, have a long history of use by both reciprocating and jet aircraft, yet no data are available as to concentrations of pollutants generated by aircraft engines, e.g., lead. Nevertheless, the Air Installation Compatibility Use Zones (AICUZ) of many airports, including Peterson Field, are routinely used for agricultural activities. Concentrations of lead in vegetation, soils, or animals are not known in these environments. As more stringent environmental qualities are applied by state and federal agencies, it will become more essential that the Air Force be able to monitor exposure of environmental pollutants to the environ on and around air installations. This study has been initiated to determine concentrations of lead in the environment immediately surrounding Peterson Field. 10. Disposal of Herbicide Orange by Soil Incorporation and Biodegradat ion 34 �Principal Investigators: Captain A. L. Young and Major E. L. Arnold, Department of Life and Behavioral Sciences Associate Investigators: Lieutenant Colonel W. E. Ward, Major C. E. Thalken, and Captain W. J. Cairney, Department of-Life and Behavioral Sciences- ])fC ( Sponsored by Air Force Logistics Command/DS Soil incorporation and biodegradation have been selected as alternate methods for the disposal of USAF inventories of Herbicide Orange. The soil incorporation method is based on the premise that high concentrations of phenoxy herbicide and the toxic contaminant TCDD will be degraded to innocuous products by the combined action of soil microorganisms and soil chemical hydrolysis. Field plots established in 1972 in Florida, Kansas, and Utah, following incorporation of Herbicide Orange at rates of up to 4,000 pounds active ingredient per acre, have been closely monitored for chemical degradation, potential off-site movement, and ecological effects. Data have indicated rapid degradation of herbicides—greater than 95% of concentrations of 40,000 ppm in two years. Moreover, detailed examination of microbial populations indicated significant increases in fungi, bacteria, and actinomyctes for all treatment plots. No adverse ecological damage has been noted to the surrounding biota of each test site. Similar data were obtained for TCDD. Publication Young, A. L., Arnold, E. L., Thalken, C. E., Ward, W. E., and Cairney, W.J., 1975, "Soil Incorporation/Biodegradation of Herbicide Orange: Concepts, Methodology, and Field Results," USAF Academy Technical Report (In preparation) . 35 �Presentations Young, A. L., Thalken, C. E., Ward, W. E., Arnold, E. L., and Cairney, W.J., 1974, Air Force research on ecological effects of herbicide application, Proceedings of the Region VIII Pesticide Disposal Conference, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Denver, Colorado, April 4-6, 1973. Young, A. L., Arnold, E. L., and Wachinski, A. M., 1974, Field studies on the soil persistence and movement of 2,4-D, 2,4,5-T, and TCDD. Presentation to the Weed Science Society of America, 13 February 1974, Las Vegas, Nevada, Abstract No. 226. 11. Ecological Studies on a Herbicide-Equipment Test Area (TA C-52A), Eglin AFB Reservation, Florida Principal Investigators: Captain A. L. Young, Lieutenant Colonel W. E. Ward, and Majors C. E. Thalken and L. G. Cockerham, Department of Life and Behavioral Sciences Sponsored by Air Force Logistics Command/DS and Air Force Systems Command/SDWC For the past four years, ecological studies have been conducted on Test Area C-52A, Eglin AFB Reservation, Florida—a one square mile area used in the testing of aerial defoliation spray equipment from 1962 through 1970. Because massive quantities of herbicides (346,117 pounds) were applied to this area, a unique opportunity existed to document the ecological consequences associated with repetitive use of phenoxy herbicides (e.g., Herbicide Orange) and the effects of the toxic contaminant TCDD. Data have been obtained on the floral, faunal, and microbial communities. Rapid invasion (ecological succession) of vegetation, insect, and animal population has occurred on the test area in the period from 1970 to 1974. No gross or histological evidences of teratogenesis or toxicity have been found in 173 adults or fetuses of beach mice (Peromyscus 36 �polionotus) inhabiting treated or control field sites. No adverse effects to aquatic ecosystems have been detected. Publications Young, A. L., Editor and Principal Investigator, 1974, "Ecological Studies on a Herbicide-Equipment Test Area (TA C-52A) Eglin AFB Reservation, Florida," AFATL-TR-74-12, Air Force Armament Laboratory, Eglin AFB, Florida. Young, A. L., Thalken, C. E., Ward, W. E., and Cairney, W. J., 1974, "The Ecological Consequences of Massive Quantities of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T Herbicides," Congressional Record S2425-2442, 28 February 1974. Young, A. L., Thalken, C. E., and Ward, W. E., 1975, "Studies on the Ecological Impact of Repetitive Aerial Applications of Herbicides on the Ecosystem of Test Area C-52A, Eglin AFB, Florida," AFATL Technical Report, Air Force Armament Laboratory, Eglin AFB, Florida (In press). Presentations Young, A. L., Thalken, C. E., Ward, W. E., and Cairney, W. J., 1974, "The Ecological Consequences of Massive Quantities of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T Herbicides - Summary of a Five-Year Study," presentation to the Weed Science Society of America, 14 February 1974, Las Vegas, Nevada. Young, A. L., Thalken, C. E., Ward, W. E., Arnold, E. L., and Cairney, W. J., 1974, "Air Force Research on Ecological Effects of Herbicide Application," Proceedings of the Region VIII Pesticide Disposal Conference, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Denver, Colorado, April 4-6 1973. Thalken, C. E., Ward, W. E., and Young, A. L., "Absence of TCDD Toxicity to Rodent Populations Following Massive Field Applications of 2,4,5-T Herbicide," presentation to the American Veterinary Medical Association, 112th Annual Meeting, Anaheim, California, 16 July 1975. 12. Ultrastructural Studies of Liver Tissue from TCDD-Exposed Beach Mice (Peromyscus polionotus) Principal Investigators: Major L. G. Cockerham and Captain A. L. Young, Department of Life and Behavior Sponsored by Air Force Logistics Command/DS In support of research on the biological effects of animals exposed to TCDD (a toxic contaminant contained in USAF surplus inventories 37 �of Herbicide Orange), ultrastructural studies were initiated on beach mice, Peromyscus polionotus, collected from a herbicide-equipment testing range (Test Area C-52-A, Eglin AFB, Florida). Liver tissue from 30 mice (from the test and a control area) were examined with an electron microscope for possible ultrastructural changes in mitochondria and smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum. Similar data were collected from 22 mice brought from the field into the laboratory and exposed to 30 days of external dusting with alumina gel (with or without 2.5 ppb TCDD). G. Department of Physics 1. Lasers, Unstable Resonatojcs Principal Investigators: Major John J. Armstrong and Captain Harald 0. Dogliani, Department of Physics Associate Investigators: Chapman, Class of '75 Cadets Kevin W. Smith and Dan W. Sponsored by the Frank J. Seiler Research Laboratory, Air Force Systems Command (AFSC), and the Air Force Weapons Laboratory, Kirtland AFB, New Mexico This research is being performed for the Optics Technology Branch of the Laser Division, Air Force Weapons Laboratory, at Kirtland AFB. The research involves investigation of negative branch unstable resonators using a high-power C0~ laser. Theoretically, negative branch unstable resonators have certain advantages over positive branch unstable resonators. In particular, negative branch unstable resonators are not as susceptible to spherical distortion and mirror misalignment. At the same time, they have the disadvantages of being more susceptible to 38 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange Description An account of the resource <p style="margin-top: -1em; line-height: 1.2em;">The Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange comprises 120 linear feet and spans the late 1800s to 2005; however, the bulk of the coverage is from the 1960s to the 1980s and there are many undated items. The collection was donated to Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in 1985 by Dr. Alvin L. Young (1942- ). Dr. Young developed the collection as he conducted extensive research on the military defoliant Agent Orange. The collection is in good condition and includes letters, memoranda, books, reports, press releases, journal and newspaper clippings, field logs and notebooks, newsletters, maps, booklets and pamphlets, photographs, memorabilia, and audiotapes of an interview with Dr. Young.</p> <p>For more about this collection, <a href="/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/alvin-l--young-collection-on-a">view the Agent Orange Exhibit.</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Box The box containing the original item. 017 Folder The folder containing the original item. 0195 Series The series number of the original item. Series II Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Description An account of the resource <strong>Corporate Author: </strong>Dean of Faculty, United States Air Force Academy, Colorado Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1975-07-01 Title A name given to the resource Annual Research Progress Report No. 10, Covering Period: 1 July 1974 - 30 June 1975 Subject The topic of the resource herbicide disposal Eglin AFB animal testing bibliography https://www.nal.usda.gov/exhibits/speccoll/files/original/10d4a78ad557e50259007e2af685582a.pdf 8c39361f85ce331e016b19d7fb4c6f6b PDF Text Text Item ID Number 00195 Author Corporate Author Report/Article TitlB Dean of Faculty, United States Air Force Academy, Colo Annua ' Research Progress Report No. 11, Covering Period: 1 July 1975 - 30 June 1976 Journal/Book Title Year 1976 Month/Day Ju| Color rj Number of Images 21 DOSOripton Notes The following pages relating to the collection and Dr. Alvin Young's research interests were scanned: cover, title page, iii-xiii, 22-28 v Monday, January 22, 2001 Page 208 of 341 �DEAN OF FACULTY UNITED STATES AIR FORCE ACADEMY, COLORADO Annual Research Progress Report No. 11 July 1976 COVERING PERIOD 1 July 1975-30 June 1976 �Annual Research Progress Report No. 11 Covering Period 1 July 1975 - 30 June 1976 This document has been approved for public release and sale; its distribution is unlimited This is the fifth published Annual Research Progress Report; the editions previous to 1972 were published as Semi-Annual Progress Reports. Further information desired on any project may be obtained by writing to the department listed for the principal investigator, USAF Academy/ Colorado 80840 ��TABLE OF CONTENTS Page I. SCIENTIFIC AND ENGINEERING INVESTIGATIONS A. Department of Aeronautics 1 1. Aerodynamic Characteristics of Glide Bomb Configurations 1 2. Glide Bomb Aerodynamics 1 3. Rolling Moment Induced by a Rotating Wing .... 2 4. Wind Tunnel Tests of a 0.2 Scale Maneuvering Air to Surface Submunition (MASS) 2 5. Flow Field Behind Aerodynamic Fences 3 6. Roll Reversal in Canard-Configured Missiles ... 4 7. The Flow Dynamics of Unsteady Separated Regions . 4 8. An Undergraduate Propulsion Sequence 5 9. Boundary Layers in Axially Symmetric Nozzle Flows 6 10. Jet Engine Particle Separators 6 B. Department of Astronautics and Computer Science ... 7 1. The Data Administrator's Handbook 7 2. The Effects of Response Time on User Performance and Satisfaction in a CAI Environment 8 3. Development of a 4-Way Analysis of Variance System . 9 4. ALGOL Procedures for Detection of Deadlocks among Parallel Processes 9 5. Visual Representation of Network Symmetry .... 10 6. Configurable Microprocessor Array 10 iii �7. Artificial Intelligence Research C. Department of Chemistry and Biological Sciences. . . 11 12 1. Chemilurainescent Gas Phase Reactions 12 2. Energetic Plasticizer and Binder Synthesis Via Organic Triflate Intermediates 13 3. Pelletized Thermal Batteries 14 4. Electrode and Electrolyte Physical and Electrochemical Measurements 15 5. Aluminum Matrix-Trialuminum Nickelide Separation 17 6. Detonation Property Prediction and Modeling. . . 18 7. Simultaneous Monitoring of Climate and Air Pollutants at USAFA 19 8. Lead as an Indicator of Environmental Quality in Airport Environs 19 9. Lipids and Lipoproteins in USAF Academy Cadets . 20 10. Determination of Parameters for a Model of Environmental Quality for USAF Installations . . 21 11. An Evaluation of Current Capabilities in Genetics and Molecular Biology 22 12. Disposal of Herbicide Orange by Soil Incorporation and Biodegradation 22 13. Ecological Studies on a Herbicide-Equipment Test Area (TA C-52A), Eglin AFB Reservation, Florida 23 14. Radiochemical Bioassay of TCDD Uptake in Plant Material 25 15. Ultrastructural Studies of Liver Tissue from TCDD-Exposed Beach Mice (Peromyscus polionotus) 26 16. Ultrastructural Evaluation of Tissues Removed from Animals Exposed to TCDD 27 iv �D. Department of Civil Engineering, Engineering Mechanics, and Materials 28 1. Backing Strength of Masonry Shear Walls 28 2. Validation of the Soil Stabilization Index System with Manual Development 28 3. Polymer Tetherline Evaluation for Baloon Technology . 29 4. Solar Energy 30 5. Statics and Dynamics of Cables 30 6. Sublimation of Basal Faces of Zinc Oxide Single Crystals Under Ultraviolet Illumination 31 7. Finite Element Analysis of Single Span Cables .... 32 8. Lateral Dynamics Optimization of A Conventional Railcar E. Department of Electrical Engineering 33 33 1. Troposcatter Communications Simulator 33 2. Micro-Computer Solutions to the Time Difference of Arrival Problem 34 3. Study of Composite Materials in an Electromagnetic Environment 34 4. USAFA Solar Energy Program 35 5. Space Test Program Experiment Prioritization .... 36 6. Digital Communications Performance Monitop 37 7. A Microprocessor Based Controller for an Isolation Pad 37 8. Effects of Weightlessness on the Cardiovascular System 38 9. Management Model of the Military Health Care System . 38 F. Department of Mathematical Sciences v 39 �1. Efficient Branch-and-Bound Algorithms for Permutation Problems 39 2. Distributed Parameter Control 39 3. An Encke Method Applied to Element Equations 39 4. Seismic Network Capability Model 40 5. Detonation Property-Predictions and Modeling 40 G. Department of Physics 41 1. Portable Solar Collector for Sea Survival 41 2. Transverse Electric Atmospheric Laser 41 3. Unstable Resonator Mirror Misalignment 42 4. Spontaneous Emission Using Vector-Spherical Harmonics 42 5. Single Particle Green's Functions. . - 42 6. Liquid Metal Equation of State 43 7. Lamb Shift in Hydrogen 44 8. Deformable Mirror Control System Parameters 44 9. Analysis of Electronic Component Damage Due to EMP . . 44 10. Diagnostic Technique for the AFWL SHIVA X-ray Simulator 45 11. Visual Perception: Nature and Cause of the Horizontal Vertical Bias in the Human Visual System. . 46 12. Numerical Calculation of Explosive Behavior 47 13. Aircraft Engine Oil Analysis by Neutron Activation. . 47 II. GENERAL RESEARCH IN THE HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES A. Department of Aeronautics and Computer Science .... vi 49 �1. Computerized Scheduling of CCQ for the Cadet Wing . . 49 2. A Layman's Interface to the AID-4 Statistical Computer Program 50 3. Phase Testing for a First Course in Computer Science. 51 4. Minimum Paced Self-Instruction in a Two-pass Course . 52 5. The Computer Science Core Course Grade Score Data Base 52 6. The Front-end Processing Programs of the Basic Cadet Training Tracking Program and BCT Standing System . . 53 7. Analysis of the Military Order of Merit (MOM) System 53 8. Statistical Analysis of the Military Order of Merit (MOM) 54 9. ELSIE Data Reduction 54 B. Department of Behavioral Sciences and Leadership .... 55 1. The Validity of Various Measures in Predicting Pilot Training 55 2. Level of Alertness and the Perceptual Processing of Visually Displayed Information during Simulated Flying Missions 56 3. Behavioral and Physiological Correlates of Varying Noise Environments 57 4. The Use of Biofeedback Techniques in Stress Management Training 58 C. Department of Economics, Geography and Management .... 59 1. Observable Public Good Preferences 59 2. Centralized Planning 60 3. Hahn, Inc 60 4. Performance Appraisal: A View From Using Organizations 61 5. The Technological Gatekeeper—A Boundary Role Communicator 61 VII �6. Capturing Judgment Policies in Performance Ratings. . 62 7. The Technological Gatekeeper 63 8. Tertiary Sedimentation into the Denver Basin, Colorado: A Model for Alluvial Plain Deposition 64 9. Reconstruction After an Earthquake Disaster 64 10. Kutahya Province, Turkey 65 11. Disaster and Change 65 12. Inflation Models of Selected NATO Countries 66 13. Fighter-Maker Base Selection Project 66 14. An Algorithm for a Pattern Sensitive Data Storage System (PSDSS) (PhD dissertation) 66 15. Federal Energy Administration Mapping Project .... 67 16. Analysis of Hospital Overhead Costs 67 D. Department of English and Fine Arts 68 1. Edward, Lord Herbert of Cherbury: A Preliminary Checklist 68 2. The Donne-Herbert Family Relationship 68 3. Radiographic Reproduction of Early American Watermarks 69 4. The Air Force Academy and Total Environmental Education 69 5. The Teaching of Old English Literature in Translation. 70 6. A Descriptive Bibliography of Robert Perm Warren, 1917-72 71 7. A Bicentennial Edition of Thomas Godfrey's "The Prince of Parthia, A Tragedy" (1765) 71 8. Writing and the Composition Teacher 72 E. Department of Foreign Languages viii 72 �1. FRANCE - Land and People: A Handbook 72 2. GERMANY - Land and People: A Handbook 73 3. Criterion-Referenced Foreign Language Testing ... 73 F. Department of History 74 1. A History of the United States Air Force 74 2. General Hoyt S. Vandenberg, Sr 75 3. USAFA Oral History Program 75 4. The Harmon Memorial Lectures in Military History. . 76 5. The Military and Society: The Proceedings of the 1972 History Symposium 76 6. The Military History of the American Revolution: The Proceedings of the 1974 History Symposium ... 76 7. The Marquess Wellesley in Irish and British Politics: 1781-1842 77 8.. Air Force Images of Research and Development and Their Reflections in Organizational Structure and Management Policies 77 9. The Development of Aircraft and Doctrine in the Royal Flying Corps, 1912-1914 78 10. Blacks in the Army Air Forces During World War II: The Problem of Race Relations 78 11. U.S. Army Aviation 1963-Present 79 12. Biographical Study of Sergei Mikhailovich Soloviev, 1820-1879 79 13. Intruduction to the "Zapiski" of S. M. Soloviev . . 79 14. S. M. Soloviev's Role in Russian Historiography . . 80 15. Publication History of S. M. Soloviev1s "Istoriia Rossii c drevneishikh vremen" 80 16. The Creation of the GHQ Air Force 80 �17. The Divergence of Policy and Power: The American Military and Postwar Foreign Policy (1945-47) .... 18. The Army and Its Air Corps 19. U.S. Array Air Corps: 1926-1941 ............. ........... 30 gi 81 20. Nevada's Fighting Irishman: Senator Pat McCarran of Nevada ..................... 21. On the Road Toward Termination: The Pyramid Lake Paiutes and the Indian Attorney Controversy ..... 32 22. American Military Missions to Korea: 1882-1896. . . g2 23. Studies in English on Modern Korean History, 18761910: A Critical Bibliographic Survey of Primary and Secondary Sources ....... ......... 82 24. Stalag Luft III: An American Experience in a World War II German Prisoner of War Camp ......... 83 25. Black Spies in America's Wars 83 ............ 26. Negro Migration to Colorado: 1870-1930 G. Department of Law ....... .................... 84 84 1. Due Process Requirements in Cadet Disenrollment Proceedings ....... .............. 84 2. Teaching by a USAF Academy Faculty Member During the Summer at a Civilian Educational Institution .... g4 3. Legitimated Interposition and International Law ... 35 4. Legality of Orders 85 ..... ............. H. Department of Political Science and Philosophy ...... 86 1. A Comparison of Military Elite Role Perceptions in Indonesia and the Philippines ............ 86 2. Israel and the PLO: Persistence or Transformation. . 86 3. Insurgent Strategies: An evaluation of Four Approaches ..................... 87 x �4. Petroleum Security: the Role of the Military Instrument of Statecraft .... 87 5. Revolutionary Warfare in Oman: A Strategic Appraisal 87 6. An Analysis of Possible Policy Changes in Terms of Selected Defense Policy Issues 88 7. Decision-making in the Organizational-Bureaucratic Context 88 8. Final Report: Colloquium on NATO's Southern Flank. . 89 9. Japan: The 1975 Debate Over Ratification of the NPT. 89 10. The Ethics of Leadership 11. Security Implications of Normalization of Relations Between the United States and Cuba 90 12. Chinese Military Power and Foreign Policy: The Case of the Paracel Islands 91 13. The Minorities and the Military in China 91 14. Inner Mongolia: The Haos and Huais of Chinese Policy Toward the Mongols 91 15. Thailand: A Case Study in Counterinsurgency 92 16. The Political Element in Military Expertise III. 90 92 RESEARCH AND ANALYSIS OF SPACE AND WEAPONS SYSTEMS A. Department of Astronautics and Computer Science 1. Air-to-Air Fire Control Research 94 94 a. Laboratory Test of the ASCOT Electro-Optical Tracker 94 Aided by a Digital Estimator b. Development of a Director Gunsight for Flight Test 95 c. Director Gunsight for an Advanced Fighter .... 95 d. Scoring Algorithm for Advanced Fighter Gunsights . 96 xi �e. Digital Simulation of One-on-One Air- to-Air Combat ............. ......... 96 f . F-16 Gunsight Evaluation 97 ............. g. Gunsight Heads-Up Display for the Aerospace Simulator ..................... 97 h. Air- to-Air Combat Simulation Support to Tactical Air Command .................... 98 2. Principles of Airborne Fire Control Text ....... 98 3. Independent Stability and Control Analysis for the Navigation DenDnstration Satellite-1 of the Global Positioning System - (GPS) - NAVSTAR ......... 99 4. The Time Rate Changes due to Relativistic Effects on the Global Positioning System. ... 5. GPS Satellite Selection Criteria ........... 6. GPS Deployment Using the Space Shuttle B. Department of Mathematical Sciences 1. Strategic C3 Study Group ........ 1 1 0 1 1 0 ........... ............... 101 1 1 0 2. Effect of Transition on Aerodynamic Coefficients of Hypersonic Reentry Vehicles .............. 102 IV. MANPOWER, PROCUREMENT, AND LOGISTICS STUDIES A. Department of Astronautics and Computer Science 1. Automation of the Cadet Status Records 2. Cadet Time Analysis System ...... ........ .............. 3. Analysis of the Military Order of Merit (MOM) System . B. Department of Economics, Geography and Management .... 1. Variable Obsolescence Rates 2. Procurement Productivity Indices xii .............. ........... 103 1°3 1°3 14 ° 104 1°4 105 �3. General Recruit Quality and Its Relationship with Air Force Technical Training 106 4. A Conceptual Model for Evaluating Contractor Management During Source Selection 106 5. Proceedings of the Fourth Annual Department of Defense Procurement Research Symposium 107 6. USAF Procurement Quality 107 7. Improvement of Aeronautical Systems Division Inflation Forecasting Indices 108 8. R&D Cost Expenditure Pattern Analysis 108 C. Department of Mathematical Sciences 1. Manpower Modeling in Support of CAREERS Kill 109 109 �correlation between elevated serum cholesterol and coronary disease, this finding was indeed encouraging. A positive correlation was also observed between periods of stress (academics, hell week, and Basic Cadet Training) and average cholesterol and uric acid levels. This finding may be useful in diagnosing emotional stress when the patient (subject) is not aware that he is under severe stress conditions. A third general finding was that there was an overall average weight increase in the subjects of this study. While this may not be unexpected, determinations of body fat revealed there was an unexpected decrease in this parameter. Apparently, this weight increase was due to an increase in muscle tissue rather than in fatty deposits. Overall, the data from this study tend to lend support to the current diet and physical conditioning programs at USAFA. Other findings will undoubtedly be forthcoming after all the data have been evaluated. 10. Determination of Parameters for a Model of Environmental Quality for USAF Installations Principal Investigators: Captain Lawrence J. Biever and Alvin L. Young, and Major Manuel A. Thomas, Department of Chemistry and Biological Sciences. Sponsored by Frank J. Seller Research Laboratory (AFSC). The major effort on this project this year has been to determine what effects non-potable sewage effluent have on ecosystems (e.g., parade fields and golf course) where it is used for irrigation. Data collected so far indicate that inclusions in the water are causing a unfavorable shift in species composition of grasses and are causing damage to tree species. The non-potable irrigation water includes high concentrations of phosphate, nitrate, chlorine, salt, and many heavy 21 �metals, Soil analysis indicated progressive changes in soil chemical composition that may result in degradation of soil quality. Continuation of the program is being proposed to further delineate cause and effect relationships and to provide corrective measures. 11. An Evaluation of Current Capabilities in Genetics and MDlecular Biology Principal Investigators: Captain Lawrence J. Biever, Captain Alvin L. Young, Lieutenant Colonel Eugene L. Arnold, and Major William C. Wilson, Department of Chemistry and Biological Sciences. Sponsored by the Defense Intelligence Agency. This study has been initiated to determine the state-of-the-art of current biological technology. An evaluation of the results of the application of current biological research to agriculture, industry, medicine, and the military has been made. The study included an evaluation of the international political, economic, social, and military impact of . £%v4^Cc Gv\C Gv\CA^jtc,(j:-A~l technological developments in taology. < ' x^ Data collected from current literature and contacts with researchers has been evaluated by DPCBS personnel. An interim report has been submitted. The final report will be submitted in June, 1976. A follow-on project has been proposed by the sponsor. 12. Disposal of Herbicide Orange by Soil Incorporation and Biodegradation Principal Investigators: Captain Alvin L. Young, and Lieutenant Colonel Eugene L. Arnold, Department of Chemistry and Biological Sciences. Sponsored by Air Force Logistics Command/DS. In August 1972, a site for soil incorporation of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T herbicides was selected on the Air Force Logistics Command Test Range Complex, Hill Air Force Base, Utah. The site was considered 22 �remote and the land of low-use potential. It was characterized by sandy loam soil with a pH of 8.0 and an organic carbon content of 0.95 percent. The herbicide formulation contained equal amounts of the n-butyl esters of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T and was applied by simulating subsoil injection at rates as high as 4,000 Ibs ai/A. The replicated plots were periodically sampled and the concentration of ester and acid forms of the herbicides was determined by gas-liquid chromatography. Levels of the toxic contaminant 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) were also measured in certain selected samples. Degradation of both ester and acid form of each herbicide was initially rapid (1st year) but tended to taper off in succeeding years. Strict exponential decay kinetics were not followed. Application rate had only minimal effect on the rate or pattern of degradation. The rate of disappearance of 2,4-D was slightly higher than that for 2,4,5~T. In those samples in which it was measured, significant degradation of TCDD was also noted. Soil penetration of the herbicides as either acid or ester forms was negligible. Publications Arnold, E. L., A. L. Young, and A. M. Wachinski. 1976. Three years of field studies on the soil persistence and movement of 2,4-D, 2,4,5-T and TCDD. Presentation to the Weed Science Society of America, 3 February 1976, Denver, Colorado. Abstract No. 206. Arnold, E. L. and A. L. Young. 1976. A rapid gas chromatographic method for the determination of phenoxy herbicide residues from soil disposal plots. Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry. In Press. 13. Ecological Studies on a Herbicide^Equipment Test Area (TA C-52A), Eglin AFB Reservation, Florida 23 �Principal Investigators: Captain Alvin L. Young, and Majors Charles E. Thalken and Lorris G. Cockerham, Department of Chemistry and Biological Sciences. Sponsored by Air Force Logistics Ctommand/DS. During this past year species diversities and food chain studies were conducted in two aquatic ecosystems draining the unique one-square mile military test area (Test Area C-52A, Eglin AFB, FL) that received 160,948 Ibs 2,4,5-T and 169,292 Ibs 2,4-D herbicide during the period 1962-1970. Significant levels (10-710 parts per trillion, ppt) 2,3,7,8tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) were found within the top six inches of the test area soil. Erosion of soil occurred into a pond on the test area and into a stream immediately adjacent to the area. TCDD levels of 10-35 ppt were found in silt of the aquatic systems, but only at the point where eroded soil entered the water. Species diversity studies of the stream were conducted in 1969, 1970, 1973 and 1974. Insect larvae, snails, diving beetles, crayfish, tadpoles, and major fish species from both aquatic systems were analyzed for TCDD. Species diversity studies indicated no significant change in the composition of ichthyofauna between these dates or a control stream. Concentrations of TCDD (12 ppt) were found in only two species of fish from the stream, Notropis hypselopterus, Gunther (sailfin shiner), and Gambusia affinis, Baird an Girard (mosquitof ish). Samples of skin, muscle, gonads, and gut were obtained from Lepomis punctatus, Valenciennes (spotted sunfish), from the test grid pond. Levels of TCDD in those body parts were 4,4,18 and 85 ppt, respectively. Gross pathological observations of the sunfish revealed no significant lesions or abnormalities. 24 �Publications Young, A. L., C. E. Thalken, and W. E. Ward. 1975, Studies of the ecological impact of repetitive aerial applications of herbicides on the ecosystem of Test Area C-52A, Eglin AFB, Florida. AFATL-TR-75-142, Air Force Armament Laboratory, Eglin AFB, Florida. Young, A. L., P. J. Lehn, and M. F. Mettee. 1976. Absence of TCDD toxicity in an aquatic ecosystem. Presentation of the Weed Science Society of America, 3 February 1976, Denver, Colorado. Abstract No. 107. 14. gadiochemical Bioassay of TCDD Uptake in Plant Material Principal Investigators: Captains James M. Cupello, and Alvin L. Young, Department of Chemistry and Biological Sciences. Sponsored by Frank J. Seiler Research Laboratory (AFSC), and Air Force Logistics Command/DS. The Environmental Protection Agency currently limits the commercial use of 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4,5-T) herbicide due to the lack of environmental data on the teratogenic (birth-deforming) contaminant 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) found in many 2,4,5-T formulations. The consequence of such a use limitation directly affects the fate of a large USAF surplus inventory of Herbicide Orange (a2,4,5-T formulation). In a study to determine potential plant uptake of TCDD, a 2,000 pounds per acre equivalent application of Herbicide Orange, containing 14 parts per million (ppm) C-14 labelled TCDD, was placed 4" beneath the soil surface in specially constructed growth boxes, containing 100 plants of Sorghum, Sorghum vulgare, per box. The plants were grown under controlled environmental conditions for a period of nine weeks, at which time they were harvested and assayed for TCDD uptake. Analysis of the plant tissue (exclusive of root systems) prior to hexane extraction, and 25 �after hexane extraction for four hours in a Soxhlet extraction apparatus, indicated the presence of an amount of C-14 activity that was equivalent to 430 parts per trillion (ppt) of TCDD in the plant material. This represents the maximum amount of TCDD that could be present in the plant material, but could also represent (1) the preferential plant uptake of a minor impurity in the TCDD formulation that was applied to the soil; (2) a metabolic breakdown product that was formed in the plant material after TCDD incorporation; or (3) the preferential uptake of a soil decomposition or soil microbial degradation product of the original TCDD placed in the soil. 15. Ultrastructural^Stiajiesjxf'.JjLver Tissue from jCDD-Exposed Beach Miee (Peromyscus pplipnptus) Principal Investigators: Major Lorris G. Cockerham and Captain Alvin L. Young, Department of Chemistry and Biological Sciences. Sponsored by Air Force Logistics Command/DS. In support of research on the biological effects of animals exposed to TCDD (2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin), ultrastructural studies were initiated on beach mice, Peromyscus polionotus, collected from a herbicide-equipment testing range (Test Area C-52_A, Eglin AFB, Florida). Liver tissue from 30 mice (from the test and a control area) were examined with an electron microscope for possible ultrastructural changes in mitochondria and smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum. Similar data were collected from 22 mice brought from the field into the laboratory and exposed to 30 days of external dusting with alumina gel (with or without 2.5 ppb TCDD). Five representative electron micrographs were made from the liver tissue of each animal and the data were obtained from each micrograph 26 �using a technique known as "point counting". With this method, a transparent grid of intersecting lines was placed at random over the micrographs and all the line intersections which were over the required cell structures were counted. The total area of the cytoplasm was then measured in the same manner. An analysis of variance was conducted to determine whether there was a statistically significant difference between populations of cells, i.e., percentage mitochondria and smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum, removed from experimental and control animals. Analysis of data indicated no statistical differences between field control and field treatment animals, although differences were noted between field and laboratory animals. 16. Ultrastructural Evaluation of Tissues Removedfjgm^Animals Exposed to TCDD Principal Investigator: Major Glenn M. Buchanan, Department of Chemistry and Biological Sciences Sponsored by the Frank J. Seiler Research Laboratory (AFSC) A long-term study of the possible biological hazards of pelage exposure to 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) has been initiated on the beachmouse, Peromyscus polionotus. Animals were divided into three experimental groups: untreated controls, a "treated" control group dusted with diatomaceous earth, and a "treated" group dusted with diatomaceous earth containing 2.5 parts per billion TCDD. The animals were dusted three times per week; the TCDD concentration simulating an exposure that was twice that expected from normal rangeland application rates of 0.1 parts per million TCDD contaminated 2,4,5-T herbicide. The effect of TCDD on animal weight, blood components, and 27 �cellular ultrastructure (adrenal cortex, testes, liver and kidney) will be investigated following completion of the study. Animal weight data collected over a nine-week period indicated no effect due to TCDD applications, relative to controls. D. Department of Civil Engineering, Engineering Mechanics, and Materials 1. Backing Strength of Masonry Shear Walls Principal Investigator: Captain Richard H. Jolley, Department of Civil Engineering, Engineering Mechanics and Materials Sponsored by the USAF Academy Increased interest in using masonry for load-bearing structural systems has necessitated review of existing code design criteria and establishing improved design techniques. The objectives of this project are to (1) formulate a failure criteria for walls subjected to "in plane" loads and (2) establish a deflection prediction criteria for walls subjected to "in plane" loads. The final report is complete and available to any agency or interested individual. Contact USAF Academy, DFCEM. 2. Validation of the Soil Stabilization Index System with Manual Development Principal Investigators: Captains John J. Allen, and Dallas Little, and Technical Sergeant Glenn K. Kaneyuki, Department of Civil Engineering, Engineering Mechanics and Materials Sponsored by the Air Force Civil Engineering Center and the Frank J. Seller Research Laboratory, Air Force Systems Command (AFSC) The project scope as detailed in Annual Research Progress Report No. 10 was extended to include required values of residual strength for 28 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange Description An account of the resource <p style="margin-top: -1em; line-height: 1.2em;">The Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange comprises 120 linear feet and spans the late 1800s to 2005; however, the bulk of the coverage is from the 1960s to the 1980s and there are many undated items. The collection was donated to Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in 1985 by Dr. Alvin L. Young (1942- ). Dr. Young developed the collection as he conducted extensive research on the military defoliant Agent Orange. The collection is in good condition and includes letters, memoranda, books, reports, press releases, journal and newspaper clippings, field logs and notebooks, newsletters, maps, booklets and pamphlets, photographs, memorabilia, and audiotapes of an interview with Dr. Young.</p> <p>For more about this collection, <a href="/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/alvin-l--young-collection-on-a">view the Agent Orange Exhibit.</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Box The box containing the original item. 017 Folder The folder containing the original item. 0196 Series The series number of the original item. Series II Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Description An account of the resource <strong>Corporate Author: </strong>Dean of Faculty, United States Air Force Academy, Colorado Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1976-07-01 Title A name given to the resource Annual Research Progress Report No. 11, Covering Period: 1 July 1975 - 30 June 1976 Subject The topic of the resource Eglin AFB herbicide disposal animal testing bibliography https://www.nal.usda.gov/exhibits/speccoll/files/original/9d5e86ed06c14334134979fc62f2be7a.pdf 06c316c73f4d4fb8a1bba3d519ef5b68 PDF Text Text Item ID Number 00197 Author Corporate Author Dean of Facu| RODOrt/ArtiCiO Title Annual ty> United States Air Force Academy, Colo Research Progress Report No. 12, Covering Period: 1 July 1976 - 30 June 1977 Journal/Book Title Year 1977 Month/Day Color Number of Images DOSOriptOU Notes Ju| v n 19 The followin g pages relating to the collection and Dr. Alvin Young's research interests were scanned: cover, title page, iii-xiii, 15-19 Monday, January 22, 2001 Page 209 of 341 �DEAN OF FACULTY UNITED STATES AIR FORCE ACADEMY, C O L O R A D O Annual Research Progress Report No. 12 July 1977 COVERING PERIOD 1 July 1976 - 30 June 1977 �Annual Research Progress Report No. 12 Covering Period 1 July 1976 - 30 June 1977 This document has been approved for public release and sale; its distribution is unlimited This is the fifth published Annual Research Progress Report; the editions previous to 1972 were published as Semi-Annual Progress Reports. Further information desired on any project may be obtained by writing to the department listed for the principal investigator, USAF Academy, Colorado 80840 ��TABLE OF CONTENTS Page I. SCIENTIFIC AND ENGINEERING INVESTIGATIONS A. Department of Aeronautics 1 1. Drag Characteristics of Missile Nose Shapes 1 2. Flow Field Disturbance Created by Porous Spoilers ... 1 3. The Flow Dynamics of Unsteady Separating Regions ... 2 4. Improved Airplane Maneuvering Performance 3 5. AER0464RPV: A Computerized Approach to Teaching Aircraft Design 3 6. Productive Applications of Dynamic Aeroelasticity ... 4 7. Estimation of Instantaneous Distortion for the YF-12C Inlet 4 8. Plume Effects on Missile Aerodynamics 5 B. Department of Astronautics and Computer Science 5 1. Test Generation Software 5 2. Visual, Interpretive Execution of an Algol Program . . 6 3. Computerized Inverted File Concordance 6 4. Basic Cadet Evaluation System 7 5. Development of an Operating System for the GT40/PDP-11 Graphics Computer 7 6. Host-Slave Interface Design for a Microprogrammable Remote Emulation Facility 7 7. Another Simple Way to Present Computer Programming, presented at the SIG-CSE Conference in Atlanta, GA 2 Feb 1977 8 111 �C. Department of Chemistry and Biological Sciences 8 1. Lead as an Indicator of Environmental Quality in Airport Environs. , 8 2. Detonation Property Prediction and Modeling 9 3. Thermal Decomposition/Structure-Bonding Relationships 10 4. Pattern Analysis and Correlation of Weather and Air Pollution Data in the Pikes Peak Region 12 5. Determination of Parameters for a Model of Environmental Quality for USAF Installations 13 6. Chemical Laser Reactants: XeF- 14 7. An Evaluation of Worldwide Capabilities in Genetic Engineering 14 8. Comparison of Stress Responses in Male and Female Cadets at the USAF Academy 15 9. Ultrastructural Evaluation of Tissues Removed from Animals Exposed to TCDD 15 10. Radiochemical Bioassay of TCDD Uptake in Plant Material 16 11. Disposal of Herbicide Orange by Soil Incorporation and Biodegradation 17 12. Ecological Studies of a Herbicide-Equipment Test Area (TA C-52A), Eglin AFB Reservation, Florida .... 18 D. Department of Civil Engineering, Engineering Mechanics, and Materials . . 19 1. Composite Stress Distribution 19 2. Elastic Waves in Layered Media 19 3. Equilibrium and Stability of Circularly Towed Cables . 20 IV �4. Explosive Impulse Welding 20 5. Finite Element Cable Studies 21 6. Fracture Mechanics 22 7. Load-Deformation Relationship for Split-Ring Timber Connections 23 8. Masonry 23 9. Mesh Generator 24 10. Solar Energy 24 11. Tensile Testing Machine Controller 25 12. Wind Energy Conversion System (WECS) 25 E. Department of Electrical Engineering. 26 1. Effects of Weightlessness on the Cardiovascular System 26 2. Study of Composite Materials in an Electromagnetic Environment 27 3. Bulk Properties of Annealed High Resistivity Gallium Arsenide 27 4. Digital Filtering on the IMP-16 28 5. Tensile Tester Instrumentation 28 6. Tropo-Link Simulator 28 7. Space Test Program Experiment Prioritization 29 8. Digital Communications Performance Monitor 29 9. USAFA Solar Energy Program 30 10. Parachute System Radio Relay (PSRR) v 30 �F. Department of Mathematical Sciences 1. Strategic Command Control Ctanmunications (SC ) 31 31 2. An Encke Method in Poincare1 - Similar - Elements ... 32 3. Shock Waves in Explosives 33 4. Network Evaluation Through Simulation 34 5. Uses of the SR-52 in Cadet Navigation Programs .... 35 6. Terminal Homing Program - Urban Scene Generation ... 35 G. Department of Physics 36 1. Computer Simulation of Cloud Droplet Growth by the Condensation Process 2. Adaptive Optics: Laboratory Simulation of Various Adaptive Optics Techniques and Systems 36 3. Properties of the Image on the Turin Cloth 37 4. Proton Prediction Techniques 38 5. A Pinhole-Scintillator X-Ray Camera for Diagnostics of the AFWL SHIVA S-Ray Simulator II. 36 39 GENERAL RESEARCH IN THE HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES A. Department of Astronautics and Computer Science 41 1. Improved Validity of Officer Effectiveness Reports by Computer 41 2. Special Education Information Storage and Retrieval System 41 3. Cadet Wing Research 42 B. Department of Behavioral Sciences and Leadership 42 1. Reacquisition and Maintenance of Flying Skills .... 42 2. Analysis of Soviet Behavioral Sciences VI 43 �3. Improving Methods of Evaluating Simulator Systems 43 4. The Validity of Various Measures in Predicting Pilot Training Performance 43 5. An Assessment of the Motivational Values of the Aviation Programs at the U.S. Air Force Academy .... 44 6. The Effects of Anxiety and Auditory Noise on Receiver Sensitivity in a Signal DetectionVigilance Task 44 7. A Study of Secondary Reinforcement Theory 45 8. Assessment Procedures for Stress Management Training in an Academic Setting 46 9. Pilot Performance with Peripheral Vision 46 10. The Effects of Job Enrichment and Goal Setting on Work Satisfaction and Performance 47 11. Attitudes Toward Women at'the United States Air Force Academy 48 12. USAFA MMPI Research Project 49 Department of Economics, Geography and Management 50 1. Political Overboundedness and the Urbanization of Rural Settlement Patterns 50 2. Crime in El Paso County Colorado: A Spatial Perspective 51 3. 1976 Proceedings of the Academy of Management 51 4. Estudio Longitudinal de la Communicacion en la Investigacion: Influencias Techias y de Gestion ... 52 5. An Appraisal of Partial Recovery & Disaster: The Lice Earthquake of 1975 52 6. The Lice Earthquake in Southeastern Turkey: A Geography of the Disaster 52 �7. Reconstruction After Disaster: The Gediz Earthquake of 1970 53 8. Toward an Understanding of Opium Poppy Production in Turkey 53 9. Determination of True Elevations from Aerial Photographs 54 10. Locational Analysis of Crime in El Paso County, Colorado, 1975 54 11. Energy Resource Maps 55 12. Colorado Springs Chamber of Commerce Maps 55 13. Soviet Naval Strategy and Deployment of Maritime Forces: A Selected Annotated Bibliography 55 14. Disaster and Change in Rural Turkey 56 15. High Yielding Mexican Wheat in Turkey 56 16. Site Analysis for the Hacking of Falcons at the United States Air Force Academy 57 17. Vista Grande Bus Route: Rider Characteristics Study 57 .D. Department of English and Fine Arts 57 1. Practical College Writing 57 2. James Whitehead and Mary Lee Settle 58 3. Robert Perm Warren: A Collector's Checklist 58 4. O1 Conner and Warren: Christian Points of View .... 58 5. The Earl of Bute and George Germain: Machiavels of the American Revolution as Seen by London's Poets, 1763-1783 59 6. An Annotated Bibliography of Technical Writing Textbooks for 2-Year, Secondary, and 4-Year Programs. . 59 7. The Old English ae from the Indo-European e 60 8. Air Force Effective Writing Program 60 Vlll �9. The Admission and Integration of Women into the United States Mr Force Academy E. Department of Foreign Languages 60 61 1. Some Preliminary Hypotheses on the Semiotic Microcosm of Gottfried's Tristan 61 2. Computers in Foreign Language Research 61 3. The Case for Reassessing the Treatment of the Modal Particles in German Language Instruction 62 it 4. Die Pragmatische Interpretation der "Fullworter" in der Umgangssprache: Bin Beitrag zur Beschreibung ihrer Funktionen in Sprechakten. (The Pragmatic Interpretation of the Modal Particles in Colloquial German: On the Description of Their Functions in Speech Acts 62 5. Oral History of the Hispanic American of Colorado ... 62 6. Perceived Cultural Values and Academic Success in Higher Education 63 7. Spanish Language Culture Materials 63 8. FRANCE - Land and People: A Handbook 64 9. GERMANY - Land and People: A Handbook 64 10. LATIN AMERICA - Land and People: A handbook 64 11. Computer Management of Grading and Test Analysis in USAFA Foreign Language Courses 65 F. Department of History 65 1. A History of the United States Air Force 65 2. USAFA Oral History Program 66 3. The Harmon Memorial Lectures in Military History ... 67 4. The American Military on the Frontier: The Proceedings of the 1976 Military History Symposium 67 5. Establishing Yeoman Farmer Regions in the Antebellum 68 Deep South IX �6. Origins of the National Science Foundation 68 7. American Military Missions to Korea: 1882-1896 .... 68 8. Yun Chi-Ho, A Korean Modernizer, 1864-1945 69 9. East and West in Ceylon, 1884 . 70 10. American Forces in Foreign Cultures 70 11. The Marquess Wellesley in Irish and British Politics 70 12. Crown and Castle: British Administration in Ireland 1800-1830 71 13. Stalag Luft III: The Allied Experience in a World War II German Prisoner of War Camp 71 14. Timothy Walker and the Growth of American Law 72 15. Laser Weapons Research and Development at the Air Force Weapons Laboratory, 1967-1972 72 16. The Airborne Laser Laboratory, 1968-1972 73 17. General Hoyt S. Vandenberg 73 18. The ni'/ergence of Policy and Power. 73 19. US Military Operations in Vietnam 74 20. The Creation on the GHQ Air Force 74 21. US Defense Policy Since 1945 74 G. Department of Political Science and !••• d.losophy 74 1. The American Military — Theirs o :;jason Why 75 2. The Ethics of Leadership. 75 3. The Evolution of Philosophical T! ^x -t 75 4. Managerial Integrity 76 5. Ethics for Commanders 76 �6. Ethics and the Military Profession 77 7. Ethical Issues of Military Leadership Today 78 8. The North Atlantic Alliance 78 9. Politico-Military Expertise 79 10. The Dismissal of Teng Hsiao-p'ing 79 11. The Chinese People's Liberation Army and Minority Nationalities . ., 80 12. The Thai Insurgency 80 13. Counterinsurgency in Thailand 80 14. A Comparative Study of Indonesian and Philippine Military Elites , 81 15. How Military Elite Role Perceptions in Southeast Asia Conflict With The Civil-Military Paradigm 81 16. Soviet Political .and Military Elements of Power .... 82 17. Soviet and NATO Capabilities 82 18. 82 SALT and Arms Control 19. The Organization of Defense Policy H. Department of Mathematical Sciences 83 83 1. Computer Graphics for Math Classrooms 2. A Personalized System of Instruction in Core Mathematics II I. 83 84 RESEARCH AND ANALYSIS OF SPACE AND WEAPONS SYSTEMS A. Department of Astronautics and Computer Science ...... 86 1. Research Support for the NAVSTAR Global Positioning System (GPS) XI 86 �2. Air-to-Air Fire Control Research 89 3. Epoch When a Given Sun Elevation Angle Will Exist At Any Specified Site On Earth 91 4. Interplanetary Navigation In Presence Of Random Thrust Errors For Solar Electric Propulsion Spacecraft Using Photon Counting Star Trackers 92 B. Department of Mathematical Sciences 92 1. Feasibility Study on the Simulator for Air-to-Air Combat (SAAC) 92 2. Boundary Layer Acoustic Monitor (B.L.A.M.) Calibration. 93 IV. MANPOWER, PROCUREMENT AND LOGISTICS STUDIES A. Department of Economics, Geography and Management 1. Forecasting Wage Escalation at Arnold Engineering and Development Center (AEDC) .94 94 2. An Expenditure Pattern Evaluation of Alternates T, L, & J 94 3. A Parametric Model for Nuclear Warhead. Costs 94 4. A General Technique for R&D Cost Forecasting 95 5. An Econometric Study of Aerial Interdiction in Southern Laos, 10 October 1970-30 June 1971 95 6. Performance Incentives Versus Prices Versus Quantities 96 7. The U.S. Versus the Soviet Inventive Models 96 8. The Use of Statistical Sampling in Contract Pricing . . 97 9. A Search for a Set of Performance Criteria for Use in a Government Internal Audit Management Control System (PhD dissertation) 10. Accounting Power, The Political Element and the Cost Accounting Standards Board Xll 98 98 �11. Study of Free Assets 99 12. Performance Incentives and Planning Under Uncertainty . 99 13. Games Contractor's Play 99 14. You, Your Job and Your Future 100 15. Calculating the Cost of a Civilian Public College Education 100 16. An Economic Investigation of Expected Returns Across Occupations in the U.S. Non-Supervisory Labor Force (PhD dissertation) 101 17. The Critical Link 101 18. Organization Theory: A Conceptualization 101 B. Department of Mathematical Sciences Aircraft Modification Study Xlll 102 102 ��reviews and personal interviews. Baseline data are being accumulated in order to assess trends and progress in genetic engineering research and potential applications. A final report will be submitted in September 1977. 8. Comparison of Stress Responses in Male and Female Cadets at the USAF Academy Principal Investigators: Maj M.T. Mason, and Capt and Biological Sciences; Hospital; and LtCol J.C. of Athletics LtCol Orwyn Sampson, Maj John B. Bomar, Ildiko Andrews, Department of Chemistry LtCol G.E. Robertshaw, USAF Academy Thomas and Capt R.W. Cote, Department This research is presently unsponsored. Information is required in the interest of establishing training programs and standards which yield the most beneficial effect for both male and female cadet trainees in the shortest possible time. The proposed study would provide data to document altitude acclimatization and physiological responses to physical training. The study would provide baseline data for comparison with future cadet populations. During the summer of 1976 a pilot study was conducted in a population of 50 female cadets. Partial results of the pilot study indicated improvements in cardiovascular fitness similar to that noted in previous male populations. Publications Cote, R.W., J.B. Bomar, Jr., G.E. Robertshaw, and J.C. Thomas. 1977. Maxiinal aerobic power in women cadets at the U.S. Air Force Academy. Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine 48(2):154-155. 9. Ultrastructural Evaluation of Tissues Removed from Animals Exposed to TCDD Principal Investigator: Maj Glenn M. Buchanan, Department of Chemistry and Biological Sciences Sponsored by the Frank J. Seller Research Laboratory, Air Force Systems Command (AFSC) 15 �Peromyscus polionotus, chronically-exposed to low levels of 2,3,7,8tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) in the laboratory. Post irortem examination of control and treated animals (exposed for 9 weeks to 2.5 ppb TCDD applied to the pelage) revealed no observable differences in organs or in total body weight. Analyses of photomicrographs of adrenal cortex tissues will be completed by 1 July 1977. Although tissue preparation is complete, the photomicrographs of testes, liver, and kidney have not been taken. 10. Radiochemical Bioassay of TCDD Uptake in Plant Material Principal Investigators: Capt James M. Cupello and Capt Alvin L. Young, Department of Chemistry and Biological Sciences Sponsored by Frank J. Seller Research Laboratory (AFSC), and Air Force Logistics Command/OS In laboratory experiments using specially designed growth boxes, cut and intact roots of sorghum [Sorghum bicolpr (L.) MDench] seedlings were exposed to a 1 cm layer of soil containing 14 parts per million (ppm) 14C-labeled TCDD (2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin). Radioisotopic and gas chromatographic mass spectre-metric (GC-MS) analysis of extracts from leaf tissue collected after 64 days of root exposure indicated the absence of TCDD (detection limit was 100 parts per trillion/ppt). However, radioisotopic analysis of the non-extractable residue indicated the presence of sufficient 14C activity to be equivalent to 430 ppt TCDD in the plant tissue. Sufficient residue was not available to characterize the 14C-labeled molecule. However, if the activity is from unaltered TCDD, the maximum possible uptake into the leaves of sorghum would be 0.00003% by weight of that applied to the soil. 16 �Publications Cupello, J.M., A.L. Young, and J.C.H. Smith. 1977. A method for simulating subsurface disposal of herbicides. Weed Science, In Press. Cupello, J.M. and A.L. Young. 1977. Possible TCDD uptake in Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench. Agronomy Journal, In Press_. 11. Disposal of Herbicide Orange by Soil Incorporation and Biodegradation Principal Investigators: Capt Alvin L. Young and Capt William J. Cairney, Department of Chemistry and Biological Sciences, and Lt Col Eugene L. Arnold, USAF School of Aerospace Medicine Sponsored by Air Force Logistics Command/LO Four years Of field data have been collected from Herbicide Orange biodegradation plots established in Utah (AFLC Test Range Complex) and Florida (Eglin AFB Reservation) in 1972. The herbicide, a mixture of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T was soil incorporated at rates as high as 4,480 kg/ha. Periodic sampling was conducted on soil levels of 2,4-D, 2,4,5-T and the contaminant 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) as well as for the soil levels of microorganisms. Significant reduction in the level of herbicide occurred; the estimated half life appeared to be in the range of 150 to 210 days (Florida and Utah, respectively). The degradation of TCDD followed a similar pattern; the estimated half life appeared to be in the range of 225 to 275 days (Florida and Utah, respectively). The microbial studies have shown that the application of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T at massive rates (5,000-40,000 ppm) not only did not sterilize the soil, but indeed stimulated the growth of certain microflora. Publications Young, A.L., C.E. Thalken, E.L. Arnold, J.M. Cupello, and L.G. Cockerham. 1976. Fate of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin tTCDD) in the environment: summary and decontamination recommendations. Technical Report USAFA-TR-76-18, USAF Academy, CO 17 �12. Ecological Studies of a Herbicide-Equipment Test Area (TA C-52A), Eglin AFB Reservation/ Florida Principal Investigators: Capt Alvin L. Young, Maj Charles E. Thalken, and LtCol Lorris G. Cockerham, Department of Chemistry and Biological Sciences Sponsored by Air Force Logistics Command/DS Six years of field study have been completed on the ecosystem of Test Area C-52A, Eglin AFB, FL, a military test area of approximately 2.6 km2 that received 73,000 kg 2,4,5-T and 76,780 kg 2,4-D herbicide during the period 1962-1970. Although the herbicides degraded rapidly in the soil (e.g., the last detectable residue was found in December 1970), the residue of the highly toxic contaminant 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzp-pdioxin (TCDD) has persisted. It is now apparent that (1) although TCDD may persist in the environment for long periods of time (greater than 12 years) when initially present at high concentrations on the soil surface, it may be degrade*! by soil microorganisms; (2) TCDD may accumulate in the tissues of rodents, reptiles, birds, fish, and insects when these organisms are exposed to TCDD contaminated soils (however, the levels of TCDD in the tissues apparently do not exceed the levels of TCDD found in the environment); (3) rodents, reptiles, birds, fish and insects may tolerate, i.e., based on no observed deleterious effects in field studies, soil levels between 10-1,500 parts per trillion (ppt); and (4) movement of TCDD in the abiotic portions of the environment can be by wind or water erosion of soil particles, but leaching by water alone does not appear to occur. Publications Young, A.L., C.E. Thalken, E.L. Arnold, J.M. Cupello, and L.G. Cockerham. 1976. Fate of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) in the 18 �environment: summary and decontamination recxarnmendations. Technical Report USAFA-TR-76-18, USAF Academy, CO. Young, A.L. and J.H. Hunter. 1977. A long-term field study of vegetative succession following repetitive application of phenoxy herbicides. Weed Science Society of America Meetings, 8-10 Feb 77, St Louis, MO, Abstract 18. Cockerham, L.G., A.L. Young, and C.E. Thalken. 1977. Histopathological and ultrastructural studies of liver tissue from TCDD-exposed beachmice (Peromyscus polionotus). Technical Report, USAF Academy, CO, In Press. D. Department of Civil Engineering, Engineering Mechanics, and Materials 1. Composite Stress Distribution Principal Investigator: Capt William J. McClelland, Department of Civil Engineering, Engineering Mechanics and Materials The research into stress distribution in a unidirectional filamentary composite sheet with a finite transverse slit has been completed. A technical paper has been written and submitted to the co-author, Dr. Harold Gascoigne of the University of Utah, for his comments. The final draft will be written and submitted for publication before December 1977. 2. Elastic Waves in Layered Media Principal Investigator: Capt R. R. Gajewski, Department of Civil Engineering, Engineering Mechanics and Materials Exact solution for elastic waves in layered media are obtained using concept of generalized rays and Cagnaird's method for Laplace transforms. Displacement responses for various sources have been numerically obtained. Respose of a layered geology to pressure inside a finite spherical cavity has been used to check performance of large 19 �scale finite difference ground notion codes. Response of a plate to a single point force provides a basis for analyzing the signals recorded in acoustic emissions. Publication The Generalized Ray-Theory and Transient Response of Layered Elastic Solids with Y. H. Pao, Cornell University, to appear in Physical Acoustics/ Vol XIII, 1977. 3. Equilibrium and Stability of Circularly Towed Cables Principal Investigator: Maj J. J. Russell, Department of Civil Engineering, Engineering Mechanics and Materials This work has concentrated on the application of the finite element technique to the study of a cable towed behind an aircraft traveling in a circular path. Results predicting the equilibrium shape and its stability were obtained. Publications "Equilibrium and Stability of a Circularly Towed Cable Subject to Aerodynamic Drag", Journal of Aircraft, Vol 14 No 7f pp 680-686, July 1977. "Equilibrium and Stability of a Whirling Rod-Mass System", International Journal of Non-Linear Mechanics, Vol 12, pp 91-101, 1977. 4. Explosive Impulse Welding Principal Investigators: Maj George E. Cannon, Jr., Department of Civil Engineering, Engineering Mechanics and Materials and Lt Col Douglas H. Merkle, Air Force Weapons Laboratory Trestle Project Explosive impulse welding tests previously conducted at Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, Denver Research Institute and the Air Force Academy have been analyzed using flash x-rays, high-speed framing camera photographs, velocity and pressure probe records and various strength tests, all made during the time period when the 20 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange Description An account of the resource <p style="margin-top: -1em; line-height: 1.2em;">The Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange comprises 120 linear feet and spans the late 1800s to 2005; however, the bulk of the coverage is from the 1960s to the 1980s and there are many undated items. The collection was donated to Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in 1985 by Dr. Alvin L. Young (1942- ). Dr. Young developed the collection as he conducted extensive research on the military defoliant Agent Orange. The collection is in good condition and includes letters, memoranda, books, reports, press releases, journal and newspaper clippings, field logs and notebooks, newsletters, maps, booklets and pamphlets, photographs, memorabilia, and audiotapes of an interview with Dr. Young.</p> <p>For more about this collection, <a href="/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/alvin-l--young-collection-on-a">view the Agent Orange Exhibit.</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Box The box containing the original item. 017 Folder The folder containing the original item. 0197 Series The series number of the original item. Series II Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Description An account of the resource <strong>Corporate Author: </strong>Dean of Faculty, United States Air Force Academy, Colorado Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1977-07-01 Title A name given to the resource Annual Research Progress Report No. 12, Covering Period: 1 July 1976 - 30 June 1977 Subject The topic of the resource Eglin AFB animal testing herbicide disposal bibliography https://www.nal.usda.gov/exhibits/speccoll/files/original/0d2a75e6b0bb7744d1dc7e33b08e13dd.pdf e3edc54cdd3d3126976957ce7bdccdb9 PDF Text Text Item ID Number °0194 Author Corporate Author Dean of Faculty, United States Air Force Academy, Colo RODOrt/ArtfClO TitlO Annual Research Progress Report No. 9, Covering Period: 1 July 1973 - 30 June 1974 Journal/Book Title Year Month/Day Color Number of Images DeSCriptOU NOtBS Ju| v n 16 Tne following pages relating to the collection and Dr. Alvin Young's research interests were scanned: cover, title page, iii-xii, 46-48 Monday, January 22, 2001 Page 206 of 341 �CApr DEAN OF FACULTY UNITED STATES AIR FORCE ACADEMY, COLORADO Annual Research Progress Report No. 9 JULY 1974 COVERING PERIOD 1 JULY 1973 30 JUNE 1974 �Annual Research Progress Report No. 9 Covering Period 1 July 1973 - 30 June 1974 "This document has been approved for public release IT and sale; its distribution is unlimited.' This is the third published Annual Research Progress Report; the editions previous to 1972 were published as Semi-Annual Progress Reports. Further information desired on any project may be obtained by writing to the department listed for the principal investigator, USAF Academy, Colorado 80840. ��TABLE OF CONTENTS Page I. SCIENTIFIC AND ENGINEERING INVESTIGATIONS A. Department of Aeronautics 1 1. Stability and Control of a Canard Configured Missile • ... 1 2. Design and Construction of a Remotely Piloted Vehicle . . " 2 3. Experimental Verification of a Computer Transmission Line Model 3 4. Magnetic Annular Shock Tube 4 5. Microturbulent Heating of Plasmas . 4 6. Laser Attenuation by Turbulent Air with a Temperature Gradient 5 7. Wing Section Optimization 6 8. Ram Wing Surface Effect Vehicle .... 7 9. Airborne Laser Latoratory (ALL) Exhaust Ducts . . . 8 10. A Low-Cost Angle-of-Attack Indicator for Cockpit Display 9 11. Wind Vector Probe: A Compact Sensor for Angle-ofAttack, Sideslip, and Airspeed 10 12. Aerodynamic Holography 11 B. Department of Astronautics and Computer Science . . . . 12 . 1. Sequential Estimation of Random Thrust Errors for Solar Electric Propulsion Spacecraft 12 2. Two Numerical Methods to Solve Realistic Air-to-Air Combat Differential Games 111 12 �3. An Analysis of the Effect of Inaccuracies in the Atmospheric Density Model on Short-Term LowAltitude Orbit Prediction 13 4. A Satellite Tracking Instrument 14 5. Low-Thrust Solar Electric Propulsion Navigation Simulation Program . 15 6. Computer Programs for System Identification . . . . 16 7. Human Operator Identification 16 8. Riccati Transformation for Gradient Optimization Techniques 17 9. Interactive Computer Graphics 17 10. ASPOL Implementation on Burroughs B6700 18 11. Implementation of an Integrated Data Base/Management Information System at HQ AFCS 19 12. features List of Air Force Data Base Management Systems and Annotated Bibliography 20 13. The Data Administrator . . . . . . . . . 20 C. Department of Chemistry 21 1. High Energy Density Electrochemical Cells . . . . . 21 2. Ladder Polymer Chemistry 23 D. Department of Civil Engineering, Engineering Mechanics, Materials 24 1. Self-Erecting Aircraft Shelter 1 24 2. Trailing Wire Research Project 24 3. Polymer Tether Line Evaluation for Balloon Technology 25 4. Validation of the Soil Stabilization Index System with Manual Development 26 IV �5. Analysis of Fracture Surfaces by Scanning Electron Microscopy 27 6. Development of Oxidation-Resistant Columbium Alloys . 27 7. Investigation of the Wettability between Cobalt Alloys and Nickel Alloys by the Sessile Drop Method . 28 8. Automated Finite Element Mesh Generator 29 9. Dynamics of Cracked Structures Using Finite Elements. 29 10. Solar Energy 30 11. The Design, Construction, and Testing of a Flat Plate, Liquid Medium Solar Collector 31 12. Concentrated Solar Energy Study . . . . 32 / 13. Pulse Propagation in a Helical Spring 32 14. Computer Applications in Civil Engineering 33 15. Power Conversion Staff Study 34 E. Department of Electrical Engineering 35 1. Digital Communications Performance Monitor 35 2. Generalized Field Data Acquisition System 35 3. Mass Determination Feasibility Study Utilizing Force and Acceleration Measurements 36 4. A Simulation Study of Synthetic Aperture Radar 36 ... 5. Instrumentation Processors for High-Explosive Ground Motion Measurements 37 6. Analysis and. Improvement of the Focusing System of the Air Force Field Test Telescrop 38 7. Noise Meter 38 8. Implementation of Digital Filters on Microcomputers . 39 9. Thin Film Thermal Detectors 39 v �10. Absorption Measurements of Metals 40 11. On-Axis Tracking Systems 40 12. Skylab LVMS 41 F. Department of Life and Behavioral Sciences 41 1. Hunan Factors Engineering Study on Helmet-Mounted Displays 41 2. Survey of Soviet Research in Behavioral Sciences . . 42 3. Muscle Relaxation and Biofeedback as a Stress Management Technique 42 4. Foil Activation Analysis and Thermoluminescent Dosimetry on SKYLAB II 43 5. Systems Analysis of Physiologic Responses to Environmental Stresses 44 6. Physiologic Changes in Swine during Hypoxia .... 45 7. Lipids and Lipoproteins in USAF Academy Cadets . . . 45 8. Radiation Dose to Specific Body Organs . . . . . . . . 46 9. Ecological Studies on a Herbicide-Equipment Test Area (TAC-52A), Eglin AFB Reservation, Florida . . 46 10. Disposal of Herbicide Orange by Soil Incorporation and Biodegradation G. Department of Mathematical Sciences 47 48 1. Strategic Command, Control, and Communications . . . 48 2. Oscillation of a Function at a Point 49 3. Almost Periodic Solutions of Delay Differential Systems 49 4. An Addendum to Systems of Ordinary Differential Equations 50 H. Department of Physics 50 VI �1. Lasers, Unstable Resonators 50 2. Neutron and Gamma-Ray-Induced Reactions 51 3. Holography 52 4. Second Harmonic Generation in KD*P 53 5. X-ray Diffraction Studies in Organic Esters-Variations in Crystal Structure for Several Chain Molecules ! . , 54 6. Laser Propagation Through Turbulent Boundaries ... 54 7. EMP Studiejs 55 8. Plasma Modeling 55 9. NMR Study of Liquid Crystals 57 10. Laser Calorimetry 58 11. Solar Energy Panels 58 12. Solar Energy Conversion 58 13. Estimated Thermal Updraft Index ... 59 14. Radiation Belt Studies 59 15. Cloud Droplet Sizing 60 16. Study of Degradation of Integrated Circuits by Means of SEM Physics 61 17. Study of Battery Electrode Deterioration Using the SEM 62 II. GENERAL RESEARCH IN THE HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES A. Department of Astronautics and Computer Science . . . . 63 1. Computer Analysis of the Minnesota Multiphasic Inventory (MMPI) 63 2. An Automated Circulation System for USAFA Library . 63 B. Department of Economics, Geography, and Management vii .. 64 �1. Computation Techniques for Various Gravity Anomaly Convection Terms 64 2. Computation Techniques for Various Gravity Anomaly Convection Terms and Their Effect Upon the Vertical Computations for Mountainous Areas , . 64 3. Modern Cartography . 65 4. The Use of Television Advertising in the 1972 General Election in Colorado 65 5. An Analysis of the Spatial Functional Organization of Southern Africa and Its Implications for Regional Transportation Systems 66 6. Improving the Quality of and Aggregating Opinions Expressed as Subjective Probability Distributions . 66 7. Environmental Influence on Organizational Decision Making: An Experimental Study of the Effects of Information Load and Specificity on Small Group Decision Making . 67 8. The Effects of Security Classification Restrictions on Technical Communication . 68 -9. Communication in Research 69 10. Managerial Attitudes and Behavior in a High-and Low-Performing Environment: A Comparative Test of an Expectancy Theory Model 70 11. Test and Implementation of Multimedia, Self-Paced Instruction in the Financial Accounting Course at the USAF Academy ' 71 C. Department of Foreign Languages 71 1. A Contrastive Study of Case in Chinese and English 71 2. A Stylistic Analysis of Andre Gide's La Symphonie Pastorale 72 D. Department of History ,. ' 1. . A History of the United States Air Force viii 72 72 �2. Oral History Program 3. Blacks in the Air Force, 1945 - 1964 . . . . . . . 73 4. The Harmon Memorial Lectures in Military History . 73 5. The Military and Society: The Proceedings of the 1972 History Symposium 74 6. Social and Economic Consequences of WWI in Kenya . 74 7. Nevada's Fighting Irishman: Senator Pat McCarran of Nevada 74 8. The Development of Aircraft and Doctrine in the Royal Flying Corps, 1912 - 1914 * 73 75 9. Marshal Suchet and the Administration of Aragon 10. The Mexican Army: . 1875- 1900 E. Department of Law 75 75 76 1. USAFA Television Cable Hook-up to Pine Valley Elementary School 76 2. IRS Information Return for CWITF . 76 3. Endowment of Faculty Chairs/Pay Supplements for Permanent Professors 76 4. Cadet Life Insurance Review Committee Report, 30 May 1974 76 5. Retirement of Permanent Professors 77 6. Voting by Military Members and Their Spouses in Local School Bond Elections in Colorado 77 7. Application of Colorado Lottery Laws to "Lucky" Number Drawings at USAFA Athletic Functions . . . 77 8. Use of Air Force Academy Facilities by Professional Athletes 78 9. Commissioning of Air Force Academy Graduates as Reserve Officers ' 78 IX �10. Use of Air Force Academy Facilities by Non-Profit Organizations Directed Toward Athletic Endeavors . F. Department of Mathematical Sciences 79 1. Net Assessment (Military) of NATO and Warsaw Pact Forces in Central Europe G. Department of Political Science and Philosophy 78 .... 79 79 1. The US/FRG Engineer Exchange Program: An Evaluation 79 2. An Inquiry into the Decision-Making Process during a Period of Impending Thermonuclear/Central War: The Information Requirements of Command Central Communications (C3) 80 3. United States Security Interests in Northeast Asia (Classified) 81 4. The October War 81 5. The Iranian Connection 81 6. The Success Criteria and Progression of Insurgency 82 7. The Energy Crisis and US Foreign Policy 82 8. Revolutionary Warfare in the Middle East 82 9. The IRA and Northern Ireland 83 10. Comparative Examination of Procedures Used for National-Level Planning, Coordination, and Management of Psychological Operations in the United States, Great Britain, the Federal Republic of Germany, and France 83 11. Mongolian People's Republic 84 12. Insurgency in Thailand 84 13. Moral Education and Good Citizenship in the United States of America: 1974 84 x �. 14. The Value Dimension of Professionalism: Some Reflections 84 III. RESEARCH AND ANALYSIS OF SPACE AND WEAPONS SYSTEMS A. Department of Astronautics and Computer Science ... 1. Air-to-Air Fire Control Research 2. Gunship 86 86 90 v 3. Sight Line Autopilot (SLAP) Research 4. Backup Space Navigation System . 92 5. Backward Traveling Missile 92 6. Electronic Warfare Effectiveness Evaluation . . . • 91 93 B. Department of Civil Engineering, Engineering Mechanics, and Materials . . . . 93 1. Dynamic Photoelastic Analysis of an Explosive Testing System 93 2. Analytical Optional Control Solutions for Hypervelocity Reentry Vehicles -...'.... 94 C. Department of Electrical Engineering 95 1. Evaluation of TAG CONTROLLER Simulation 95 D. Department of Mathematical Sciences 95 1. Automatic Pattern Recognition (APR) for Space Object Identification (SOI) 95 IV. MANPOWER, PROCUREMENT, AND LOGISTIC STUDIES A. Department of Economics, Geography, and Management 1. The Economic Impact of Air Force Academy Graduates .. 98 98 2. Project "EOQ" ; 98 3. Project "POL" 99 XI �4. Project "Procurement Productivity Indices" .... 5. Improvement of PIEMAN Maintenance Model 100 101 6. Bibliography of Cost Estimating Relationships . . . 101 7. Impact of the Section 8 (a) Program on the Department of Defense Budget 102 8. System for Establishing Contractor Ceilings for Independent Research and Development (IR§D) and Bid and Proposal (B$P) Costs (PROJECT NOTADS) . . . 102 * 9. Judgment Policy-Capturing , 10. Logistics Organization Design 104 11. Macrologistics Systems Analysis 105 12. PIEMAN--Persistent Indicators for Estimating Manpower Needs in AFLC Air Logistics Centers 106 13. Uniform Reorder Quantities and Stock Levels . . . . 106 14. Study of the Air Force Civilian Pay System - 103 107 .... 15. The Impact of Military Expenditures on Domestic Small Business Enterprises B. Department of Mathematical Sciences 108 109 1. Impact of Certain Incentiyes on the Service Asses- sion Rate ....... .. . /. 109 2. UPT Assignment Criteria 109 3. Regression Analysis Model for the Prediction of GPA Scores 110 4. A Study of the New Officer Efficiency Report . . . 110 C. The Academy Library 112 1. Air Force Graduate Education Policy 112 2. Management Survey of the USAF Academy Academic • Library 113 xn �6. Physiologic Changes in Swine during Hypoxia Principal Investigators: Colonel Peter B. Carter and Majors John W. Watters and Louis F. Wailly, Department of Life and Behavioral Sciences The animal of choice for this experiment was the pig because of the similarities to cardiovascular response observed in man. The subjects were baselined under room-air conditions and then stressed on 101 and 5% respired oxygen. The following physiologic responses were monitored ' «f- throughout the experimentations: blood pressure, heart rate, respiratory rate, and body temperature. Periodic blood samples were drawn to measure p02, pC02, pH, and Hct. This was a pilot study for a more intensive investigation of cardiovascular kenetics during environmental stress which will be initiated in the near future. 7. Lipids and Lipoproteins in USAF Academy Cadets , Principal Investigators: Major Eugene L. Arnold, Department of Life and Behavioral Sciences This is a continuing project to obtain data on serum lipid and lipoprotein levels in order to evaluate what changes are attributable to natural maturation, to diet, and to the environment (social pressure, exercise, altitude, etc.) of USAF Academy cadets during their four years at the Academy and during the following two years. Blood samples are collected from cadets at the USAF Academy periodically for analyses of serum lipids, lipoproteins, and related factors. Less frequently, lean body mass is estimated for correlation 45 �with the lipid data., Estimates are made periodically of caloric intake, of the composition of the diet, and of the degree of emotional stress experienced by the subjects of the study. 8. Radiation Dose to Specific Body Organs Principal Investigators: Colonel Peter B. Carter and Majors Louis F. Wailly and John W. Watters, Department of Life and Behavioral Sciences s The objective of this effort is to continue the development of the Computerized Anatomical Man Model (CAM model), described in MDC G4655, for application to the analysis of space radiation hazards and radiation dose monitoring systems for Shuttle Orbiter and Shuttle payloads, i.e., Sortie Modules. This phase is devoted to generation of precise body self-shielding data for selected, radiation-sensitive body organs and to providing' a general capability in the program to generate such data for body postures other than the one explicitly included in the CAM model. The CAM model will be utilized to generate precise mass distribution data for selected body organs. These mass distribution data will be in a collapsed form in which angular orientation is not preserved. Data for spatially distributed organs will be furnished in a volume integrated form as well as for individual points withi» the organ. 9. Ecological Studies on a Herbicide-Equipment Test Area (TA C-52AJ, Eglin AFB Reservation, Florida Principal Investigators: Lt Col William E. Ward, Major Charles E. Thalken, and Captains Alvin L. Young and William J. Cairney, Department of Life and Behavioral Sciences Sponsored by Air Force Logistics Command/DS and Air Force Systems Command/SDWC 46 �This project is concerned with determining the ecological consequences of applying massive quantities of military herbicides (346,117 pounds), via repetitive applications over a period of 8 years (1962-1970) to an area of approximately 1 square mile. Data have been obtained in the persistence, degradation, and/or disappearance of the herbicides and the contaminant 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin from the Test Area's soils and drainage waters and their subsequent effects (direct or indirect) upon the vegetative, faunal, and microbial communities. Publications One technical report (AFATL-TR-74-12, Eglin AFB, Florida) has been published on this project. An additional report will be prepared following summer 1974 efforts. 10. Disposal of Herbicide Orange by Soil Incorporation and Biodegradation Principal Investigators: Lt Col William E. Ward, Majors Eugene E. Arnold and Charles E. Thalken, and Captains Alvin L. Young and William J. Cairney, Department of Life and Behavioral Sciences Sponsored by Air Force Logistics Command/DS Concern over the level of contamination of 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4,5-T) herbicide by the teratogen 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) may result in the disposal of selected USAF surplus inventories of herbicide Orange. A potential disposal method is that of soil incorporation. The soil incorporation method is based on the premise that high concentrations of phenoxy herbicide and TCDD will be degraded to innocuous products by the combined action of soil microorganisms and soil chemical hydrolysis. 47 �Data from field sites in Florida, Kansas, and Utah indicate rapid degradation of Orange herbicide and its contaminant following soil incorporation at rates of 1,000-4,000 pounds active ingredient per acre. Associated ecological studies of the incorporation sites have indicated that only minimal ecological damage results from either the incorporation technique or the applied herbicide. Publications One report has been published on this effort. A concluding technical report is in progress. G. Department of Mathematical Sciences 1. Strategic Command, Control, and Communications Principal Investigators: Colonel R. R. Lochry, Lt Col J. B. Tindall, Lt Col D. G. Balish, Department of Mathematical Sciences; Lt Col C. M. Glass, Department of Electrical Engineering; Major D. Murray, Department of Political Science and Philosophy; Captain D. Willis, Department of Astronautics and Computer Science Sponsored by the Air Force Weapons Laboratory, Kirtland AFB, New Mexico FY 74 began with the Strategic Communications Workshop (SCW) f held in August at the Air Force Academy. Major General Lee M. Paschall was the keynote speaker, and representatives of OJCS/J3/J6, USAF/SA, NORAD, SAC, USN/NESC, DCS, DNA, AFWL, NELC, and many civilian contractors participated. The purpose of the SCW was to focus on the requirements of communications modeling and to gain some exposure to the modeling efforts of other DOD agencies. Our own efforts in research have produced some notable results and promise of more to come. 48 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange Description An account of the resource <p style="margin-top: -1em; line-height: 1.2em;">The Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange comprises 120 linear feet and spans the late 1800s to 2005; however, the bulk of the coverage is from the 1960s to the 1980s and there are many undated items. The collection was donated to Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in 1985 by Dr. Alvin L. Young (1942- ). Dr. Young developed the collection as he conducted extensive research on the military defoliant Agent Orange. The collection is in good condition and includes letters, memoranda, books, reports, press releases, journal and newspaper clippings, field logs and notebooks, newsletters, maps, booklets and pamphlets, photographs, memorabilia, and audiotapes of an interview with Dr. Young.</p> <p>For more about this collection, <a href="/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/alvin-l--young-collection-on-a">view the Agent Orange Exhibit.</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Box The box containing the original item. 017 Folder The folder containing the original item. 0194 Series The series number of the original item. Series II Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Description An account of the resource <strong>Corporate Author: </strong>Dean of Faculty, United States Air Force Academy, Colorado Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1974-07-01 Title A name given to the resource Annual Research Progress Report No. 9, Covering Period: 1 July 1973 - 30 June 1974 Subject The topic of the resource Eglin AFB herbicide disposal bibliographies ecological fate Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange Description An account of the resource <p style="margin-top: -1em; line-height: 1.2em;">The Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange comprises 120 linear feet and spans the late 1800s to 2005; however, the bulk of the coverage is from the 1960s to the 1980s and there are many undated items. The collection was donated to Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in 1985 by Dr. Alvin L. Young (1942- ). Dr. Young developed the collection as he conducted extensive research on the military defoliant Agent Orange. The collection is in good condition and includes letters, memoranda, books, reports, press releases, journal and newspaper clippings, field logs and notebooks, newsletters, maps, booklets and pamphlets, photographs, memorabilia, and audiotapes of an interview with Dr. Young.</p> <p>For more about this collection, <a href="/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/alvin-l--young-collection-on-a">view the Agent Orange Exhibit.</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Box The box containing the original item. 027 Folder The folder containing the original item. 0410 Series The series number of the original item. Series III Subseries I Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Veterinary and Human Toxicology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1980 Title A name given to the resource Dispute Resolution Conference on 2,4,5-T Subject The topic of the resource chloracne ecological impact herbicide poisoning Eglin AFB ao_seriesIII Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange Description An account of the resource <p style="margin-top: -1em; line-height: 1.2em;">The Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange comprises 120 linear feet and spans the late 1800s to 2005; however, the bulk of the coverage is from the 1960s to the 1980s and there are many undated items. The collection was donated to Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in 1985 by Dr. Alvin L. Young (1942- ). Dr. Young developed the collection as he conducted extensive research on the military defoliant Agent Orange. The collection is in good condition and includes letters, memoranda, books, reports, press releases, journal and newspaper clippings, field logs and notebooks, newsletters, maps, booklets and pamphlets, photographs, memorabilia, and audiotapes of an interview with Dr. Young.</p> <p>For more about this collection, <a href="/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/alvin-l--young-collection-on-a">view the Agent Orange Exhibit.</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Box The box containing the original item. 018 Folder The folder containing the original item. 0199 Series The series number of the original item. Series II Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Description An account of the resource <strong>Corporate Author: </strong>United States Air Force Academy, Colorado Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1971 Title A name given to the resource Faculty Publications, 1971: Papers, Books, Chapters, Reports, and Talks by Members of the Faculty and Research Staff Subject The topic of the resource pesticide testing Eglin AFB ecological fate bibliography Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange Description An account of the resource <p style="margin-top: -1em; line-height: 1.2em;">The Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange comprises 120 linear feet and spans the late 1800s to 2005; however, the bulk of the coverage is from the 1960s to the 1980s and there are many undated items. The collection was donated to Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in 1985 by Dr. Alvin L. Young (1942- ). Dr. Young developed the collection as he conducted extensive research on the military defoliant Agent Orange. The collection is in good condition and includes letters, memoranda, books, reports, press releases, journal and newspaper clippings, field logs and notebooks, newsletters, maps, booklets and pamphlets, photographs, memorabilia, and audiotapes of an interview with Dr. Young.</p> <p>For more about this collection, <a href="/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/alvin-l--young-collection-on-a">view the Agent Orange Exhibit.</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Box The box containing the original item. 018 Folder The folder containing the original item. 0200 Series The series number of the original item. Series II Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Description An account of the resource <strong>Corporate Author: </strong>United States Air Force Academy, Colorado Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1973-01-01 Title A name given to the resource Faculty Publications, 1972: Books, Texts, Manuals, Chapters, Papers, Reports, and Presentations by Members of the Faculty and Staff of the United States Air Force Academy Subject The topic of the resource Eglin AFB soil testing Project CHECO bibliography Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange Description An account of the resource <p style="margin-top: -1em; line-height: 1.2em;">The Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange comprises 120 linear feet and spans the late 1800s to 2005; however, the bulk of the coverage is from the 1960s to the 1980s and there are many undated items. The collection was donated to Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in 1985 by Dr. Alvin L. Young (1942- ). Dr. Young developed the collection as he conducted extensive research on the military defoliant Agent Orange. The collection is in good condition and includes letters, memoranda, books, reports, press releases, journal and newspaper clippings, field logs and notebooks, newsletters, maps, booklets and pamphlets, photographs, memorabilia, and audiotapes of an interview with Dr. Young.</p> <p>For more about this collection, <a href="/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/alvin-l--young-collection-on-a">view the Agent Orange Exhibit.</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Box The box containing the original item. 018 Folder The folder containing the original item. 0201 Series The series number of the original item. Series II Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Description An account of the resource <strong>Corporate Author: </strong>United States Air Force Academy, Colorado Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1975-01-01 Title A name given to the resource Faculty Publications, 1974: Books, Texts, Manuals, Chapters, Papers, Reports, and Presentations by Members of the Faculty and Staff of the United States Air Force Academy Subject The topic of the resource Eglin AFB soil decontamination ecological impact bibliography Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange Description An account of the resource <p style="margin-top: -1em; line-height: 1.2em;">The Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange comprises 120 linear feet and spans the late 1800s to 2005; however, the bulk of the coverage is from the 1960s to the 1980s and there are many undated items. The collection was donated to Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in 1985 by Dr. Alvin L. Young (1942- ). Dr. Young developed the collection as he conducted extensive research on the military defoliant Agent Orange. The collection is in good condition and includes letters, memoranda, books, reports, press releases, journal and newspaper clippings, field logs and notebooks, newsletters, maps, booklets and pamphlets, photographs, memorabilia, and audiotapes of an interview with Dr. Young.</p> <p>For more about this collection, <a href="/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/alvin-l--young-collection-on-a">view the Agent Orange Exhibit.</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Box The box containing the original item. 018 Folder The folder containing the original item. 0202 Series The series number of the original item. Series II Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Description An account of the resource <strong>Corporate Author: </strong>United States Air Force Academy, Colorado Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1976-01-01 Title A name given to the resource Faculty Publications, 1975: Books, Texts, Manuals, Chapters, Papers, Reports, and Presentations by Members of the Faculty and Staff of the United States Air Force Academy Subject The topic of the resource herbicide disposal animal testing Eglin AFB bibliography Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange Description An account of the resource <p style="margin-top: -1em; line-height: 1.2em;">The Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange comprises 120 linear feet and spans the late 1800s to 2005; however, the bulk of the coverage is from the 1960s to the 1980s and there are many undated items. The collection was donated to Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in 1985 by Dr. Alvin L. Young (1942- ). Dr. Young developed the collection as he conducted extensive research on the military defoliant Agent Orange. The collection is in good condition and includes letters, memoranda, books, reports, press releases, journal and newspaper clippings, field logs and notebooks, newsletters, maps, booklets and pamphlets, photographs, memorabilia, and audiotapes of an interview with Dr. Young.</p> <p>For more about this collection, <a href="/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/alvin-l--young-collection-on-a">view the Agent Orange Exhibit.</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Box The box containing the original item. 018 Folder The folder containing the original item. 0203 Series The series number of the original item. Series II Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Description An account of the resource <strong>Corporate Author: </strong>United States Air Force Academy, Colorado Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1977-01-01 Title A name given to the resource Faculty Publications, 1976: Books, Texts, Manuals, Chapters, Papers, Reports, and Presentations by Members of the Faculty and Staff of the United States Air Force Academy Subject The topic of the resource soil testing herbicide disposal Eglin AFB bibliography https://www.nal.usda.gov/exhibits/speccoll/files/original/3f4bef0956a64c1c127a1b2894821266.pdf 3181b7d44f6de47aef9776417196ede7 PDF Text Text Item ID Number 00193 Author Young, Alvin L. Corporate Author Department of Chemistry and Biological Sciences, USA Report/Article TitlO Fate of 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-P-Dioxin (TCCD) in the Environment: Summary and Decontamination Recommendations Journal/Book Titlo Year Month/Day Color Number of Images October [J 49 Monday, January 22, 2001 Page 205 of 341 �USAFA-TR-76-18 FATE OF 2, 3, 7, 8-TETRACHLORODIBENZO-P-DIQXlN (TCDD) IN THE ENVIRONMENT: SUMMARY AND DECONTAMINATION RECOMMENDATIONS CAPTAIN ALVIN L. YOUNG MAJOR CHARLES E. THALKEN LT COLONEL EUGENE L. ARNOLD CAPTAIN JAMES M. CUPELLQ MAJOR LORRIS G. COCKERHAM DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY AND BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES USAF ACADEMY, COLORADO 80840 OCTOBER 1976 APPROVED FOR PUBLIC RELEASE; DISTRIBUTION UNLIMITED Prepared for: HEADQUARTERS AIR FORCE LOGISTICS COMMAND WRIGHT-PATTERSON AIR FORCE BASE, OHIO 4S433 DEAN OF THE FACULTY UNITED STATES AIR FORCE ACADEMY COLORADO 80840 �Editorial Review by Lt Colonel J. M. Shuttleworth Department of English and Fine Arts USAF Academy, Colorado 80840 This research report is presented as a competent treatment of the subject, worthy of publication. The United States Air Force Academy vouches for the quality of the research, without necessarily endorsing the opinions and conclusions of the author. This report has been cleared for open publication and/or public release by the appropriate Office of Information in accordance with AFR 190-17 and DODD 5230.9. There is no objection to unlimited distribution of this report to the public at large, or by DDC to the National Technical Information Service. This research report has been reviewed and is approved for publication. PHILIP J/QZRDLET Colonel, USAF Vice Deah of the Faculty Additional copies of this document are available through the National Technical Information Service, U. S. Department of Commerce, 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, VA 22151. �UNCLASSIFIED SECURITY CLASS'FICATION OF THIS »AGE (When Data Entered) READ INSTRUCTIONS BEFORE COMPLETING FORM REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE 1. REPORT NUMDER 2. GOVT ACCESSION NO 3. RECIP'FN'T'S CATALOG NUMBER USAFA-TR-76-18 4. TITLE (and Subtitle) 5. TYFE OF REPORT ft PERIOD COVERED Fate of 2,3,7,8-TetracMortdibenzo-p--dioxin (TCED) in the Environment: Surtmary and Decontamination Recxxtmendations Summary Report 6. PERFORMING ORG. REPORT NUMBER 8. 7. AUTHOR?.) Alvin L. Young, Capt, USAF, PhD; Charles E. Thalken, Maj, USAF, VC, DVM, MS; Eugene L.Arnold, LtCpl, USAF, BSC, PhD; James M, Cupello, Capt, USAF, PhD; Lorris G. CocTcerham, Maj, USAF, MS CON1 RACT OR GRANT NUMBERf»> 10. PROGRAM F.LEMENT. PROJECT, TASK AiHTA ft WORK UNIT NUMBERS 9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION N A M E AND ADDRESS Department of Chemistry and Biological Sciences DFCBS-R USAF Academy, Colorado 80840 t. CONTROLLING OFFICE NAME AND ADDRESS 12. REPORT DATE October 1976 Department of Chemistry and Biological Sciences DFCBS-R USAF Academy, Colorado 80840 13. NUMBER OF PAGES 14. MONITORING AGENCY NAME & ADDRESSf// different from Controlling Otlice) 15. SECURITY CLASS, (of thla report) 44 UNCLASSIFIED 15«. DECLASSIFICATION/DOWNGRADING SCHEDULE 6. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT (ot thla Report) Approved for public release: distribution unlimited. 7. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT (of the abstract entered In Block 20, II different from Report) 8. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES 9. KEY WORDS (Continue on reverse aide It necessary and Identity by block number) Animal SUTVey; Aquatic Studies; Bic>accumulation; Biodegradation of Herbicides; Biodegradation of TCDD; Ecological Effects; 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D); Fish Studies; Herbicide; Histopathology; Insect Studies; Maranals; Necropsy; Orange; Reptile Study; Soil Microbial Studies; TCDD; Teratogenic; 2,3,7,8-tetxochlorodibenzo-pdioxin (TCDD); Test Area C-52A, Eglin AFB Reservation; 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyanifl \rf f ^ * *rf__ jfr f T Vegetative Succession. • —• irtffrYftrr H-hM HiVfAM ^r^-VT^_ _* ^y VMV^ ^ * ^- - «''*^^ *' -. *"^ ' " — -..,..-— ———.... , —, 0. ABSTRACT (Continue on rovora* aide (/ ri «vt** «ry ant/ I ((entity by bjpck number) . . /msmr\\ i* U.^ Studies on the fate of 2,3,7,8-tetrachiorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) have been conducted on biodegradation plots and field test areas that have received massive quantities of Orange herbicide (a 50:50 mixture of the n-butyl esters of 2,4lichlorophenoxyacetic acid [ , 4 D and 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid 2'-] 2,4,5-T]). From the studies reviewed in this report, it is apparent that 1) TCDD may persist (in biotic and abiotic components) for long periods of time when initially present at extremely high concentrations on the soil surface, 2) TCDD will accumulate in the tissues of rodents, reptiles, birds, fish, and W DD , FORM73 1473 JAN M >l EDITION OF 1 NOV 65 IS OBSOLETE Mg F i rs UNCLASSIFIED �SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS PAGEfWhen Data Entered) 20. Abstract (Continued) insects when these organisms are exposed to TCDD contaminated soils (however, the levels of TCDD in the tissues apparently do not exceed the levels of TCDD found in the environment), (3) organisms tolerate, i.e., based on no observed deleterious effects, soil levels between 10-1,500 ppt TCDD, (4) TCDD is degraded by soil microorganisms, especially when in the presence of other chlorinated hydrocarbons, (5) TCDD is degraded in the presence of sunlight, (6) movement of TCDD in the abiotic portions of the environment can be by wind or water erosion of soil particles, but leaching by water alone does not appear to occur, and (7) TCDD is probably not readily released or degraded in the environment when bound to activated coconut charcoal. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS PAGE(Wien Date Entered) �TABLE OF CONTENTS Title Page Introduction 1 Soil Incxjrporation/Biodegradation Studies 6 Fate of TCDD in an Ecosystem Geographical and Vegetative Features Sampling Grids and Herbicide Deposition Preliminary Ecological Studies Soil Studies of TCDD Residues Rodent Studies Trapping Data/Histopathology Liver and Pelt Analysis Burrow and Diet Studies TCDD Laboratory Uptake Experiment Hepatic Ultrastructural Study Reptile Studies TCDD in Aquatic Organisms TCDD in Birds of TA C-52A Vegetative Succession Studies on TA C-52A 17 ... 18 18 18 .21 23 23 25 25 26 27 29 30 31 32 Laboratory and Greenhouse Experiments with TCDD 34 Recormiendations 39 �LIST OF TABLES Number 1 2 3 Page Analyses of the Top 15-on Layer From Each of the Soil Biodegradation Sites 7 Descriptions of Three Biodegradation Studies Involving Use of Herbicide Orange 8 Concentrations of Herbicide Orange and TCDD in Plots Originally Treated with 4,480 kg/ha, AFLC Test Range Complex, Utah, at Various Sampling Dates After Application. (TCDD in parts per billion) 9 4 Concentrations of Herbicide Orange and TCDD in Plots Originally Treated with 4,480 kg/ha, Garden City, Kansas, at Various Sampling Dates After Application. (TCDD in parts per trillion) . 9 5 Concentrations of Herbicide Orange and TCDD in Plots Originally Treated at 4,480 kg/ha, Eglin AFB, Florida, at Various Sampling Dates After Application 10 6 Movement of Herbicide Orange and TCDD in a Soil Profile, Eglin AFB, Florida. (TCDD in parts per trillion) 12 7 Comparison of Herbicide Orange Degradation Rates in Plots at the Eglin AFB, Florida, Site, Receiving Either Herbicide, Herbicide Plus Soil Amendments, or Herbicide Plus Amendments and Charcoal .14 8 Approximate Amounts of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T Herbicides Applied to Test Area C-52A, Eglin AFB Reservation, Florida 9 10 11 19 Concentration of TCDD in Soil Profile (1974) of Grid I, Test Area C-52A, Eglin AFB, Florida 22 Numbers of Beach Mice Collected During the 1973 and 1974 Studies of Test Area C-52A 22 Concentration (Parts Per Trillion) of 2,3,7,8tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) in Liver and Pelt Samples from Beach Mice, Peromyscus polionotus, Collected from Control and TCDD-Exposed Field Sites, 1973 and 1974 24 11 �UST OF TABLES (Continued) Nottogr 12 13 14 Page Concentration (Parts Per Trillion) of 2,3,7,8tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) in Liver and Pelt Samples from Beach Mice, Peronyscus polionotus, Dusted with Alumina Gel Containing No TCDD (Control) or 2.5 Parts Per Billion TCDD (Test) 28 Concentration (Parts Per Trillion) of 2,3,7,8tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) in Composite Samples of Viscera or Trunk from Six-Lined Racerunners, Cnemidophorus sexlineatus, Collected from Control and TCDD-Exposed Field Sites 28 Degradation of TCDD (Parts Per Trillion) in a Greenhouse Experiment, Eglin AFB, Florida 37 111 �INTRODUCTION The heterocyclic organic molecule 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorc-dibenzop-dioxin (TCDD) has received a great deal of attention in the last 6 years because of its highly toxic properties and the possibility of it being widespread in the environment by the use of products made from trichlorophenol, especially the herbicide 2,4,5trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4,5-T). Although TCDD may occur as a contaminant in products made from trichlorophenol, the levels of TCDD found in any given lot of trichlorophenol is dependent upon the manufacturing process. TCDD may be produced as a by-product during an alkaline hydrolysis reaction when the temperature for making 2,4,5-trichlorophenol from tetrachlorobenzene exceeds 160°C. However, there is less likelihood of TCDD formation in the manufacturing process which starts with phenols and chlorinates them to form trichlorophenol since little or no heat is required in this reaction. Public interest in TCDD originated in 1970 when the herbicide 2,4,5-T was implicated as a potential teratogen in pregnant rats ( ) Later tests indicated that the teratogenesis may have been 1. caused by 27 ± 8 ppm of TCDD present as a contaminant in the 2,4,5-T. As more data have been obtained (2), it has become apparent Courtney, K.D., D.W. Gaylor, M.D. Hogan, J.L. Falk, R.R. Bates, and I. Mitchell. Teratogenic evaluation of 2,4,5-T. Science 168:864-866, 1970. 2 Schwetz, B.A., J.M. Norris, G.L. Sparschu, V.K. Rowe, P.J. Gehring, J.L. Oner son, and C.G. Gerbig. Toxicology of chlorinated dihenzo-pdioxins. Biviron. Hlth. Perspect., Experimental Issue No. 5:87-100, September 1973. �that TCDD is one of the most toxic chemicals known; the oral LD5Q for many animal species is in the range of micrograms per kilogram. Purthermore, the known effects of TCDD include anorexia, severe weight loss, hepatotoxicity, hepatoporphyria, vascular lesions, chloracne, gastric ulcers, and teratogenicity ( ) The 2. hazard posed by the presence of even a small amount of this substance in the environment has therefore been of concern. For a person or animal to be poisoned with TCDD, a rare set of circumstances would be required. Since present production methods are able to reduce the TCDD level to less than 0.1 ppm, it is unlikely that contaminated 2,4,5-T herbicide or even contaminated trichlorophenol would be implicated in such a poisoning. Nevertheless, two accidental poisoning episodes involving TCDD have been recently reported. In 1975, Carter et al. (3) identified TCDD as the apparent cause of an outbreak of poisoning in humans, horses, and other animals on a horse breeding farm in eastern •H .• , Missouri in 1971. Exposure to TCDD followed the spraying of contaminated industrial waste oil on riding arenas for dust control. An investigation concluded that a hexachlorophene (made from trichlorophenol) factory in southwestern Missouri had accumulated distillate residues containing 306 to 356 ppm TCDD. It was this distillate residue that was subsequently disposed of via a salvage oil company and sprayed on the horse arenas. 3 Carter, C.D., R.D. Kiiribrough, J.A. Liddle, R.E. Cline, M.M. Zack, Jr., W.F. Barthel, R.E. Koehler, and P.E. Phillips. Tetrachlorodibenzodioxin: an accidental poisoning episode in horse arenas. Science 188:738-740, 1975. �The second incident of TCDD poisoning occurred in July 1976 in Seveso, Italy ( ) The source of the TCDD was a chemical 4. factory that produced trichlorophenol through the alkaline hydrolysis of tetrachlorobenzene. When the temperature in a steamheated reaction vessel rapidly increased, a.safety disk ruptured sending a plume of trichlorophenol, TCDD anici other products 30 to 50 m high above the factory. The cloud apparently rose into the air, cooled, and came down over a cone-shaped area about 2 km long and 700 m wide. An area of 110 hectares (ha) was evacuated after hundreds of animals had died and many people had reported skin disorders. Several measurements of TCDD on vegetation in an area adjacent to the factory were in the 1 to 15 ppm range, with one reading as high as 51.3 ppm. An Italian government commission (5) recommended: "removal of topsoil to a depth of 10 cm in an area of 113 ha, the. dismantling of all buildings in the Seveso area, and the total disruption of all wildlife." The need for data on the fate of TCDD in the environment is not confined to solving problems associated with the above two incidents. During the latter portion of the last decade, a program of aerial application of herbicides was conducted in Southeast Asia by the United States Air Force. In 1969, at the conclusion of this program, considerable amounts of herbicide were left unused. 4 Rawls, R.L., and D.A. O'Sullivan. Italy seeks answers following toxic release. Chem. Engr. News 54(35):27-35, August 23, 1976. Itay, A. Toxic cloud over Sevesco. Nature 262(5570):636-638, August 19, 1976. �One of the herbicides used extensively in this project was a herbicide designated "Orange" which was formulated as a 50:50 mixture of the n-butyl esters of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and 2,4,5-T. In 1970, approximately 2.3 million gallons of this material was placed in storage by the Air Force. An analysis of TCDD in the Orange herbicide stocks (6) indicated that the range in concentration was 0.1 to 47 ppm TCDD. The weighted average concentration of TCDD for the 42,015 55-gallon drums of herbicide was 1.859 ppm. Because of the TCDD concentration, the herbicide could not merely be declared surplus and disposed of on the agricultural markets. Many methods have been evaluated for disposing of this material. However, regardless of the final method selected for its disposition, the storage sites where the material is currently stored (Naval Construction Battalion Center, Gulfport, Mississippi, or Johnston Island, Pacific Ocean) will need to be decontaminated. At the request of Headquarters, Air Force Logistics Command, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio, in April 1972, the Department of Chemistry and Biological Sciences, United States Air Force Academy, initiated studies on herbicide Orange and TCDD. The objectives of these studies were: (1) to investigate soil incorporation/ biodegradation as a disposal method for herbicide Orange; (2) to investigate the ecological effects associated with past uses of Department of the Air Force. Disposition of orange herbicide by incineration. Final Environmental Statement, November 1974, pp. 36-37. �herbicide Orange; and (3) to investigate the soil persistence and food chain accumulation of TGDD. This report documents the available data on TCDD from these studies. Furtherxnore, using these data, recommendations for decontamination of an area exposed to TCDD are presented. �SOIL INCORPORATION/BIODEGRADATION STUDIES One potential method proposed for the disposal of herbicide Orange was subsurface injection or soil incorporation of the herbicide at massive concentration rates. The premise for such studies was that high concentrations of the herbicides and TCDD would be degraded to innocuous products by the combined action of soil microorganisms and soil hydrolysis. In order to field test this concept, biodegradation plots were established in three climatically different areas of the United States; Northwest Florida (Eglin AFB), Western Kansas (Garden City), and Northwestern Utah (Air Force Logistics Command Test Range Complex). A comparison of the soils of the three sites is given in Table 1. The Utah site had a mean annual rainfall of 15 on, while the Kansas and Florida sites had 40 and 150 cm, respectively. Table 2 describes the experimental protocol for the three sites to include when the plots were established, the method of herbicide incorporation, the experimental design and the initial calculated herbicide concentration, ppm, at the time the plots were established. Further details on the experimental protocol can be obtained from Young, Arnold and Wachinski ( ) 7. Tables 3, 4, and 5 compare the rate of disappearance of TCDD with that of Orange herbicide for selected plots at the Utah, Young, A.L., E.L. Arnold, and A.M. Wachinski. Field studies on the soil persistence and movement of 2,4-D, 2,4,5-T, and TCDD. Appendix G. Department of the Air Force. Disposition of orange herbicide by incineration. Final Environmental Statement, November 1974. �TABLE 1. ANALYSES OF THE TOP 15-CM LAYER FROM EACH OF THE SOIL BIODEGRADATION SITES ORGANIC MATTER (%) SAND (%) SILT (%) CLAY (%) 5.6 0.5 91.6 4.0 4.4 Garden City, KS^ 7.0 1.7 37 42 21 Silt loam AFLC Test Range Complex, UT0 7.8 1.4 27 53 20 Clay loam LOCATION pH Eglin AFB, FLa SOIL DESCRIPTION Sandy loam located on Test Area C-52A, Eglin AFB Reservation, Florida T>lots located on the Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station, Garden City, Kansas °Plots located 75 miles west of Salt Lake City, Utah �TABLE 2. LOCATION Eglin AFB, Florida CO Garden City, Kansas DESCRIPTIONS OF THREE BIODEGRADATION STUDIES INVOLVING USE OF HERBICIDE ORANGE DATE ESTABLISHED 2 Apr 1972 10 May 1972 AFLC Test 2 Oct 1972 Range Complex, Utah METHOD OF INCORPORATION TREATMENT CALCULATED INITIAL HERBICIDE CONCENTRATION (PPM)C 4,480 kg Herbicide/haa 4,480 kg Herbicide/ha, plus soil amendments^ 4,480 kg Herbicide/ha plus soil amendments and activated charcoal 5,000 5,000 Preplant Incorporate (Rototiller) 2,240 kg Herbicide/ha 4,480 kg Herbicide/ha 1,000 2,000 . Simulated Subsurface Injection (8 cm band width) 1,120 kg Herbicide/ha 2,240 kg Herbicide/ha 4,480 kg Herbicide/ha Simulated Subsurface Injection (30 cm band width) 5,000 10,000 20,000 40,000 of herbicide calculated as active ingredient. Herbicide injected at 10-15 cm level or preplant incorporated in the 0-15 cm level. All plots duplicated. xhe amendments included 4.5 kg lime, 13.5 kg organic matter, and 1.4 kg fertilizer (12:4:8 for N,P,K, respectively) uniformly mixed within the top 0-30 cm of soil in the plot. °Contained in the top 0-15 cm layer. �TABLE 3. CONCENTRATIONS OF HERBICIDE ORANGE AND TCDD IN PLOTS ORIGINALLY TREATED WITH 4,480 KG/HA, AFLC TEST RANGE COMPLEX, UTAH, AT VARIOUS SAMPLING DATES AFTER APPLICATION. (TCDD IN PARTS PER BILLION) DAYS AFTER APPLICATION TOTAL HERBICIDE3 (PPM) TCDD ., (PPMxlO ) 282 8,490 15.0 637 4,000 7.3 780 2,260 5.6 1,000 2,370 3.2 1,150 1,150 2.5 a Composite sample from replicated plots, 0-15 on increment TABLE 4. CONCENTRATIONS OF HERBICIDE ORANGE AND TCDD IN PLOTS ORIGINALLY TREATED WITH 4,480 KG/HA, GARDEN CITY, KANSAS, AT VARIOUS SAMPLING DATES AFTER APPLICATION. (TCDD IN PARTS PER TRILLION) DAYS AFTER APPLICATION TOTAL HERBICIDE3 (PPM) TCDD3 , (PPMxlO~°) 8 1,950 ~b 77 1,070 225 189 362 210 600 40 659 a 490 <:L —b —b —b 42 Composite sampling from replicated plots, 0-15 cm increment HSbt determined �TABLE 5. CONCENTRATIONS OF HERBICIDE ORANGE AND TCDD IN PLOTS ORIGINALLY TREATED AT 4,480 KG/HA, EGLIN AFB, FLORIDA, AT VARIOUS SAMPLING DATES AFTER APPLICATION DAYS AFTER APPLICATION TOTAL, HERBICIDE (PPM) TCDDa , (PPMxlO~b)C 5 4,897 375 414 1,866 250 513 824 75 707 508 46 834 438 -b 1,293 <10 b — Composite sample from the plot containing only herbicide (i.e., no lime, organic matter, or fertilizer added). Sample from the 0-15 cm increment. Analysis not completed. °TCDD in parts per trillion. 10 �Kansas, and Florida sites, respectively. Although the number of analyses have been limited, the data have indicated that TCDD (and phenoxy herbicide) degrade more rapidly in the Kansas soils (Ulysses Silt Loam) than in the Florida soils (Lakeland Sandy Loam), and least rapidly in the Utah desert soils (Lacustrine Clay Loam). The levels of TCDD and herbicide in a soil profile from one of the Bgl.in AFB, Florida, biodegradation plots are shown in Table 6. Initially (e.g., day 414), the data indicate that both the herbicide and the TCDD may be leaching down into the lower soil increments. However, note that the analysis for herbicide in a soil profile obtained on day 557 shows no leaching. The method of collecting soil samples, i.e., by the use of a soil auger contaminated the lower soil increments whereas the trenching technique showed no contamination. The analysis of soil profiles at all three locations for biodegradation indicated that neither the herbicide nor the TCDD appreciably penetrated below the 15-30 cm level. Thus, we believe that the disappearance of the herbicide and the TCDD can be attributed to the action of soil microorganisms, rather than leaching. Data for TCDD are not available at this time (analysis in progress) on the influence of soil amendments (e.g., lime, fertilizer, and organic matter) on the degradation of TCDD in the Eglin AFB, Florida, biodegradation study. However, preliminary indications are that the addition of these amendments in these Florida soils does appear to slightly enhance herbicide degradation. On the other hand, the presence of activated coconut charcoal in 11 �TABLE 6. MOVEMENT OF HERBICIDE ORANGE AND TCDD IN A SOIL PROFILE, EGLIN AFB, FLORIDA. (TCDD IN PARTS PER TRILLION) DAYS AFTER APPLICATION3 4l4b 557C HERBICIDE (PPM) DEPTH (CM) HERBICIDE (PPM) 0-15 1,866 250 824 15-30 263 50 11 30-45 290 <25d <10d 45-60 95 <25d <10d 60-75 160 <25d <10d 75-90 20 <25d <10d TCDD ,. (PPMxlO ) a Composite sample from the plot containing only herbicide r~ Increments obtained by use of a soil auger having cup dimensions of 7.6 x 15.2 on, diameter and length, respectively £i Increments obtained by use of porcelain spatula from the side of 90 cm deep trench < T)etection limit 12 �the Eglin plots, at the 12 on level, prevented degradation of the herbicide and probably also prevented degradation of the TCDD. These data are shown in Table 7. In no instance can it be shown that TCDD levels reached a non-detectable level (less than 10 parts per trillion) within the designated time periods (see Tables 3, 4, and 5). Although biodegradation appears to reduce the level of herbicide and TCDD, the data did not follow simple exponential decay curves. For the mixture 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T herbicides, disappearance was rapid initially, but slowed substantially in the later portions of the test period. With this type of decay kinetics, meaningful half lives are difficult to calculate; however, a reasonable estimate appears to be in the range of 150-210 days. The degradation of TCDD followed a similar decay pattern. However, it appears at this time that the decreased rate of degradation of TCDD as a function of time may be even more pronounced than for the herbicides. One might speculate that the enzymes responsible for herbicide metabolism are inducible and also are involved in TCDD breakdown. If this is the case, it is not surprising that TCDD metabolism slows or ceases when the initial massive concentrations of herbicide are removed. Microbial studies have been conducted in the biodegradation plots in both Utah and Florida ( , ) For the Utah plots, 89. Q Stark, H.E., J.K. McBride, and G.F. Orr. Soil incorporation/ biodegrada.tion of herbicide orange. Vol I. Microbial and baseline ecological study of the U.S. Air Force Logistics Command Test Range, Hill AFB, Utah. Document No. DPG-FR-C615F, US Army Dugway Proving Ground, Dugway, Utah 84022, February 1975. 13 �TABLE 7. COMPARISON OF HERBICIDE ORANGE DEGRADATION RATES IN PLOTS AT THE EGLIN AFB, FLORIDA, SITE, RECEIVING EITHER HERBICIDE, HERBICIDE PLUS SOIL AMENDMENTS, OR HERBICIDE PLUS AMENDMENTS AND CHARCOAL TREATMENT HERBICIDE PLUS HERBICIDE PLUS AMENDMENTS 3 HERBICIDE AND CHARCOAL" AMENDMENTS DEPTH (CM) DEPTH (CM) DEPTH (CM) DAYS AFTER 0-15 15-30 0-15 15-30 0-15 15-30 APPLICATION (PPM) (PPM) (PPM) (PPM) (PPM) (PPM) 5 4,897 302 5,703 232 3,074 134 98 4,280 580 5,422 <50 414 1,866 263 2,015 193 2,767 c <50 c 463 1,217 222 c 824 11 161 c c 557 1,796 c 707 508 <10 c c 2,660 c <50 c 834 438 <10 184 <10 c c 1,293 <10 <10 <10 <10 1,556 <10 amendments included 4.5 kg lime, 13.5 kg organic matter, and 1.4 kg fertilizer (12:4:8 for N,P,K, respectively) uniformly mixed within the top 0-30 cm of soil in the plot. A 1 cm layer of activated coconut charcoal was applied to the trench prior to application of the herbicide. ^ °Not determined. 14 �samples were taken three times throughout the year (summer, winter and spring, 1973-1974), and nacrobial species present (bacteria, actlncmycetes and fungi) were determined. Bacterial counts were higher for soils with greater concentrations of the herbicide and with greater moisture content, but the herbicide, in any concentration, had no significant effect on the mycoflora. For the Florida plots (9), soil samples were taken from all plots in June and August 1974, and in April 1975. Although bacterial and fungal levels were similar for control plots or plots receiving either herbicide or herbicide plus the soil amendments lime, fertilizer, and organic matter, the levels were significantly higher in the plots receiving the activated charcoal. Microorganisms tended to be concentrated in the level which contained the charcoal (0-15 cm), but greatly reduced in number at depths immediately below the charcoal. This effect of increasing the number of microorganisms may have been due to adsorption of growth promoting substances (e.g., nutrients and water) on the surface of the charcoal particles. Although the number of organisms were greater in these plots, the level of herbicide residue was also greatest (Table 7). Apparently, the binding of the herbicide by the charcoal prevented it from being degraded by the microorganisms. These two microbial studies have shown that the application of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T at massive rates (5,000-40,000 ppm) not only Q Cairney, W.J. Determination of soil microorganism populations in the Eglin AFB, Florida, biodegradation plots. Department of Chemistry and Biological Sciences, United States Air Force Academy, CO, 1975, unpublished. 15 �does not sterilize the soil, but indeed stimulates the growth of certain rnicroflora. That these bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi are proliferating to such an extent indicates that they are probably using the herbicide and TCDD as a carbon source (the exception being the charcoal plots at Eglin), and, as such, are conjxibuting to their degradation. 16 �FATE OF TCDD IN AN ECOSYSTEM The biodegradation plots offered little opportunity to evaluate the ecological effects associated with the use of herbicide Orange or to investigate food chain acramulation of TCDD. Although studies were conducted on the microorganisrns, plants and dominant resident vertebrate and invertebrate animals on and adjacent to these plots (8,9), they were limited to studies of less than 0.5 ha. Therefore, concurrent with the biodegradation studies/ an investigation was initiated on the much larger ecosystem (terrestrial and aquatic) of a unique military test area in Northwest Florida. In support of programs testing aerial dissemination systems, Test Area (TA) C-52A, Eglin AFB Reservation, Florida, received massive quantities of military herbicides. The purpose of these test programs was to evaluate the capabilities of the equipment systems, not the biological effectiveness of the various herbicides. Nevertheless, after several applications, test personnel began to express concern over the potential ecological and environmental hazards that might be associated with continuance of the test program. This concern led to the establishment of a research program in the fall of 1967 to measure the ecological effects produced by the various herbicides on the plant ccnniunity of TA C-52A (10). Ward, D.B. Ecological records on Eglin AFB Reservation—the first year. AFATL-TR-67-157, Air Force Armament Laboratory, Eglin AFB, Florida, 1967. 17 �Geographical and Vegetative Features In 1962, the Armament Development and Test Center (ADTC), Eglin AFB, Florida, established an elaborate testing installation designed to measure deposition parameters of aerially applied herbicides on the Eglin Reservation. The direct aerial application 2 was restricted to an area approximately 2.6 km within TA C-52A in the southeastern part of the reservation. The entire test area 2 covers approximately 5 km and is a grassy plain surrounded by a forest stand that is dominated by long leaf pine (Pinus palustris), sand pine (Pinus clausa), and turkey oak (Quercus laevis). The actual area of test flight paths and herbicide application is in 4 a mechanically cleared area now occupied mainly by broomsedge (Andropogon virginicus), switchgrass (Panicum virgatutn), and other low growing herbaceous vegetation. Sampling Grids and Herbicide Deposition Four separate test grids were established on the 2.6 km2 test area during the 1962 through 1970 testing period. Table 8 indicates the approximate total amount of herbicides (active ingredients) applied on each test grid and the time periods of those applications. Preldmnary Ecological Studies The first in depth animal survey was initiated on the herbicide equipment test grids and surrounding area in 1970 ( 1 . This 1) T>ate, B.D., R.C. Voight, P.J. Lehn, and J.H. Hunter. Animal survey of test area C-52A, Eglin AFB Reservation, Florida. AFATLTR-72-72, Air Force Armament Laboratory, Eglin AFB, Florida, April 1972. 18 �TABLE 8. APPROXIMATE AMOUNTS OF 2,4-D AND 2,4,5-T HERBICIDES APPLIED TO TEST AREA C-52A, EGLIN AFB RESERVATION, FLORIDA TEST GRID GRID AREA (HECTARES) 1 37.25 39,540 (1962-1964)a 39,540 (1962-1964) 2 37.25 15,885 (9416) 16-96 15,885 (1964-1966) 3 37.25 4 97.0 HERBICIDES (KILOGRAMS ACTIVE INGREDIENT) 2,4-D 2,4,5-T 1,263 (97 16) 19,959 (9817) 16-90 19,959 (9817) 16-90 When the major portion of the herbicide was applied. 19 �survey was conducted during the time that aerial spray equipment was actively being tested. The purpose was to determine species variation and distribution patterns on the test grids and surround2 ing 28.5 km . Of the 86 species of vertebrate animals observed or collected, it was concluded that the beach mouse (Beromyscrus polionotus) and the six-lined racerunner (Cnemidophorus sexlineatus) were present in sufficient numbers to conduct population studies. In the spring of 1973, analyses of random soil samples from the test area indicated that low levels (e.g., parts per billion or parts per trillion) of TCDD were persisting in areas (i.e., the flight paths) that had received repetitive aerial applications of 2,4,5-T. Based on the beach mouse populations and the residue information a study was initiated in the summer of 1973 to obtain rodents for analysis of TCDD in body tissues and for examination of TCDD in body tissues and for examination of gross and microscopic evidence of teratogenic and mutagenic effects. A trapping survey was also conducted to study habitat preference of the beach mouse to determine if population distribution was related to vegetative cover. Data from these studies (12) indicated a correlation between the levels of TCDD in rodent liver and soil; however, there was no evidence of toxic histopathology in any rodent tissue. It was also found that indeed the population distribution was related to vegetative cover. *oung, A.L. Ecological studies on a herbicide-equipment test area (TA C-52A) Eglin AFB Reservation, Florida. AFATL-TR-74-12, Air Force Armament Laboratory, Eglin AFB, Florida, 1974. 20 �In the sunnier of 1974 a team of military and civilian scientists undertook a more extensive investigation of the numerous components of the ecosystem of TA C-52A. Using the information from previous studies, they obtained data on the fate of TCDD in soils, rodents, reptiles, aquatic organisms, birds, and vegetation. These results have been published by Young, Thalken and Ward (13), and are summarized in the following sections of this report. Soil Studies of TCDD Residues Soil samples (the top 0-15 cm increment) were collected from all four of the test grids on the test area and analyzed for TCDD. With the exception of Grid I, TCDD residues were in the range of <10 (minimum detection limit) to 30 parts per trillion (ppt, 1x10-12) Soil analysis of 20 separate samples from Grid I detected levels of TCDD in the range of <10 to 1,500 ppt. This wide fluctuation in TCDD concentrations was attributable to the locations of the actual flight paths on the test grid ( . . not all of the 37 ha ie, received the same amount of aerially applied herbicide). It was • also apparent that the massive amounts of herbicides applied to this area in 1962-1964 contained very high levels of the TCDD contaminant. Further analysis of a duplicate soil core, obtained from a site having 110 ppt TCDD, indicated that TCDD was stratified within this top 0-15 cm of soil (Table 9). Young, A.L., C.E. Thalken, and W.E. Ward. Studies of the ecological impact of repetitive aerial applications of herbicides on the ecosystem of test area C-52A, Eglin AFB, Florida. AFATLTR-75-142, Air Force Armament Laboratory, Eglin AFB, Florida, 1975. 21 �TABLE 9. CONCENTRATION OF TCDD IN SOIL PROFILE ( 9 4 17) OF GRID I, TEST AREA C-52A, EGLIN AFB, FLORIDA SOIL PROFILE GRID I APPLICATIONS OF HERBICIDES ( 9 2 1 6 ) 16-94 PARTS PER TRILLION ( P ) TCDD PT 0-2.5 on 150 2.5-5 on 160 5-10 on 700 10-15 on 44 Below (15-90 on) None detectable TABLE 10. NUMBERS OF BEACH MICE COLLECTED DURING THE 1973 AND 1974 STUDIES OF TEST AREA C-52A CONTROL 1973 1974 TOTAL Male 5 12 17 Female 5 10 15 12 11 33_ Fetuses Subtotal 65 TEST 1973 1974 TOTAL Male 26 17 43 Female 18 13 31 Fetuses 25 9 34 Subtotal 108 TOTAL 173 22 �Rodent Studies TRAPPING DATA/HISTOPATHOLOGY. In the 8 weeks of trapping beach mice during the summer of 1973 and 6 weeks during the summer of 1974, 106 specimens were collected from Grid I. Many of the females were pregnant at the time of collection, providing 67 fetuses for examination. Table 10 indicates the numbers of males, females and fetuses collected from Grid I during 1973 and 1974. The only significant lesions seen on histopathologic examinations of 173 adult and fetal beach mice were two instances of moderately severe, multifocal, necrotizing, hepatitis (one test, one control animal) and a single test mouse with severe venous ectasia of the renal veins in one kidney. All other lesions were of the minor or insignificant type normally observed in microscopic surveys of large numbers of field animals. The absence of liver lesions (necrosis and porphyria) in mature animals that had liver levels of TCDD from 20 ppt to 1,300 ppt (Table 11) is most significant in view of the massive quantities of both 2,4,5-T and TCDD that must have been applied to the test site. There was no evidence to indicate that TCDD was mutagenic nor carcinogenic in the field at the concentrations noted in Table 11. None of the 34 fetuses examined from animals captured on the test grid showed teratogenic defects. This leads one to the conclusion that the levels of TCDD encountered in the field failed to induce observable developmental defects. An analysis of the organ to body weight ratios of each of the control (males and females) and 23 �TABLE 11. COSfCENTRATiai (PARTS PER TRILLION) OF 2,3,7,8-TETr'RACHLORODIBENZOP-DTOXIN (TCDD) IN LIVER AND PELT SAMPLES FROM BEACH MICE, PEROMySCUS IE. IOUONOTLJS, COLLECTED FROM CONTROL AND TCDD-EXPOSED FIELD S T S , 1973 AND : PELT TREATMENT SEX Control 1973 Male and Female 20a ND13 Control 1974 Male 51 40a Control 1974 Female 83 40a Grid I to .fc- YEAR 1973 Male and Female 540 NDb Grid I 1974 Male Grid I 1974 Female a Minimum level of detection determined LIVER 1,300 960 130 140 �test (males and females) using the Wilcoxon Rank Sum Test indicated no statistical differences between field control males and field test males nor field control females and field test females (P^O.05). LIVER AND PELT ANALYSIS. The presence of TGDD in the liver samples of both male and female mice collected from the control site in 1974 may have been due to high levels in one or more specimens in the pool of samples. Mice from the test area could have migrated to the periphery of the grid and wandered into the area designated as control. The closest point from the control site to the test area was 200 m. However, it is emphasized that a mouse (or mice) could have been contaminated in this way, and thus have contaminated pooled samples analyzed for TCDD. Therefore, the use of these data as truly control data must be viewed with caution. The levels of TCDD in the liver of beach mice collected from Grid I substantiated bimccumulation of TCDD; i.e., an accumulation of TCDD in an organism from its environment. In general, levels of TCDD in the livers were no greater than the most concentrated zones of TCDD in the soil. There are no data from these studies to support biomagnification of TCDD; i.e., an increase in concentration of TCDD in successive organisms ascending the trophic food chain. BURROW AND DIET STUDIES. In all burrows that contained mice a consistant finding was a plug of soil pushed up into the tunnel within the first 2.5 to 25 on of the entrance. Frequently an "escape tunnel" would extend from the nest area to within 2.5 to 25 �15 on of the soil surface. Although the concentration of TCDD on the pelts of beach mice from the test area was only 10-15 percent of that In their livers, Table 11, it was apparent that the mice were continually contaminating themselves as they repeatedly moved in and out of their burrows. The soil data, Table 9, substantiated the presence of a zone of TCDD within the region of the tunnel entrance. Likewise, the location of the escape tunnel suggested that even the nest itself may contain detectable levels of TCDD. An examination of the plant and insect litter within the nests indicated that the beach mouse diet was made up of about 90 percent seeds (based on caryopsis hulls) and about 10 percent insects (based on insect exoskeletons and wings). Four composite seed samples were analyzed for TCDD with no TCDD being detected in any sample (at a minimum detection limit of 1 ppt TCDD). The insect remains are currently being analyzed for TCDD. TCDD LABORATORY UPTAKE EXPERIMENT. Twenty-two beach mice from the designated control area were brought into the laboratory and divided into a "control" group of 10 animals and dusted with 100 mg of alumina gel 10 times over a period of 28 days while the "test" group of 12 animals was dusted with 100 mg alumina gel containing 2.5 ppb TCDD 10 times over the 28 day period. Table 12 indicates control levels and test levels of TCDD in the composite liver samples and on the composite pelt samples of the alumina gel and alumina gel plus TCDD dusted animals. These animals were given complete histopathologic examinations at the completion of the experiment with no differences being 26 �seen between control and test animals. An analysis of the organ to body weight ratios of each of the control males to test males and control females to test females using the Wilcoxon Rank Sum Test indicated a statistical difference involving only the spleens of control male and test male animals at the 95 percent confidence level. This difference was not supported by either histopathological evidence nor by morphometric data as indicated in the Hepatic Ultrastructural Study section which follows. HEPATIC ULTRASTRUCTURAL STUDY. After the liver was removed from 30 beach mice (15 control and 15 from the test area) and weighed, a section was taken from the center of the median lobe. Representative electron micrographs were made from the liver tissue of each animal and the data obtained from each micrograph using a stereology technique. This method of quantitative analysis of the cell ultrastructure used morphometric procedures based on the techniques developed by Weibel et al. (14), as modified by Buchanan (15) With this method, a transparent grid of intersecting lines was placed at random over the micrographs and all the line intersections (points) which were over the required cell structures were counted. All of the points lying over the mitochondria, the damaged (swollen and ruptured) mitochondria, the granular vfeibel, E.R., G.S. Kistler, and W.F. Scherle. Practical stereological methods for morphometric cytology. J. Cell. Biol. 30: 23-38, 1966, Buchanan, G.M. Effect of high dietary molybodenum on rat adrenal cortejc. Unpublished thesis. University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, 1973. 27 �TABLE 12. CONCENTRATION (PARTS PER TRILLION) OF 2,3,7,8TETRACHLORPDIBENZO-P-DIOXIN (TCDD) IN LIVER AND PELT SAMPLES FROM BEACH MICE, PEROMYSCUS POLIONOTUS, DUSTED WITH ALUMINA GEL CONTAINING NO TCDD (CONTROL) OR 2.5 PARTS PER BILLION TCDD (TEST) TREATMENT SEX Alumina Gel Malea Female Alumina Gel + TCDD Male3 Femalea LIVER PELT NDb NDC NDb NDC 125 45 125 89 a Male and female livers composited for analysis Minimum detection level - 10 ppt detection level - 8 ppt TABLE 13. CONCENTRATION (PARTS PER TRILLION) OF 2,3,7,8TETRACHLORODIBENZO-P-DIOXIN (TCDD) IN COMPOSITE SAMPLES OF VISCERA OR TRUNK FROM SIX-LINED RACERUNNERS, CHEMIDOPHORUS SEXLINEATUS, COLLECTED FROM CONTROL AND TCDD-EXPOSED FIELD SITES LOCATION VISCERA Control Site NDa Test Site 360 TRUNK 370 a Minimum detection limit - 50 ppt Tiinimum detection limit - 40 ppt 28 �endoplastnic reticulum (RER) and the agranular endoplasmic reticulum (SER) were then counted. The total area of the cytoplasm was then measured in the same manner. The volume fraction of each structure was determined to be the ratio between the point count of that structure and the total point count of the cytoplasm. In this manner the ratio of mitochondria volume to cytoplasm volume of the hepatic parenchyma! cell was determined for each animal, as was the ratio of damaged mitochondria volume to total mitochondria volume, RER to cytoplasm, SER to cytoplasm, and RER to SER. Using these volume fractions or ratios as quantitative measurements of the structures in question, the hepatic parenchymal cells from treated animals were compared with those from control animals. Similar data were collected from 22 mice brought from the field into the laboratory and exposed to 30 days of external dusting with alumina gel (with or without 2.5 ppb TCDD) . Analysis of the morpheme-trie data using the Wilcoxon Rank Sum Test indicated no statistical differences between field control and field treatment animals, nor were there statistical differences between the control and treatment animals of the dusting study Reptile Studies ANALYSIS OF REPTILE TISSUE. Chemical analysis for TCDD in body parts of the six-lined racerunner indicated significant levels of TCDD in both the visceral mass and in the trunk, Table 13. 29 �Gross post-mortem examinations were performed on 19 racerunners collected from either a control site or from Grid I with no evidence of gross abnormalities seen in any of the specimens. TCDD In Young, Lehn and Mettee (16) conducted species diversities and food chain studies in two aquatic ecosystems draining TA C-52A. Erosion of soil occurred in to a pond on the test area and in to a stream irrmediately adjacent to the area. TCDD levels of 10-35 ppt were found in silt of the aquatic systems, but only at the point where eroded soil entered the water. Species diversity studies of the stream were conducted in 1969, 1970, 1973 and 1974. Insect larvae, snails, diving beetles, crayfish, tadpoles, and major fish species from both aquatic systems were analyzed for TCDD. Species diversity studies indicated no significant change in the composition of ichthyofauna between these dates or a control stream. Concentrations of TCDD (12 ppt) were found in only two species of fish from the stream, sailf in shiner (Nbtropis hypselopterus) and mosquitofish (Gambusia affinis) . The sample of mosquitofish consisted of bodies with heads and tails removed. Two samples of sailf in shiner were analyzed; one containing viscera only and the other bodies less heads, viscera, and caudal fins. Only the viscera contained TCDD. Samples of skin, muscle, gonads, and gut were obtained from spotted sunfish (Lepomis punctatus) Young, A.L., P.J. Lehn, and M.F. Mettee. Absence of TCDD toxicity in an aquatic ecosystem. Weed Sci. See. Amer. Abst. 107, p. 46, 1976. 30 �from the test grid pond. Levels of TCDD in those body parts were 4, 5, 18, and 85 ppt, respectively. Gross pathological observations of the sunfish revealed no significant lesions or abnormalities. TCDD In Birds of TA C-52A Bartleson, Harrison, and Morgan (17) have conducted an extensive survey of the birds of TA C-52A. Between March 1974 and February 1975, they visited study areas twice each week at various times of day and night, and observed a total of 77 species of birds. Of this number, 44 species were observed on Grid I, the area of greatest TCDD residue. The remaining birds were seen in the surrounding clearing and bayheads projecting into the clearning. A small collection of specimens was made for species identification and for TCDD analysis. Only three species could be classified as residents which nest on the test grids. These were southern meadowlark (Sturnella magna), morning dove (Zenaidura macroura), and bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus). TCDD residues were found in meadowlark livers (100-1,020 ppt) and in the stomachs and stomach contents (46 ppt) of these same birds. An analysis of liver and fat tissue from doves indicated concentrations of 50 ppt. An analysis of seed in the crop of the doves showed no detectable residue of TCDD. Two routes of TCDD contamination Bartleson, F.D., D.D. Harrison, and J.D.-Morgan. Field studies of wildlife exposed to TCDD contaminated soils. AFATL-TR-75-49, Air Force Armament Laboratory, Bglin AFB, Florida, 1975. 31 �were proposed for these birds. The first was through the process of dusting and subsequent ingestion of contaminated soil while preening. A second possible route was through the ingestion of soil-borne insects from the test grid; an analysis of a single composite insect, sample indicated a concentration of 40 ppt TCDD. Vegetative Succession Studies on TA C-52A TCDD analysis of vegetation has been limited to seed samples collected in support of the rodent diet study. No TCDD was found in four samples of seeds collected from vegetation on Grids I or II. The minimum level of detection was 1 ppt. A vegetative succession study has been conducted by Young and Hunter (18) to document the re-vegetation of an area denuded first by mechanical means and then by hundreds of applications of phenoxy herbicides. Nine months (June 1971) after the last defoliant-equipment test mission, a detailed survey of the vegetation was initiated. The area was divided into a grid of 169 sections (each 122 by 122 m), and within each section the percentage vegetative coverage was visually ranked as Class 0, 0-5 percent; I, 5-20 percent; II, 2040 percent; III, 40-60 percent; IV, 60-80 percent; and V, 80-100 percent. Three sections within each class were selected at random and surveyed for dicotyledonous plants. An unsprayed area 0.32 km northwest of the test area was also surveyed. In June 1973, each Young, A.L., and J.H. Hunter. A long-term field study of vegetative succession following repetitive application of phenoxy herbicides. Weed Sci. Sec. Amer. Abst. 1977. 32 �of these areas was again surveyed, but in addition/ a square-foot 2 (0.093m ) analysis technique was performed in 15 additional sections. These sections were randomly selected and within each 2 section, nine areas, each 0.093m , ware analyzed for species composition and ground cover density. Both methods of vegetative survey were repeated in June 1976. The number of dicotyledonous species increased from 74 in 1971 to 107 in 1973, and to 123 in 1976. In 1971, 20 percent of the test area had less than 20 percent vegetative cover, while 26 percent of the test area had more than 60 percent vegetative cover. In 1976, no sections had less than 20 percent vegetative cover, but over 73 percent of the test area had a cover of more than 60 percent. The major grass species were Panicum yirgatum and Panicum lanuginosum. The major dicotyledon was Diodia tores in 1971, but was replaced by Chrysqpsis graminifolia in 1976. These data demonstrate the rapid invasion of dicotyledonous species despite the unusually heavy applications of phenoxy herbicides. As a concluding remark, Test Area C-52A, Eglin AFB, Florida, has offered a unique opportunity to examine the effects of longterm, low-level exposure of biological systems to TCDD. Perhaps when the herbicide 2,4,5-T (contaminated by TCDD) was first applied to the test area (1962-1964), the levels of TCDD that accumulated on the soil may have been sufficiently high to be toxic, although there is no mention of animal deaths in the records of test missions for this area. It is of interest to note that in the 33 �Italian TCDD episode, an estimated 0.9 to 4.5 kg TCDD were 2 disseminated on an area of 1.4 km . This is approximately equal to 6.5 to 32 g/ha. Grid I on Test Area C-52A probably received between 0.07 and 1.86 kg TCDD on an area of 37 ha, or approximately 2 to 50 g TCDD/ha over a 2-year period. This range of values was arrived at using the arithmetic mean and maximum concentration of TCDD contamination of the herbicide Orange presently in the United States Air Force inventory. 34 �LABORATORY AND GREENHOUSE EXPERIMENTS WITH TODD Two additional studies have been conducted in support of the previous investigations of TCDD in field ecosystems. One of these studies has been conducted by Cupello and Young (19) on the potential uptake from soil of 14C-TCDD by plants. In this study, 2,240 kg active ingredient Orange herbicide/ha, containing 14 ppm 14C-TCDD, was placed beneath the soil surface in specially designed growth boxes containing 100 plants of Sorghum (Sorghum vulgare) per box. The plants were grown under controlled environmental conditions for 9 weeks; 14-hour photoperiod, diurnal temperature of 35 ± 2°C and 15 ± 1°C, and a relative humidity of 60 and 85 percent, day and night, respectively. On day 64 the plants were cut at the soil surface, ground in a Wiley Mill, and extracted with hexane in a Soxhlet Extraction apparatus for 4 hours. The TCDD in the extract was then concentrated by using the Dow Chemical Company Analytical Method ML-AM 73-97. The "TCDD concentrate" was quantitatively transferred to a scintillation vial using benzene, and 15 cc of Aquasol added to it. Analysis of the counting data from a liquid scintillation counter indicated no significant uptake of hexane extractable 14C-TCDD activity in the plant material. An analysis was also performed on the plant tissue prior to hexane extraction, and after hexane extraction for 4 hours. These plant samples were combusted in a 19Cupello, J.M., and A.L. Young. Radiochemical bioassay of TCDD uptake in plant material. Department of Chemistry and Biological Sciences, United States Air Force Academy, CO, 1976, unpublished. 35 �Packard Model 306 sample oxidizer, the OCL collected in Packard Carbo-Sorb, this solution diluted in Packard Permafluor-V, and the filler counted in a liquid scintillation counter. These data indicated the presence of sufficient C activity in the unextracted plant material to be equivalent to approximately 430 ppt TCDD in the plant tissue. This activity was not significantly reduced by hexane extraction. This relatively high 14C activity in the plant tissue could be explained by one of at least four hypotheses. It could represent the presence of (1) bound (non-hexane soluble) TCDD, (2) a soil biodegradation product of TCDD that was taken up and bound by the plant, (3) a metabolic breakdown product of the TCDD that was formed after incorporation of the TCDD into the plant/ or (4) a contaminant in the original C TCDD stock solution that eventually found its way into the plant either as the original contaminant or as a metabolic of it. A second study has been conducted by Bartleson, Harrison, and Morgan (17) on the effect of tilling TCDD contaminated soil. One cubic meter of soil was collected from Grid I, TA C-52A, and removed to the laboratory. Four samples were taken from the uniformly mixed soil, analyzed and found to contain 1,100 ppt (2 samples) and 1,300 ppt (2 samples) TCDD. The contaminated soil was placed in two groups of four pots (20 cm deep and 20 cm in diameter). The four pots in each group were treated as follows: two were left outside and exposed to natural elements, and two were placed in a greenhouse and watered with a nutrient solution. 36 �One of the two containers in each location was left undisturbed, and the other was stirred (tilled) weekly with a spatula. This stirring was not complete, and soil in the bottom of the pots was relatively undisturbed. The soil in each of the pots was emptied into a clean tray and mixed thoroughly before samples were collected and analyzed for degradation of TCDD. The data shown in Table 14 suggest that sunlight, tilling and perhaps increased temperatures (associated with the greenhouse) may promote more rapid degradation of TCDD. There also may be an additive effect from use of nutrients. 37 �TABLE 14. DEGRADATION OF TCDD (PARTS PER TRILLION) IN A GREENHOUSE EXPERIMENT, EGLIN AFB, FLORIDA LENGTH OF EXPOSURE 0 (PPT) 9 weeks (PPT) 23 weeks (PPT) Tilled 1,200 1,100 520 Untilled 1,200 1,000 530 Tilled 1,200 640 460 Untilled 1,200 810 530 TREATMENT Full Sunlight3 Greenhouse Samples placed outside of greenhouse Samples watered with a nutrient solution 38 �RECOMiyENDATIONS FOR DECONTAMmTION OF TCDD EXPOSED FIELD SITES Although there are many potential options for the decontamination of an area exposed to TCDD (see reference 4), data provided in this report would suggest that one of the most feasible options would be soil incorporation/biodegradation. The data base used in selecting this option is as follows: 1. TCDD may persist (in biotic and abiotic components) for long periods of time when initially present at extremely high concentrations on the soil surface. 2. TCDD will accumulate in the tissues of rodents, reptiles/ birds/ fish/ and insects when these organisms are exposed to TCDD contaminated soils (however, the levels of TCDD in the tissues apparently do not exceed the levels of TCDD found in the environment). 3. Organisms tolerate/ i.e./ based on no observed deleterious effects, soil levels between 10-1,500 ppt TCDD. 4. TCDD is degraded by soil microorganisms, especially when in the presence of other chlorinated hydrocarbons. 5. TCDD is degraded in the presence of sunlight. 6. Movement of TCDD in the abiotic portions of the environment can be by wind or water erosion of soil particles, but leaching by water alone does not appear to occur. 7. TCDD is probably not readily released or degraded in the environment when bound to activated coconut charcoal. 39 �Specific Re<xirntrendations In locations where accidental TCDD contamination covers Significant geographical area, e.g., many hectares, an in situ biodegradation program may be most effective in reducing levels of TCDD residues. Incorporation of organic material, lime, and fertilizer to enhance microbial activity may be advantageous. The biodegradation site should be tilled frequently so as to expose residue to sunlight. Watering of the site is recommended to reduce wind movement of contaminated particles and to enhance biodegradation. In locations where a limited area has been exposed to accidental contamination of TCDD, the top 0-15 cm of soil should be removed and taken to an isolated area where biodegradation procedures can be conducted. Similar treatments should be applied to these plots as would be for an in situ program. Protective clothing should be worn by all site personnel. The contaminated clothing should be incinerated at an approved incinerator. Following use, all equipment should be rinsed with an organic solvent (e.g., diesel fuel) to remove TCDD residue. The solvent containing TCDD residue may be collected in activated coconut charcoal and either incinerated or placed in an approved sanitary landfill, although if a sufficiently isolated land area is available, biodegradation may be feasible. It should be noted that some TCDD residue will remain in a contaminated site. However, research on the ecosystem at Test Area C-52A, Eglin AFB, Florida, indicated that organisms do have 40 �a tolerance to low levels of TCDD. Therefore, in those areas having soil residues below 1 ppb, further efforts to decontaminate the area are not practical. These areas should, however, be fenced and posted to prevent livestock and human exposure. 41 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange Description An account of the resource <p style="margin-top: -1em; line-height: 1.2em;">The Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange comprises 120 linear feet and spans the late 1800s to 2005; however, the bulk of the coverage is from the 1960s to the 1980s and there are many undated items. The collection was donated to Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in 1985 by Dr. Alvin L. Young (1942- ). Dr. Young developed the collection as he conducted extensive research on the military defoliant Agent Orange. The collection is in good condition and includes letters, memoranda, books, reports, press releases, journal and newspaper clippings, field logs and notebooks, newsletters, maps, booklets and pamphlets, photographs, memorabilia, and audiotapes of an interview with Dr. Young.</p> <p>For more about this collection, <a href="/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/alvin-l--young-collection-on-a">view the Agent Orange Exhibit.</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Box The box containing the original item. 017 Folder The folder containing the original item. 0193 Series The series number of the original item. Series II Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Young, Alvin L. Charles E. Thalken Eugene L. Arnold James M. Cupello Lorris G. Cockerham Description An account of the resource <strong>Corporate Author: </strong>Department of Chemistry and Biological Sciences, USAF Academy, Colorado Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1976-10-01 Title A name given to the resource Fate of 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-P-Dioxin (TCCD) in the Environment: Summary and Decontamination Recommendations Subject The topic of the resource biodegradation ecological fate soil decontamination Eglin AFB https://www.nal.usda.gov/exhibits/speccoll/files/original/c4a091d0bab1c961713c0d7fea026da5.pdf 6167d8da656999877866c24557c5001d PDF Text Text Item ID Number: Author 00093 Bartleson, Fred D. Corporate Author ^'r Force Armament Laboratory, Armament Development and Test Center. Environics and Human Factors Office (DLV), Eglin AFB Florida Report/Article Title Field Studies of Wildlife Exposed to TCDD Contaminated Soils Journal/Book Title Year 1975 Month/Day March Color Number of Images 60 Descriptor! Notes Project soeeoi 01 Friday. Decombor 08. 2000 Pago 98 of 106 �AFATL-TR-75-49 FIELD STUDIES OF WILDLIFE EXPOSED TO TCDD CONTAMINATED SOILS ENVIRONICS & HUMAN FACTORS OFFICE , V7 • "^ • MARCH 1975 FINAL REPORT: MARCH 1974 - FEBRUARY 1975 Approved for public release; distribution unlimited. J AIR FORCE ARMAMENT L A B O R A T O R Y AIR FORCE SYSTEMS COMMAND • UNITED S T A T E S AIR FORCE EGLIN AIR FORCE BASE, FLORIDA �UNCLASSIFIED SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS PAGF (Whon Data Entered) REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE 1. RE'PORT NUMBER 4 2 GOVT ACCESSION NO Tl li.r iniid huMMM READ INSTRUCTIONS BEFORE COMPLETING FORM 3. RECIPIENT'S C A T A L O G NUMBER 5 : ni-LD STUD ius oi WILDLIFE LXPOSI-U TO TCDD CONTAMINATED SOILS I -,t>t OF RfPdRI i PERIOn COVEfll D Final Report Marr.h 1974 - Fnhmary 1Q75 B P E R F O R M I N G ORG. REPORT N U M B E R 7. AUTHORS; B C O N T R A C T OR G R A N T NUMBERS; l-'rcd I). liJi-tlcson, J r . , Lt Colonel, USAI ; Don I"). H a r r i s o n .John I). Mnrp.m, .11,1, IJgAF 9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAMF AND APOH*'*'; - I'.nvironies and Human factors O f f i c e ('I)LV) Mr Force Armament Laboratory ngli.ii Air Force Base, I'lorida 32542 P R O G R A M ELEMENT P R O J E C T , T A S K A R E A f t W O R K U N I T NUMBERS Project 500601OJ 12. REPORT D A T E 11. CONTROLLING OFFICE NAME AND ADDRESS Air Force Armament Laboratory Armament l)evoLo])mcnl and Test Center F.glin A i r I ; orcc Base, F l o r i d a 325-12 14 10 March l'J75 13. NUMBFR OF PAC.ES MONITORING ACiENCY NAME ft ADDRESSfff tlllfcreiit lrnn\ Cnnlrollinit Ollicn) 58 IS. S E C U R I T Y CLASS, (of /Ills report) _UN(;L\ssiru;n "i sn'~oi'c il"A"S?i71 c ArToN oowN G Ri A Dm G SCHEDULE 16. DiSTRIBUTION STATEMENT fnl this Ropiirt) Approved for public release; distribution un imited. 17. D STRIBUTION STATEMEN T (of the abstrart enterntl In Block 20, il tllttcroni Iron: Report) IB. S U P P L E M E N T A R Y NOTES Available in DDC 9 K C Y WORDS tContinue an rtvnrsf alilfi il necessary mid iiientllr by block numbt-r) Hioaccumulation R i o m a ^ n i f i c a t ion Birds Dec.radat ion Defoliants F.cological K f f o c t s 20 Herbicides Wildlife TflDD Tertitoj.'.enes is 2 ,3,7,8-Tetrni-111 o rod il>cnzo-p-dioxin 2,-1,5-TricIilorophcnoxyaccLic Acid AE3STRACT fCnntlnnc an reverse sldn It necessary anil itirn'lty hy blnrk number) A study was made of the birds, other wildlife, and soils in two areas of the Ltflin Air Force Base Reservation, Florida, which previously had been exposed, to massive quantities of military herbicides containing the highly toxic chemical 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibcnzo-p-dioxi.n (TCDD) . The 5tudi.es were conducte on a thrcc-squarc-milc test site (Test Area C-52A) where aerial dissemination equipment was tested and around a hardstand where the spray-aircraft were loadc TCDD was found to be persistent and widespread in these areas. No positive deleterious effects from thfe TCDD were found. F.viclence was found, however, DD , 1473 EDITION OF 1 NOV 65 IS OBSOLETE UNCLASSIFIED SECURITY C L A S S I F I C A T I O N OF THIS PAGE (Wen Data Entered) �f 1'Tiyn SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS PAGEfWien Data Entered) Item 20 Continued. to suggest that selected species of wildlife., in restricted habitats, might have been affected. TCDl) had entered certain food chains, and bioaccumulation was demonstrated. Transient wildlife and certain herbivorous animals appeared to suffer no ill effects. Recommendations were made for a method to accelerate degradation of TCDl.) in terrestrial environments and for specific folLow-up studies on TCDD wildlife effects. SECURITr CLASSIFICATION OF THIS PAGECWhen r>«ta �PREFACE This report is the result of research conducted by the Air Force Armament Laboratory From 29 March 1974 to 1 February 1975 under Air Force Exploratory Development Project 50660101. i Dr. W. J. Potts and Mr. R. A. Hummel, Interpretative Analytical Services, Dow Chemical USA, were responsible- for the chemical analysis. Mr. Louis Jeeter, Florid a Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission, provided invaluable dssistance in the collection of specimens and revelation of wildlife habits. Captain Alvin L. Young and Lt Colonel William E. Ward, USAF Academy, provided general background information and data from six years of study in the test area and assisted immeasurably in this project. Lt Colonel E. L. Massie, Veterinary Officer, and his staff from the USAF Regional Hospital, Eglin Air Force Base, assisted in post-mortem examinations and preparation of samples. Captain Wayne Pask, Eglin Air Force Base Entomologist, identified insect remains. Acknowledgements are also made to Vitro Services and Jackson Guard Ranger Station for their assistance and services. Mr. Richard C. Crews, Ms Sandra Lefstad, Dr. Jimmy Cornette, and MSgt Gary Wyman, Environics and Human Factors Office, Air Force Armament Laboratory, Armament Development and Test Center, assisted in the collection of samples and data in the preparation of this report. Because of the subjective nature of this study dealing with dynamic ecosystems, the use of controls was not always possible and the results may not be duplicable. The conclusions are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the position of the United States Air Force. This technical report has been reviewed ancl is approved for publication. FOR THE COMMANDER: A. FARMER Chief, Environics and Human Factors Office i (The reverse of this page is blank) ��TABLE OF CONTENTS Section Title Page I INTRODUCTION II BACKGROUND 1. Description of Study Areas 2. Chemical Properties and Effects of TCDD 2 2 11 III WILDLIFE OBSERVATIONS ON TAC-52A 1. Birds 2. Annotated List of Birds of TA C-52A 3. Other Wildlife 4. Hardstand 7 Observations 15 15 20 29 31 TCDD ANALYSIS 1. Methods 2. Soil Sample Results 3. Biological Sample Results 32 32 32 35 V 1 b V VI DISCUSSION 1. Distribution of TCDD 2. Degradation of TCDD 3. Biological Uptake of TCDD 4. General Comments 44 44 44 47 50 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 51 in �LIST OF FIGURES Figure Title Page 1 Areas of Study on Eglin Air Force Base, Florida 3 2 Test Area C-52A 4 3 Typical Vegetation Looking North from One-Square-Mile (srid 5 4 Typical Vegetation Looking East from One-Square-Mile Grid 5 5 1971 Photograph of the One-Square-Mile Grid of Test Area C-52A 6 6 AridSection of Large Grid 7 7 Arid Section of Grid 1 7 8 Gator Pond 8 9 East Pond 8 10 Trout Creek Bayhead in Southeast Corner of TA C-52A 9 11 Map of Area Around Hardstand 7 10 12 Aerial Photograph of Hardstand 7 12 13 Pond by Hardstand 7 13 14 Beaver Pond North of Hardstand 7 13 15 Resident Birds of the One-Square-Mile Grid 16 16 Meadowlark Specimen Showing Conditions of: a. Body, b. Throat; c. Feet, and d. Leg 18 17 Mourning Dove Nest Found on the One-Square-Mile Grid 19 18 Bobwhite Quail Chick Found on the One-Square-Mile Grid 19 19 Deserted Animal Burrow Found on Large Grid 30 20 Distribution of TCDD in Soil Samples on the One-Square-Mile Grid 21 Distribution of TCDD in Soil Samples of Grid 1 22 Distribution of TCDD in Soil Samples from Hardstand 7 and the Adjacent Stream 40 23 Degradation of TCDD in Soil Samples iv 33 37 46 �LIST OF TABLES Table Title Page 1 Quantities of Herbicide 2,4,5-T Sprayed on TA C-52A 11 2 TCDD Content of Four-Inch Soil Core Samples on the One-Square-Mile Grid 34 3 TCDD Content of Soil Samples on Grid 1 38 4 Degradation of TCDD in Soil Samples (All Soil From Grid 1,200 Feet South of Marker P-7) 39 5 TCDD Content of Soil Samples, Vicinity of Hardstand 7 41 6 TCDD Analysis of Specimens from TA C-52A 42 7 TCDD Analysis of Fish Near Hardstand 7 43 v (The reverse of this page is blank) ��SECTION I INTRODUCTION A study was made o f the wildlife in areas of the Eglin Air Force Base Reservation, Florida, which previously had been exposed to high concentrations of military herbicides. This study was prompted by Young's discovery (Reference 1) in 1973, that a highly toxic chemical, 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDO), was present in mouse liver tissue and soil samples from Test Area C-52A (TA C-52A). TCDD is an impurity formed during the manufacture of certain herbicides. It is much more toxic than strychnine, and experiments have demonstrated that it is teratogcnic (causes birth defects) in laboratory animals. The objectives of this study were to assess, if possible, the extent of contamination and the ecological effects of TCDD on the terrestrial environment of TA C-52A and the aquatic environment near a hardstand used for loading herbicides into spray aircraft. This study was made by observing wildlife and assaying selected biological specimens and soil samples for TCDD. The analysis for traces of TCDD, in the parts per trillion (ppt) range, required undesirably large sample quantities to insure a significant detection limit. Therefore, tissues from several biological specimens had to be combined in sorre cases to form sufficient quantities for analysis. Furthermore, an ecological assessment of this type is quite subjective due to the dynamic nature of environmental factors which render the use of experimental controls, in most cases, of questionable value. The results o^ this study probably could not be duplicated, but the findings are important for focusing controlled experimentation on the ecological effects of TCDD. Reference: 1. AFATL-TR-74-12, Ecological Studies on a Herbicide-Equipment Test Area (TA C-52), Eglin AFB Reservation, Florida, Air Force Armament Laboratory, January 1974. �SECTION II EJACKGROUND This section provides background information on the physical characteristics of the study areas and their role in previous test operations using TCDO-containing herbicides. The chemical properties and currently known biological effects of TCDD are summarized. 1. DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREAS The two areas selected for this study were on the Eglin Air Force Base Reservation located in Northwest Florida (Figure 1). Test Area C-52A, located approximately ten miles east of the main base, was used to test military herbicide equipment between 1962 and 1970. Hardstand 7, located on the main base airfield, was used as one of the principal sites for loading of the spray aircraft. Test Area C-52A, a man-made grassy plain covering approximately three square miles (Figure 2), was bounded on three sides by a dense forest dominated by sand pine (Pinus clausa (Engelm Vasey), but had large numbers of longleaf pine (Pinus palustris Mill.), turkey oak (Quercus laevis Walt.), and live oak (Quercus virginiana Mill.). The northern side of TA C-52A bordered another large cleared test area. The cleared area of TA C-52A was occupied mainly by broomsedge (Andropogon virginicus L.) and low growing grasses and herbs (Figures 3 and 4). In the center of the test area was a one-square-mile instrumented grid containing permanent markers spaced 400 feet apart (Figure 5). Immediately south of this large grid was a smaller, 1000-foot radius, circular test site, called Gr d 1. Both of these grids were used to test aerial spray equipment for military herbicides, but Grid 1 received a greater quantity of herbicides. Two of the herbicides used, Orange and Purple, contained 50 percent 2,4,5-Trichlorophenoxyacetic Acid (2,4,5-T) which was contaminated by TCDD. The quantities of herbicides delivered on these areas which contained 2,4,5-T are given in Table 1. The precise amount of TCDD in the herbicides used was unknown, but probably was in the range of 1 to 47 parts per million (ppm) (Reference 2). Large areas of these test grids were quite arid and sandy (Figure 6 and 7). However, young trees, principally oaks (Quercus sop.) averaging less than two feet in height, were beginning to reappear on the large grid and a few widely scattered pines (Pinus spp) were on Grid 1. Two small ponds were present on the one-square-mile grid: a permanent pond (Gator Pond) near the center of the grid and an intermittent pond (East Pond) near the eastern border (Figures 8 and 9). The area surrounding the two grids was drained by bayheads or ravines that form the headwaters of Mullet, Basin, and Trout Creeks (Figure 10). Hardstand 7 (HS-7) was an asphalt and concrete aircraft parking area located west of the north-south runway on the main Eglin airdrome (Figure 11). The hardstand was connected to the airdrome by an asphalt taxiway. Directly behind the hardstand was a ravine that dropped off approximately 50 feet to a small pond. Erosion of the hardstand area had been a constant Reference: 2. Department of the Air Force, Final Environmental Statement on Disposition of Orange Herbicide by Incineration. November 1974. �Eglin Air Force Base, Florida ",><:^-K j .,:•; |7_l I } *. — Figure 1. Areas of Study on Eglin Air Force Base, Florida �ONE-SQUARE-MILE GRID Figure 2. Test Area C-52A �Figure 3. Typical Vegetation Looking North from One-Square-Mile Grid '^'^M^K V$jWW!: Figwre 4. Typical Vegetation Looking East from One-Squarc-Mile Grid �Figure 5. 1971 Photograph of the One-Square-Mile Grid of Test Area C-52A (Permanent Markers are Placed 400 Feet Apart. Markers are Labeled with Coordinates as Shown along Borders.) �£., .-.ftsjj.. , **; . ., Figure 6. Arid Section of Large Grid Figure 7. Arid Section of Grid 1 . �! V i i M . , ' ',', V • ' *,'• '*'•' "•$* '. ^ > h .'.' y *v '^ '• '"'• • ^;i -ifj^'v '*.'' •' ' t 'j ' >: •' Figure 8. Gator Pond •'"' Figure 9. E,ast Pond SK'.',' .- * (.'t r. . •••; ftTu.:-. * • ' , 'J,''! . - �Figure 10. Trout Creek Bayhoac in Southeast Corner of TA C-52A 9 �Pond - Figure 11. Map of Area Around Hardstand 7 10 �TABLE 1. QUANTITIES OF HER3ICIDE 2,4,5-T SPRAYED ON TA C-52A Years Area Sprayed 1962-1964 Grid 1 92 947 1964-1966 Southwest Section of One-Square-Mile Grid 92 584 1968-1969 One-Square-Mile Grid 240* 160 Approximate Number of Acres Sprayed Lb/Acre *0nly about 240 of the 640 acres was sprayed proolem and required the use of fill dirt. Aspha t had been poured over the fill dirt on the rim of the ravine for soil stabilization (Figure 12). During the time herbicide operations were being conducted, spray aircraft were loaded and herbicide drums were stored on this hardstand. The pond behind HS-7 (Figure 13) was drained by a small shallow stream which flowed north for 1,000 meters before entering Beaver Pond (Figure 14). 2. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES AND EFFECTS OF TCDD The chemical 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) Q CC is a synthetic chlorinated hydrocarbon derived from the condensation of two molecules of 2,4.5-trichlorophenol (TCP), OH si ?H ci TCDD + HCft Since TCP is the precursor for some phenoxy herbicides, notably 2,4,5-T 0- C H o - C O O H 0 1 Cft Io formulations of 2,4,5-T herbicides may contain TCDD as a contaminant. This has been found to be the case (Reference 3). Since the condensation reaction in which TCDD is formed takes Reference: 3. Woolson, E. E., et al, J. Agr. Food Chern 2Q. (2), 351 (1972). 11 �' •^ h ^-V.'-^ * ^.^F^^WX ' * w^l.'ji< ^S&S*'*"'* ' i ^ hjj ^J ^ ii . ! ™ s» inSf .«*?>>l"3'' . •,,-^«:.,-s >,.''•".."-„ •*.„• ,vV ! .rv., Figure 12. Aerial Photograph of Hardstand 7 �Figure 13. Pond by Hardstand 7 Figure 14. Beaver Pond North of Hardstand 7 13 �place only under strong reaction conditions (strong base and high temperature), TCDD is a remarkably stable compound. It is resistant to many of the processes by which simple organic molecules are broken down. TCDD has been shown to be an extraordinarily toxic substance. Its biological effects include being a teratogen (Reference 4), an enzyrrc inducer (Reference 5), and an organic poison (Reference 6). TCDD was first implicated as a teratogen in 1969 when the results of the Bionetics study (Reference 7) were published. Since very little was known about the biological effects of phenoxy herbicides, the National Institute of Health contracted with the Bionetics Laboratory of Litton Industries to study the effects of these herbicides on developing fetuses. The results showed that 2,4,5-T contaminated with 30 ppm TCDD produced significant abnormalities in both mouse and rat fetuses and mothers. Subsequent studies with contaminated 2,4,5-T and purified TCDD have largely corroborated and extended these findings. Thus, since TCDD possesses the dual properties of being extremely toxic and extremely stable, it may pose an environmental hazard by accumulating or possibly magnifying in food chains to harmful concentrations. The analytical determination of the presence of TCDD is usually made by the combination of gas chromatography and mass spectrometry. Generally, detection in the ppt range is required since TCDD is active in these concentrations. Two laboratories (Reference 8) have reported capabilities for ppt determination of TCDD. The method :nvolves treatment of contaminated samples with strong acid to remove interfering pesticides, further separation by silica gel, hexane-chloroform, and gas liquid chromatography and mass spectrometric analysis using the 322 (321.894) mass-to-charge (m/e)j3eak. Other peaks of TCDD's mass spectrum can be compared to increase sensitivity and ^7C1 TCDD (m/e 328) can be used for calibration and to improve ease of analysis. References: 4. Sparschu, G. L., et al, Food Cosmet. Toxico.. 9 (3), 405 (1971). 5. Buu-Hoi, N. P., et al, Naturwissenschafter 59_ (4) 173 (1972). 6. IBID, p. 174. 7. Courtney, K. K., et al, Science 168. 864 (1970). 8. Baughrnan, R., and Meselson, M., Environmental Health Perspectives, Experimental Issue No. 5, September (1973). 14 �SECTION III WILDLIFE OBSERVATIONS ON TA C-52A A survey of the wildlife on TA C-52A was corducted between 29 March 1974 and 1 February 1975. Visits to the study area were made on an average of twice each week at various times of the day and night. A small collection of specimens was made for species identification and for TCDD analysis. The study was a follow-up to Young's summary (Reference 1) of five years' ecological investigation of TA C-52A. The observations reported in. this section were restricted to those made within the boundary of the cleared area [including the bayheads) of TA C-52A, and unlike Young's report, does not include observations made on the large test area north of TA C-52A. The emphasis of this study was upon the birds because , due to their primarily diurnal activities, they were more apparent and could be observed with less disturbance to the ecosystems. Observations of other classes of wildlife were also made during the course of this study. 1. BIRDS Seventy-seven species of birds were observed on TA C-52A. Of this number, 44 species were observed on Grid 1. The remaining birds were seen in the surrounding clearing and bayheads projecting into the clearing. Only three species can be classified as residents which nest on the large grid. These are the southern meadowlark (Sturnella maqna). the mourning dove (Zenaidura macroura). and the bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus) (Figure 15). There were no nesting resident birds on Grid 1. At the beginning of the study, in the spring of 1974, the meadowlark was the dominant bird of the large grid and the surrounding cleared area. They could be found in nearly all areas containing low shrubs and were most abundant in the areas around the northeastern and northwestern corners of the large grid. These birds were rarely seen south of the middle of the large gric except near the bayheads. Since meadowlarks were the most numerous birds of the study area, they were selected for analysis of TCDD in liver tissue. Nine specimens were collected during the second week of May along the F and G rows of the one-square-mile grid. During the late spring and summer there was a gradual but marked decrease in the number of these birds. Part of the decline was due to the collection of specimens and to the normal spring migration of winter visitors, but the number continued to decline after these events. A rest containing five eggs was discovered on 11 July in the northeastern section of the large grid (near marker B-12), but the nest was molested and eggs disappeared on the night of 17 July. The decline in the meadowlark population continued during and after the breeding season. Young meadowlarks were first seer in the area in late May and appeared to outnumber adults by the end of June. By mid-summer, meadowlarks had become quite scarce and no more than a dozen birds were observed in one day; more frequently, none was seen or heard. 15 �Figure 15. Resident Birds of the One-Square-Mile Grid (Left to Right: Meadowlark, Mourning Dove, and Bobwhite Quail) 16 �Three more specimens (one adult and two immature birds) were collected in the first week of August. The adult specimen, a mule, was in an apparent bad state of health (Figure 16). The feathers were badly frayed and sparce. The skin was very reddened, and the scales of the feet' and legs were cracked, swollen, and rough. The tip of the normally pointed, horny tongue was truncated and frayed. The testes and liver were both enlarged, but other internal structures appeared normal. The stomach contents were largely insect remains, with a snail amount of vegetative matter. Darkling beetles (Family Tenebrionidae) were the principal insect remains. The two immature meadowlarks appeared normal; their livers and stomachs, including contents were analyzed for TCDD. Until mid-September meadowlarks were very scarce, but then they appeared in rapidly increasing numbers. On both 24 and 26 September, over 150 meadowlarks were seen on and around the northern edge of the large grid. Most of these birds were obviously transient migrants passing through the area because by rnid-November the numbers had dropped to about 50 or 60. In early December only 15 to 20 remained in the immediate area and occasionally were found on the large grid, but in January they were rarely seen. Mourning doves were seen regularly during most of the study, either as singles or in groups up to four, but were rare in late December anc January. These seed-eaters ranged over a larger area than the meadowlarks and could even be found occasionally on Grid 1. In the spring, at the beginning of the study, mourning coves were much less common than the meadowlarks, but they gradually became more abundant than the meadowlark. Local breeding of the doves was obviously quite successful. Surprisingly, four dove nests, each containing two eggs, were discovered on the ground of the large grid (Figure 17). This is quite unusual, but ground nests have been reported by Howell (Reference 9) and Weston (Reference 10). By mid-August well over 100 doves were present on TA C-52A. With the arrival of migrants, this number was doubled by mid-September. By December the population of doves had returned to approximately 25, and by January they were seldom seen. Six mourning doves were collected From the large grid in May, and three additional specimens were coliected from Grid 1 in November for TCDD analysis. Bobwhite quail were frequently heard calling and occasionally seen in the northern half of the large grid and around the bayheads in spring and early summer. The numbers of these birds residing on or visiting the grid were apparently quite small. One quail nest containing 10 chicks was discovered near marker D-5 in the northwest section (Figure 18). The only other group of quail seen on the grid was a covey of five. No quail were heard or seen on the grid after July. in mid-October, hundreds of Savannah sparrows (Passerculus sandwichensis) migrated into TA C-52A and could be found in numbers throughout the area, including Grid 1. Twelve specimens (three from the large grid and nine from Grid 1) were collected in mid-November and analyzed for TCDD. References: 9. Howell, A. H., Florida Bird Life, Coward-McCann, Inc., N.Y. (1932). 10. Weston, F. M., A Survey of the Birdlife in Northwestern Florida, Tall Timbers Research Station, Tallahassee, Florida (1965). 17 �. Figure 16. Meadowlark Speciman Showing Conditions of: a. Body, b. Throat, c. Feet, and d. Leg 18 �Figure 17. Mourning Dove Nest Found on the One-Square-Mile Grid K, ' ^ W v f ~ • SK!V -I, • • •.\'( > • •• ' • *" '" N v' V •' - Figure 18. Bobwhite Quail Chick Founc on the One-Square-Mile Grid 19 �Other b;rds observed on the two grids and surrounding areas of TA C-52A are recorded in the following annotated list of birds of TA C-52A. 2. ANNOTATED LIST OF BIRDS OF TA C-52A The following is a list of all species of bircs observed on TA C-52A. The order of listing and nomenclature follow the American Ornithologists' Union Checklist on North American Birds (Reference 11). Species not previously recorded for the area by Young (Reference 1) are marked by an asterisk. Green Heron: Butorides virescens (Linnaeus! This species was not observed during this study but was reported on the grid by Young. Little Blue Heron: Florida caerulca (Linnaeus) Two birds were observed on East Pond on 6 June. Single birds were seen on several subsequent occasions. This species was not recorded on the grid by Young until 1973. Catt e Egret: Bubulcus ibis (Linnaeus) These birds were occasional visitors to Gator Pond. Four birds were observed on 3 and 5 July. American Egret: Casmerodius albus egretta (Gmelin) This species was not observed during this study but was reported on and off the grid by Young. American Bittern: Botaurus lentiginosus (Rackett) This species was not observed during this study but was reported on and off the grid by Young. *Wood Ibis: Myctcria americana (Linnaeus) A single sighting of the woo<J ibis was made on Gator Pond, 25 June. A wood ibis was seen on an Eglin golf course pond on 23 June. Both of these sightings were probably of the same bird because it was outside its normal range, and Weston (Reference 10) cited only four occurrences in Northwest Florida. 'Pintail (Anas acuta (Linnaeus) A single female pintail was observed on East Pond 24 September and on Gator Pond 26 September and 2 October. This migrant duck was accompanied by a male blue-winged teal on each occasion. Reference: 11. American Ornithologists' Union, Check-list of North American Birds, Lord Baltimore Press, Inc., Baltimore, Maryland (1957). 20 �In addition to the male teal cited above, a female blue-winged teal was seen on Gator Pond 24 September. Turkey Vulture: Cathartes aura (Linnaeus) These birds were frequent visitors, both on and off the grid. They were seen in numbers up to five, but usually singly, searching for carrion. None was observed feeding or on the ground, but they occasionally perched on the spotting tower located northwest of the grid. Black Vulture: Coragyps atratus (Bechstein) A single black vulture was seen soaring with two turkey vultures on 2 May. Swallow-tailed Kite: Elanoides forficatus (Linnaeus) This species was not observed during the study but was reported on and off the grid by Young. Mississippi Kite: Ictinia misisippiensis (Wilson) This summer resident was first seen on 8 May and was last seen on 6 August. Between these dates, one to three birds were normally observed perched in the surrounding trees or flying over the clearing. This protected hawk-like bird is entirely insectivorous. Despite Sprunt's allegation (Reference 12) that "deforestation has made inroads on the population", this kite appears to prefer the large cleared test ranges in the area. Seven kites were seen feeding over Test Area D-51 (four miles southwest) on 5 June, and nine were seen over the large grid of TA C-52A on 9 July. During the latter part of July and early August, the birds were seen less frequently, and some may have departed earlier than the end of their normal sojourn reported by Weston (Reference 10) as mid-August. Sharp-shinned Hawk: Accipitcr striatus (Vieillot) This species was not observed during this study but was reported on and off the grid by Young. Red-tailed Hawk: Buteo jamaicensis (Gmelin) Young reported this species off the grid but not on the grid. During this study, several redtails were regularly observed in the vicinity, but none was seen in the study area until 8 May. After that date, a single male was regularly seen on and around the grid. For about two weeks in late May it was joined by a female. Mating was apparently unsuccessful, and the female left. The male red-tail had leather leg bands and was identified by Dr. J. C. Foster, a nearby resident, as being his trained bird which had escaped in that area on 28 April. This red-tailed hawk usually hunted the southern and eastern sections of TA C-52A, including the southern half of the large grid and Grid 1. Unfortunately lis hunting range covered areas which were used for trapping mice for TCDD studies in June and July. This probably accounted for less Reference: 12. Sprunt, A., Florida Bird Life, Coward-McCann, Inc., N.Y. (1954). 21 �successful trapping than had been expected. This hawk was last seen on 25 June. However, on 1 October it was learned from Vitro Services personnel that a dead hawk had been found on the grid "a month or so ago". After receiving the location, the remains of the bird were found next to a utility pole near the center of the large grid. The skeleton and feathers were recovered ard examination revealed no fractures. The cause of death remains unknown. Red-shouldered Hawk: Buteo lineatus (Gmelin) This species was not observed during this study but was reported by Young off the grid. * Marsh Hawk: Circus cyangus (Linnaeus) This species was first observed during the annual hawk migration when two female marsh hawks were observed on the grid on 24 September. One of these large hawks remained in the area and was seen regularly up until mid-Noverrber, hunting the entire area of TA C-52A. This species is principally a rodent eater but does devour some birds, including the bobwhite quail. The occurrence of this hawk for about two months may partially account for the apparent disappearance of quail. *Peregrine Falcon: Falco peregrinus (Tunsta'l) t This falcon was seen on one occasion 18 October off the grid. Sparrow Hawk: Fa.{co sp_ajye_rjus_(Linnaeus) A single bird was observed on a utility wire rear the center of the grid on 29 March. The species was not recorded again until 14 August when three were seen on one occasion. Weston (Reference 10) states the species is rare in Northwest Florida in the summer. In late September, four sparrow hawks established themselves northeast of the grid. They usually hunted north of r:he grid but occasionally were seen over the entire grid. According to Sprunt (Reference 12), this bird is generally a grasshopper hawk, but may occassionally take small mammals or even birds. Of the 20 to 30 captures witnessed in the study, all the prey were grasshoppers which were abundant in the area. Three of these hawks remained in the area until the study was corcluded in February 1975. Bobwhite Quail: Colinus virginianus (Linnaeus) Quail resided in the study area, but were distributed principally near the northwest section of the large grid and near the bayheads. This species was not seen on Grid 1. A nest containing ten chicks was discovered on the large grid on 21 June. The number of quail seen and heard in the area decreased during the summer and fall. The last sighting of a quail on the grid was in July, and the last one heard calling was off the grid near the northwest corner on 24 September. "Turkey: Mcleagris gallopayp (Linnaeus) This was a rare visitor to the study area, but single birds were seen several times in areas surrounding the clearing. On 26 July, a turkey was observed flying from a pine tree onto the clearing near the Trout Creek bayhead. 22 �*Killdeer: Charadrius vociferus (Linnaeus) Three birds of this species were seen on 7 November on the East Pond, and two more were seen on Gator Pond on 19 December. "American Woodcock: Philohela minor (Grnelin) One woodcock was flushed from a sand dune on Grid 1 6 November. "Wilson's Snipe: Capelia gallinaao (Linnaeus) Single birds were seen on East Pond on 13 October and 1 November, and two were observed on Gator Pond 2 January 1975. *Pectoral Sandpiper: Erolia melanotos (Vieillot) On 8 May, a flock of twelve sandpipers was seen on East Pond. Four specimens, including two pectoral and two white-rumped sandpipers, were collected. The remaining birds stayed on the pond until 16 May but were not seen after that date. Howell (Reference 9) lists the pectoral sandpipers as an uncommon spring migrant in Florida, and Weston (Reference 10) liscs the bird as rare and irregular since 1948. White-rumped Sandpiper: Erolia fuscicollis (Vieiliot) These sandpipers were observed in the company of the pectoral sandpipers cited above. According to both Howell (Reference 9) and Weston (Reference 10), this bird is a rare migrant in the area. *Black-necked Slilt: Himantupus mexicanus (Muller) One female specimen was collected 8 May on East Pond. This is the first known specimen collected in Northwest Florida. The bird was obviously an accidental stray outside of its recorded range (Reference 5). However, Weston (Reference 10) reported three sightings near Pensacola, Florida. Mourning Dove: Zenaidura macroura (Linnaeus) A resident population of approximately 25 mourning doves was found distributed throughout the study area. The number of these birds increased after the breeding season and during migration but then decreased during the winter. *Ground Dove: Columbigallina passerina (Linnaeus) This dove was an occasional visitor. A single oird was seen on the grid 17 June. Pairs of birds were observed on 25 June, 24 September, and 2 October. 23 �*Yellow-billed Cuckoo: Coccvzus americarius iLinnaeus) This resident of the wooded area surrounding TA C-52A was occasionally seen flying over the clearing near bayheads. *Barred Owl: Strjx. varja (Barton) This owl was heard occasionally in the woods near Trout Creek bayhead. Single birds were seen leaving the clearing south of Grid 1 on 19 July and on the ground east of Grid 1 on 2 November. Whippoorwill: Caynrnujciys voc[ferus (Wilson) This species was heard within the wooded area but was not seen or heard on the clearing. It was reported off the grid by Young (Reference 1). Common Nighthawk: Chordeiles minor (Foster) This species was frequently observed in courtship flights during the spring. Up to 20 birds could be seen flying over the entire clearing at all times of day. During the remainder of the study these birds were seen infrequently, generally in the early morning or evening, in small groups near the tree line. Although no nests were found, one nighthawk appeared to be nesting in the clearing near the tree line, cast of the grid. *Chimney Swift: Chaetura pclagica (Linnaeus) Swifts were occasional visitors to the study area. This species was first seen off the grid on 6 May and on the grid on 7 May. *Rjby-throated Hummingbird: Archilochus colubris (Linnaeus) Numerous hummingbirds were seen in the Trout Creek bayhead on 20 August. From midSeptember to mid-October, they were abundant in all the bayheads and along the southern tree line. None was observed on the grid. *Belted Kingfisher: Megaceryle alcyon (Linnaeus) A single bird was observed briefly, hovering over East Pond on 24 September. * Yellow-shafted Flicker: Colaptes auratus (Linnaeus) This ground dwelling member of the wood seeker family was seen on a number of occasions northwest of the grid, but never on the grid. *Hairy Woodpecker: Dendrocopos villosus (Linnaeus) A single bird was seen crossing the clearing near Trout Creek on 6 May. 24 �* Eastern Kingbird: Tyrannus tyrannus (Linnaeus) This species was seen only once on the northwest corner of the grid. A pair of these kingbirds successfully nested west of the grid and were frequently seen on utility wires in that area. '"Great Crested Flycatcher: Myiarchus crinitus (Linnaeus) This bird was a common summer resident in the surrounding forest. It was frequently seen along the edge of the clearing but not on the grid. * Eastern Phoebe: Savornis phoebe (Latham) A single bird was observed in the Basin Creek bayhead just north of the grid on 18 October. 'Yellow-bellied Flycatcher: Empidonax flavivenMs (Baird and Baird) These flycatchers are casual migrants -n this area of Florida. One bird of this species was seen in the Basin Creek bayhead on 18 October. * Eastern Wood Peewee: Contopus virens (Laird) A peewee was seen only once on 18 October near the middle of the grid. * Tree Swallow: iridoprocne bicolor (Vieillotl Three to five tree swallows were seen regularly during the month of October mainly over the two ponds on the grid. * Rough-winged Swallow: Stelgidopteryx ruf jcpljis (Vieillot) A single bird was observed traversing the grid on 9 July. *Barn Swallow: Hirundo rustica (Linnaeus) These swallows were occasional summer visitors to the entire study area. They were usually seen in small numbers, but sometimes 20 to 30 birds would pass through the area. They were first seen on 2 May and were last seen on 2E5 October. * Purple Martin: Progne subis (Linnaeus) Approximately 24 martins nested in the martin houses erected near the Range Control Complex on the northern border of TA C-52A. These birds were first seen on 18 April and normally remained within one-quarter of a mile of the nests. However, these birds sometimes were seen in the north-west section of the grid. After the young could fly, the martins left their houses but were seen in the area until 9 July. On 11 May an immature female was found on the ground with an apparently broken wing. When approached the right wing was flapped, but the left wing was held tightly against the body. This specimen was collected and examined. The bird was fully grown, but the proximal ends of some primary flight feathers were still partially ensheathed. The martin had a large amount of visceral fat and moderate cermatitis, but otherwise appeared normal. No lesions or fractures were found when dissecting the pectoral girdle and left wing. 25 �*BUeJav: Cvanncitta cristata (Linnaeus) This jay resided in abundance in the surrounding forest and was occasionally seen on the edge of the clearing. It was never seen on the grid. Common Crow: Coryu£ brachyrhynchos (Brehm) This species was seen occasionally flying over the grid and surrounding area during the entire period of this study. *FishCrow: Cor vug ossifragus (Wilson) A single fish crow was seen crossing the grid en 2 May. No other observations of this species were made. *Winter Wren: Troglodytes troglodytes (linnaeus) One winter wren was seen on a single occasion in the Mullet Creek bayhcad 16 October. "Carolina Wren: Xtoothorus [ud_pyjcjanus (Latham) This resident of the region occasionally was seen and heard in all the bayheads and along the tree line. None was observed on the grid. "Mockingbird: MImyi pojygiottgs (Linnaeus) Occasionally mockingbirds were sighted along the edge of the clearing, and one pair nested in the Trout Creek bayhead. "Catbird: fiumeteMa Qargjingnsjs (Linnaeus) This winter resident was seen first on 24 September in the Trout Creek bayhead. Two days later the species was abundant in all the bayheads. * Brown Thrasher: Toxostoma rufurn (Linnaeus) Thrashers are common residents of the region, but they were riot observed until 26 September in IVullet Creek bayhead. Robin: Turdus migratorius (Linnaeus) Robins were not observed during this study but were reported both on and off the grid by Young. "Loggerhead Shrike: kanJUiljjd.oyjcia_nuj (Linnaeus) Shrikes were frequently seen on utility wires in the northwest section of the clearing. A single bird was observed on the grid near marker G-2 on 22 September. 26 �"Yellow-throated Virco: Vireo flavifrons (Vieillot) This species was seen throughout the summer in Trout Creek bayhead. On 24 September several of those birds were found in all the bayheads. They were not seen on the grid. * Yellow Warbler: Dendrojca. poteen ia (Linnaeus) A specimen of this early migrant was collected on 20 August in the Mullet Creek bayhead. *Pine Warbler: Dendroica pinus (Wilson) Only one pine warbler was seen in the stjdy area, east of the grid. The species was frequently seen, sometimes in large numbers, in the adjacent wooded area. *Palm Warbler: Dendroica pajmarum (Grnelin) A number of these warblers were seen in the Basin Creek bayhead on the northern border of the grid between 18 October and 24 October. *Kentucky Warbler: Qporornis formosus (Wilson) Two of these birds were seen in the Trout Creek bayhead on 9 July. *Yellowthroat: GeathJyjJis trichas (Linnaeus) Several of these birds were observed in the Trout Creek bayhead throughout the period of study. * Yellow-breasted Chat: Icteria virens (Linnaeus) Resident birds were found in both Trout and Mullet Creek bayheads. One adult and two young chats, just barely able to fly, were observed on 9 June. Eastern Meadowlark: Sturnella magna (Linraeus) The meadowlark is a resident of the study area, but was uncommon on Grid 1 and the southern half of the large grid. Red-winged Blackbird: Agolaius phoenicejs (Linnaeus) This species inhabited the bayheads in large numbers during the spring and early summer. After the young were raised, these birds banded together in a large flock and left the area about 20 August. Young (Reference 1) reported that this species was first seen on the grid in 1973. From the beginning of this study, one male and two females were regularly seen around Gator Pond, and a single male was seen on East Pond on 3 and 5 June. By 16 May there was only a single pair of red-wings on Gator Pond, and it appeared that they might nest. Those birds were then closely watched. On 18 Juno, the female exhibited the kind of behavior that is typical of a bird when tr>ing to protect a nest, but on the following day, both birds had disappeared. An exhaustive, fruitless search was then made for the nest. The nesting attempt was obviously unsuccessful, but the cause could not be determined. 27 �* Brown-headed Cowbird: Molothrus ater (Boddaert) Small numbers of cowbirds were seen at irregular intervals throughout the study. A single specimen was observed on Grid 1 on 3 November. "Summer Tanager: Piranga ry.b_ra_(Linnaeus) Tanagers were frequently observed near the tree line and crossing the study area in the spring and were seen on a few occasions during the summer. One tanager was seen on the eastern part of the grid on 19 April. "Cardinal: Richmondena cardinalis (Linnaeus) This bird was a common resident of the surrounding Forest. It was not seen on the grid but occasionally was observed flying across the study area into the bayheads. *Blue Grosbeak: Guiraca caerulea (Linnaeus) During the spring, this was the most abundant bird along the tree line and in the bayheads, but it was not observed on the grid. These grosbeaks were less common in the summer and were last seen on 18 October. *Rufous-sided Towhee: Pipilo orythrophthalmus (Linnaeus) This species was seen occasionally throughout the study in Mullet Creek bayhead and in Basin Creek on 2 October. *Savannah Sparrow: Passerculus sandwichensis (Gmelin) These winter visitors arrived in enormous numbers in mid-October and were scattered over the entire study area. These were the only birds which were seen regularly or in numbers on Grid 1 or on the southern half of the large grid. The birds remained on the grids throughout the remainder of the study, but the numbers decreased significantly. Grasshopper Sparrow: Ammodramus sayannarum (Gmelin) This sparrow was not observed during this study, but Young reported the capture of one in a mouse trap. "Vesper Sparrow: Pooecetesgramineus (Gmelin) • At least 12 birds were seen near the center of the large grid on 1 February 1975. *Bachman's Sparrow: Aimophila acstivalis (Lechtenstein) This species was seen only on 18 October in Basin Creek bayhead with a large mixed flock of sparrows. 28 �* Field Sparrow: Spizeila pusilla (Wilson) Field sparrows were seen on 18 October in Basin Creek bayhead and along the northern edge of the grid. *Swamp Sparrow: Meiospiza georgiana (Latham > This sparrow was seen only on 18 October in Basin Creek bayhead. *Song Sparrow: Meiospiza melodia (Wilson) Five birds were seen near East Pond on 1 February 1975. 3. OTHER WILDLIFE Observations of wildlife other than birds were also recorded, and selected specimens were collected from TA C-52A. The principal concern was to determine which species were most prevalent and if it were likely that any animals contaminated with TCDD might enter the hurr.an food chain. Reference 1 listed the following numbers of species identified on TA C-52A: mammals - 18; birds - 22; reptiles - 18; amphibians -18. Follow-up studies by Young in the summer of 1974 concentrated heavily on rodents and fish. For this reason, these two groups of animal life were not considered in this study. £. Mammals The most conspicuous mammal in the area was the whitetail deer (Odocoileus viqinianus). Sightings were made on nearly every visit, and fresh tracks could always be found on the two grids and surrounding area. These deer usually resided in the surrounding forest during the middle of the day and grazed in the clearing from late afternoon until early morning. Hunting is permitted during season in the surrounding forest but not in the clearing. Mr. Louis Jeter, Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission, has studied these deer for several years. His estimate of the average population of this area is about 30 deer. Radio tagging has shown that, the range of any one animal is generally not over one mile. Mr. Jeter collected two specimens from the grid for TCDD analysis. Another deor struck by a car four miles southwest of the grid was used as a control. In addition to deer and small rodents, only two other mammals were sighted on the large test grid. A red fox (Yulpjs fyjya) was seen twice near the center of the grid. Eastern cottontail rabbits (Syvilaaus floridanus) were seen on several occasions, and two were captured in traps on the grid. One of the rabbits was analyzed for TCDD. In addition to the above, identification of tracks on the grid confirmed the presence of armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus). bobcat (Lyj}x.njfy.s), striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis), and raccoon (Procyon lotor). Over twenty-five large burrows were found on the large grid. All of these were deserted except two that were inhabited by rabbits (Figure 19). In the clearing around the grid, deer, opossum, armadillo, and raccoon were sighted. Just off the northwest corner of the grid, a colony of pocket gophers (Geomys pinetus) was found. One opossum was trapped southeast of the grid near the edge of Trout Creek bayhead and analyzed for TCDD. A complete and unmolested raccoon skeleton was found 200 yards southeast of the grid. 29 �Figure 19. Deserted Animal Burrovi/ Found on Large Grid 30 �b. Reptiles The prevalent reptile on the grid and su-rounding area was the six-lined racerunner (Cnemedophorus scxlineatus). Specimens were collected and analyzed for TCDD. A four-foot alligator (AJjkjator mississ.ip_piensus) inhabited Gator Pond on the grid. Only three snakes were seen during the study. A pigmy rattlesnake (Sistrurus miliarius) and a diamondback rattlesnake (Crotalus adamanteus) were found northwest of the grid, and an eastern coachwhip (MasticQphis flagellus) was seen in the southeastern section of the grid. A Gulf Coast box turtle (Terraoene Carolina bauri) was Found southeast of the grid. c. Amphibians Only two species of amphibians were observed during this study. The cricket frog (Acrus gryllys) was found in both Gator and East Ponds, and the leopard frog (Rana pipiens) was found in Gator Pond. 4. HARDSTAND 7 OBSERVATIONS At the beginning of this study, it was considered highly probable that the area around Hardstand 7 was contaminated with TCDD. It was known that herbicides were stored, loaded, and spilled in the area, and there was still a strong Ddor resembling that of herbicide Orange (a 50-50 mixture of 2,4-D and 2,4,5 T). A wide variety of wildlife was found in the area, but it was felt that it would be unlikely that many of the animals would regularly frequent the small contaminated area. Consequently, the study in this area was restricted to the fish in the ponds and streams that drained the area. The following is a list of fish collected: mosquito fish , Qambusia affinis (Baird and Girard); bluegill sunfish, Lepomis macrochinus (Rafinesque); longear sunfish, Lepomis megalotis (Rafinesque): and starhead topminnow Fundulus notti (Agassiz). TCDD analyses were run on Gamfegsia and Lepomis specimens. 31 �SECTION IV TCDD ANALYSIS 1. METHODS The following is a description of the methods used by Interpretive Analytical Services, Dow Chemical USA, for TCDD analysis. a. Soil Samples Ten grams of soil plus 7 ml of 1 percent aqueous ammonium chloride were extracted with a 100-ml portion, then a 30-ml portion of 1:1 hexane:acetone. The extracts were combined, and the acetone was removed by extraction with water. The hexane extract was cleaned up by washing with 10 ml of concentrated su If uric acid, followed by two chrornatographic operations,. The first chrornatographic separation was done on a 0.4 x 5 cm silica gel column, eluting with 1:4 benzene:hexane. The appropriate eluatD fraction was then transferred to a 0.4 x 5 cm alumina column. Partial removal of DDE and RGB's was accomplished by washing the alumina column with 1:4 carbon tetrachloride:hexane. Then the TCDD was eluted from alumina column with 1:4 methylene chloride:hexane. The effluent from the alumina column was evaporated to clryness, and the residue dissolved in 20 /xC of xylene for subsequent determination of TCDD. The determinations were made with an LKB-9000S gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer. The GC column was a 6-foot by 2 mm glass column packed with 3 percent OV-3 silicone on GasChromZ. Column temperature (isothermal) was 230°C. Five /xt injections of the above xylene solutions were made. The mass spectrometer was set to monitor m/e = 320 and m/e = 322 (molecular ionsC12H402CI435 and C12H402CI435CI37). b. Biological Samples Ten grams of sample were digested in a potassium hydroxide solution, which was then extracted with several portions of hexane; the combined hexane extracts were washed with four 10 rnl portions of concentrated sulfuric acid, cleaned up, and analyzed by the same procedures as described above. 2. SOIL SAMPLE RESULTS a. Large Grid Soil samples were taken from 25 locations on the one-square-mile grid, and one sample was taken from Basin Creek just north of the grid (Table 2 and Figure 20). The analysis of the samples revealed that TCDD was spread over the entire grid, even in areas that were not near the spray aircraft flight paths. The highest concentration of TCDD found in soil samples from the large grid was 470 ppl. This sample was taken in the southwest section, which probably had received heavier deposition of 2,4,E-T. Six of the samples had no detectable amount of TCDD. These included the sample from Basin Creek and two samples from the highly organic muck of Gator Pond. The other three samples that contained no TCDD were from the northwest, southwest, and east central sections o : the grid. One of these sample sites was in a low, sandy area. The other two were in high, barren areas. One drained toward the location where 190 ppt TCDD was recorded, and the other drained to the location where 31 ppt was found. 32 �Figure 20. Distribution of TCDD in Soil Samples on the One-Square-Mile Grid (TA C-52A) [TCDD Expressed in ppt values in parentheses are From Young's 1973 data using 6-inch core samples. Dark lines indicate flight paths of aircraft spraying 2,4,5-T between 1962 - 1969.] 33 �TABLE 2. TCDD CONTENT OF FOUR INCH SOIL CORE SAMPLES ON THE ONE-SQUARE MILE GRID (TA C-52A) Sample Number Location (Compass Direction and Feet from Permament Markers) TCDD (ppt) Detection Limit (ppt) Remarks 1 F-13,200'SE 19 Center of East Pond 2 G-14, 200' NW 27 Drainage to East Pond 3 4 F-7, 50'S ND* 8 Muck of Gator Pond F-7, 100'S ND* 10 Muck of Gator Pond 5 G 12, 150'WSW 31 6 G-11,150'ESE ND* 7 D-13, 100' N 9 Level area 8 C-10, 150'SSW 3 Low barren area 9 C-10, 150'SSW 9 Hiyli sandy area 10 C-10, 150'SW 11 Depression 11 D-6, 100' N 51 Level area 12 D-6, 250' WSW ND* 13 C-4, 200' SW 4 14 L-3, 50' NE ND* 15 K-3, 50' SW 190 16 L-7, 100'SW 13 Sandy knoll 17 L-12, 150'SSE 66 High knoll 18 K-12, 200' ESE 5 19 A-9, 100' S 19 Level area 20 A-11,300'NE ND* Silt from creek (off grid) 21 F-3, 100' N 150 22 G-3, 150' S 30 23 J-6, 200' S 470 24 H-5, 150' N 8 25 E-9, 150' N 99 Level sandy clearing 26 L-10, 150* N 68 High sandy area *ND - Not Detected 34 Low area 5 5 High spot Low sandy area High barren area 6 High barren area Drainage from Sample 14 Low area below Sample 17 High area Low area with muck Sandy depression High eroded sandy area �b. Grid 1 Soil samples from Grid 1 contained significantly higher concentrations of TCDD than did those from the large grid (Table 3 and Figure 21). One sample, containing 1,500 pptTCDD, was taken about 400 feet northwest of the location where Young had found 710 ppt TCDD in 1973. The higher concentrations on Grid 1 wore found in low areas, and the lower concentrations were generally found in areas of loose sand. One cubic yard of soil was collected from Grid 1 for degradation and agronomic crop studies. The soil was collected from the top 4 inches of a slight depression just over 200 feet south of marker P-7, This was within a few feet of the location where 610 ppt TCDD had been Found. The soil was removed and mixed by shovels. Four samples were then taken directly from the cubic yard of soil, analyzed, and found to contain 1,100 ppt (2 samples) and 1,300 ppt (2 samples) TCDD. Additional soil was placed in painted metal pots (8 inches deep and 8 inches in diameter) and divided into two groups of four pots. The soil in one group was analyzed for TCDD after 9 weeks, and the other group was analyzed after 23 weeks. The four pots in each group were treated as follows: two were left outside and exposed to natural elements, and two were placed in a greenhouse and watered with a nutrient solution. One of the two containers in each location was left undisturbed, and the other was stirred (tilled) weekly with a spatula. This stirring was not complete, and soil in the bottom of the pots was relatively undisturbed. The soil in each of the pots was emptied into a clean tray and mixed thoroughly before samples wore collected and analyzed for degradation of TCDD (Table 4). c. Hardstand 7 (HS-7) The distribution of TCDD around HS-7 loading area was spotty and highly variable (Table 5 and Figure 22). In a low spot on HS-7 where the asphalt had decomposed, 170,000 ppt TCDD was detected. This was apparently due to spillage of herbicide on the hardstand. Two other areas containing 11,000 and 1.300 ppt were found near the hardstand and were assumed to be areas where drums of the herbicide had been stored. These highly contaminated areas were fairly localized. As expected, TCDD was not detected on the sandy slope from the hardstand to the pond because this sand had been hauled in to repair eroded areas. TCDD was found in samples taken and around tht pond and about 600 yards north in the stream draining the pond. The highest concentration of TCDD detected in the HS-7 pond silt was 85 ppt. Silt from the stream had 11 ppt. 3. BIOLOGICAL SAMPLE RESULTS Twenty-two biological samples from TA C-52A and six samples (all fish) from the area near HS-7 were analyzed for the presence of TCDD. Unfortunately, it was necessary to use composite samples in order to get large enough samples to insure a low detection limit. This procedure limited the study in many respects but permitted identification of species that accumulated TCDD. Samples of deer and rabbit taken from the grid and opossum taken a few hundred feet away from the grid had no detectable TCDD. Meadowlarks showed the highest liver concentration of TCDD (1,020 ppt). Doves and sparrrow also showed TCDD uptake. Whole body analysis showed the presence of TCDD in the sixlined racerunner and in.a sample of several hundred 35 �small insects, but it was not detected in a sample of large grasshoppers. The results of TCDD analysis of TA C-52A biological samples are shown in Table 6. Analysis of fish from the area near Hardsland 7 (Table 7) shewed that TCDD was present in whole body samples (150 ppt) and in liver tissue (740 ppt). 36 �»37 (0-11, 150 FT, SE) SCALE • - Average of 4 samples from 1 cubic yard of soil collected " - Samples of 1/4 inch soil. Figure 21. Distribution of TCDD in Soil Samples of Grid 1 (TA C 52A) [TCDDexpressed in ppt. Values in parentheses are from Young's 1973 data using 6-inch core samples. All other are 4-inch core samples. Dark lines indicate flight paths of aircraft spraying 2,4,5-T between 1962 - 1969.] 37 �TABLES. TCDD CONTENT OF SOIL SAMPLES ON GRID 1 (TA C 52A) Sample Number Location (Compass Direction and Feet from Temporary Markers) TCDD (ppt) Detection Limit (PPt) 1 R 6, 200' S 2 P-9, 200' S 440 3 P-9, 100' E 60 4 Q-7, 200' S 270 Soil packed and level 5 P-7, 200' S 610 Low area 6 Q-7, 200' E 88 Level area 7 P-8, 200' S 150 8 P-7, 225' ENE ND" 9 P-5, 200' E 38 10 P-6, 225' SE 11 Q-6, 100' E 12 R-8 110 Level area, sand and clay 13 Q-9 130 Level area, sand and clay ND** 20 Remarks* Interference raised detection limit Low spot Edge of sand dunes Near edge of sandy area 4 Center of high sandy area Rut of old road 1500 Large depression 9 Level sandy area 14-17 P-7, 200' S 1100-1300 18 Q-7, 50' SW 920 Top 1/4 inch soil collectec with spatula 19 0-11, 150' SE 37 Top 1/4 inch soil collected with spatula Four samples from 1 square yard of soil collected *Samples were taken with 4 inch core sampler except for numbers 14 through 19. **ND - Not Detected 38 �TABLE 4. DEGRADATION OF TCDD IN SOIL SAMPLES (ALL SOIL FROM GRID 1,200 FEET SOUTH OF MARKER P-7) Length of Exposure 9 Weeks Controls (4) 23 Weeks 1,100 ppt 1,000 ppt 520 ppt 530 ppt 640 ppt 810 ppt 460 ppt 530 ppt 1,100-1,300 ppt Exposed outside to lull sun (Soil mixed weekly untillcd) Exposed in Greenhouse* (Soil mixed weekly untilled) *Soil in nrcenhouse was watered with a nut-ient solution. 39 �Beaver Dam Figure 22. Distribution of TCDD in Soil Samples from Hardstand 7 and the Adjacent Stream (Underlined Figures shows TCDD in ppt or not detected (IMD)) 40 �TABLE 5. TCDD CONTENT OF SOIL SAMPLES, VICINITY OF HARDSTAND 7 (EGLIN AIR FORCE BASE) Sample Number Detection Limit (ppt) TCDD (ppt> Location 1 1 50' S of pond 7 2 100'SSEofpond 3 200' NW of HS-7, sandy slope 4 150' E of pond 20 5 5' E of northern edge of pond 47 6 In pond, 300' NW HS 7 85 7 100' NW HS-7, sandy slope ND* 8 100' SW HS-7, under asphalt 11 9 100' NE HS 7, level ground 67 ND* 3 11,000 10 SW edge of pond 22 11 Low area E of pond 12 75' S of HS-7 center 13 100' NE of pond on slope 14 Under asphalt on HS-7 15 150' NNE HS-7 100 16 150' NE HS-7 ND* 5 17 150' ENE HS 7 ND" 10 18 300' SE of beaver dam ND* 7 19 At base of beaver dam ND* 10 20 125' S of HS-7 ND* 50 21 150' S of HS-7 ND* 2 22 North exit of pond 62 23 In NE edge of pond ND* 50 24 Stream 150' N of pond ND* 3 25 Stream 600' N 26 Silt near beaver house dam ND* 10 27 Silt near beaver house dam ND* 10 ,' 66 1,300 ND* 15 70,000 11 * ND - Not Detected 41 �TABLE 6. TCDD ANALYSIS OF SPECIMENS FROM TA C-52A Specimen Sample Number TCDD Detection Limit (ppt) (PPt) i Remarks Deer liver visceral fat liver liver kidney 1 2 3 4 5 Meedowlark liver 6 1,020 7 8 9 200 100 46 10 50 liver and fat 11 50 stomach and contents seed in crop 12 13 10 ND" 7 Composite of 6 birds from large grid Composite of 3 birds from Grid 1 From same birds as Sample 1 1 From same birds as Sample 1 1 14 15 ND* ND* 10 10 CollectedSE of grid From same animal as Sample 14 Rabbit liver pelt 16 17 ND* ND* 8 2 Collected at Gator Pond From same animal as Samplo 16 Grasshopper (large) 18 ND* 3 Four from large grid Insects, miscellaneous small** 19 40 Racerunners 20 430 Sparrow livers 21 69 liver liver stomach and contents Dove liver Opossum liver fat and mammary tissue stomach and contents «^— r-r: — =.-=..-« _=.-=. .r --. .= =••-.--. 5 4 4 4 4 ND* ND* ND* ND* ND* 22 84 -•-----— --=-- _-.-.. -_-.-_-. -— .—. From large grid Composite from two deer Control; not from TA C-52A From large grid Same deer as Sample 4 Composite of 9 birds from large grid One liver, Gator Pond Two livers, Gator Pond From same birds as Sample 8 From large grid One from each grid 12 livers. Grid 1 (9), large grid (3) Same birds as Sample 21 -. -J!i_U.. -.-.--.- - —---.-••=-—- •— --.---. *ND - Not Detectable ** Insects were collected with sweep nets in areas of low growing vegetation 42 -- - i : = = -= _• i-J-=-_. �TABLE 7. TCDD ANALYSIS OF FISH NEAR HARDSTAND 7 Specimen Mosquito Fish (Gambusia) Whole body Sample Number .• TCDD (ppt) Detection Limit (ppt) 150 Sunfish (LejLQmis) whole body 2 3 4 5 ND** ND** 150 livers and Fat 6 20 fish from HS-7 pond and 600 feet downstream 14 fillets* livers fish and livers Remarks 740 5 5 'Strips of flesh, skin, and scales from sides of ~ish. * " N D - Not Detected 43 4 large fish (greater than 8 cm) from Beaver Pond 8 large fish from Beaver Pond 25 large fish from Beaver Pond 6 small fish (less than 4 cm) and 18 livers from HS-7 pond 12 medium (4 to 8 cm) fish from HS-7 pond �SECTION V DISCUSSION 1. DISTRIBUTION OF TCDD The distribution of TCDD Found on detected in virtually all sections of both not been used anywhere in the area for in a soil sample from TA C-52A (1,500 spraysd directly in 10 years. TA C-52A was widespread. TCDD was grids, despite the fact that herbicides had four years. The highest concentration found ppt) was on Grid 1, which had not been Young's studies in 1974 indicated that there was little leaching of TCDD into the soil below the top few inches. Since TCDD is virtually insoluble in water, it is conceivable that this chemical could have been gradually forced undar the top layer of soil by the mechanical action of water percolating through the soil. The higher concentrations found on the grids were in depressions with little to moderate amounts of organic material in the soil. Areas where water runoff settled generally showed higher concentrations of TCDD than the areas being drained. The mechanical effects of water movement obviously resulted in horizontal translocation of the TCDD. Samples of highly organic soils had little or no detectable TCDD. The samples of muck from Gator Pond had no detectable TCDD. Samples taken from East Pond had 19 ppt TCDD in a sample taken near the center of the pond bed and 27 ppt from an area of major drainage into the pond bed. Other samples that had no TCDD were generally from very sandy soil which obviously had been blown around., This sand may have been blown in from uncontaminated areas, or if previously contaminated, the TCDD adhering to the particles may have been dislodged or degraded by exposure. Translocation of TCDD by the wind undoubtedly took place also. The large open area of TA C-52A was frequently quite windy, and blowing sand was often readily apparent. The movement of TCDD and the uncertainty of herbicide deposition levels made it difficult to attempt to map the TCDD concentration levels. Samples taken only a few feet apart showed wide variations in TCDD concentration. The extremely high but localized concentrations of TCDD (up to 170,000 ppt) found around Harclstand 7 were surely the result of spillage. Some of the TCDD has been translocated down the slope behind the hardstand into the pond and stream. These aquatic habitats have a fine textured sand base of natural soil covered by a layer of loose organic material varying in depth from several inches to several feet, depending on the water current. Course grained fill dirt used to retard erosion of the hardstand could also be found, particularly in the pond directly below the hardstand. TCDD was probably still being introduced into the water through runoff. The limited sampling of silt in the water showed a maximum of 85 ppt TCDD. Also that TCDD had been transported several hundred yards downstream. F:urther sampling might reveal areas where the concentration is higher and found further downstream. In any event, it was obvious that TCDD was quite persistent in both areas studied. 2. DEGRADATION OF TCDD The persistence of TCDD in the study areas is probably more important than the actual concentrations detected. High concentrations would be expected as a result of the previous large scale test program at Eglin Air Force Base. 44 �Crosby (Reference 13) has demonstrated in the laboratory that TCDD can be broken down by ultraviolet light in the presence of organic solvents and that photodecomposition was negligible in aqueous suspension and on wot or dry soil. These results appeared to be confirmed by findings in the test area. Degradation appeared to be taking place in moist, highly organic soils exposed to direct sunlight. Initially, it was felt that light alone might have caused decomposition because TCDD was not detected in some cf the sandy soil core samples. However, samples of loose sand collected with a spatula contained TCDD (up to 920 ppt). Young (Reference 14) has estimated an 88-day half-life of TCDD in alkaline soils, under desert conditions in the presence of massive quantities of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T. However, the conditions and results of those studies in Utah differ from those of TA C-52A. In addition to differences in climate, the soils on the test grids were quite acid, and the active ingredients of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T have virtually disappeared. It may well be that initially the herbicides provide the organic solvents necessary (with lignt) to decompose TCDD, but with the disappearance of the herbicide solvents photodecomposition virtually stops. Experimental soil samples exposed to direct sunlight and occasional heavy rain showed no significant TCDD degradation during the first nine weeks, even when tilled weekly to increase light exposure. Similar soil samples exposed for 23 weeks, both tilled and untilled, had TCDD degradation of approximately 50 percent. The increased rate of TCDD breakdown observed after the 9-week period probably is not indicative of the conditions existing in the natural study areas. The experimental soil had been aerated during the initial mixing, and the average temperature of the soil in the pots was higher than that of the subsurface soil in the study areas. These factors may have resulted in a gradual increase n microbial populations which accelerated biodegradation of the TCDD. Due to the probability of experimental errors and the insufficient number of analytic samples, the results of degradation studies w ere inconclusive (Figure 23). A larger number of sample data points and experimental controls are required before valid conclusions can be drawn. In addition to the experimental soils exposed to direct sunlight, pots of soil from the grid containing approximately 1200 ppt TCDD were placed in a greenhouse. A commercial fertilizer dissolved in tap water was applied to these soils on an as-needed basis to keep them References: 13. Crosby, D. G., et al, "Photodecomposition of Chlorinated Dibenzo-p-dioxins Science Vol 173, pp 748-749 (1971). 14. Young, A. L, Arnold, E. L, and Wachinski, A. M., Field Studies on the Soil Persistence and Movement of 2,4-D, 2,4,5-T, and TCDD. Presentation to the Weed Science Society of America, 13 February 1974, Las Vegas, Nevada, Abstract No. 226. 45 �1000 a c 500 a a o Exposed to direct sunlight Exposed in greenhouse and fertilized 0 9 Weeks of Exposure 2 3 Figure 23. Degradation of TCOD in Soil Samples Note: The average value of 1200 ppt (from four samples) was used as a starting point. Individual points plotted on chart represent samples taken from different pots. 46 �moist but not enough to cause excessive leaching. After nine weeks, TCDD in the soil that was tilled weekly had been reduced by nearly one-half and in the undisturbed soil by approximately one-third. After 23 weeks, however, the 'esults were not as impressive. The apparent failure of this technique to continue the rapid breakcown of TCDD may have been brought about by experimental error. TCDD may have been trapped in or leached into the soil in the bottom of the pots. The soil in the bottom of the pots was untilled and gradually compacted. TCDD in this portion of the soil was probably not affected by the treatment. The exact mechanism of the degradation is not known, but it appears that the nutrient solution, together with light or aeration cither caused a direct chemical breakdown of the TCDD or stimulated microbial proliferation which, in turn, accelerated degradation. Green algae or their byproducts , as well as bacteria, might have been involved. The soil in which TCDD apparently degraded most quickly was tilled and watered with a nutrient solution. This soil was normally covered with a green algal growth between tillings. The surface of the other tilled soils was barren, and the untilled soils had only a few weeds. The environment of the greenhouse may also have had an effect on these results. The temperature in the greenhouse averaged about 10 to 15 degrees Fahrenheit above outs de air temperature, and ultraviolet light (both long and short wave) was 10 to 15 percent less than that of direct sunlight. Further experimentation is warranted since it appears the simple use of fertilizer and/or tilling may expedite the degradation of TCDD in a strictly terrestrial environment. 3. BIOLOGICAL UPTAKE OF TCDD Several animal species examined in this study were found to be contaminated with TCDD. These included birds, reptiles, fishes, and insects. Young (Reference 1) had previously reported contamination in mammals (rodents). Mammals analyzed in this study included deer, opposum, and rabbit. No TCDD was detected in these species. However, Reference 1 reported that a beach mouse (Peromyscus polionotus) liver sample from Grid 1 had a concentration of 540 pot, and a sample from the large grid had 300 ppt. Cotton rats (Sigmodon hispidus) taken from the large grid in 1973 had 210 ppt in a liver sample. In an attempt to determine how these animals were being contaminated, seeds which constitute the primary diet of these rodents were analyzed and found to contain no TCDD. Young then speculated that the mice might be p eking up soil containing TCDD on their fur, principally through contact with contaminated soil in the burrows. The TCDD adhering to the fur might be ingested with the animals groomed their fur. The rabbit analyzed during this study had no detectable TCDD in the liver or on the pelt. The rabbit, like the rodents studied by Young, lived in a burrow. However, the burrow was on the edge of Gator Pond where no TCDD was detected in the soil samples. Another difference was that the rabbit food source was undoubtedly more leafy vegetation than seeds found on the ground. The deer analyzed in this study had no detectable TCDD. Both of the deer collected from the grid were less than a year old. These animals, like rabbits, are browsers of vegetation but spend considerable time off the grid. The deer could possibly pick up TCDD on their fur when lying on the ground, but most of their resting was done in the surrounding forest. It 47 �has beeh shown (Reference 15) that TCDD can be taken up by plants. These findings suggest that additional samples of grazing and browsing snimals should be analyzed to make certain TCDD is not entering the food chain in this manner. The opossum, an omnivore, was trapped off the grid and may not have been exposed to an area containing TCDD. Unsuccessful attempts were made to capture a carnivorous mammal on the grid. Carnivorous mammals frequently roamed across the grid, but it was not established that any actually resided on the grid. Of the bird species analyzed for TCDD, two were breeding residents (meadowlark and mourning dove) and one was a winter resident (Savannah sparrow). The first sample of meadowlarks, taken early in the breeding season, had a liver concentration of 1,020 ppt. The nine birds, from which the sample was taken, were all collected along the east-west centerline of the large grid (rows E through H). This area had a relatively low TCDD content in soil samples. During the breeding season the range of birds probably did not exceed a few hundred yards. Birds that were flushed would simply move -:o another area within their nesting territory. Therefore, their feeding habitat was strictly confined, and water was available from the nearby ponds of the grid. Although it may be a minor contributing factor, the high concentration of TCDD accumulated in the liver tissue was not likely due to ingestion after preening of the feathers. Meadowlark bills are horny and smooth, and their habitat was not highly contaminated. Although some sand may have been present, none was observed in the stomachs of these birds. Meadowlarks are principally insectivorous. Therefore, in order to determine if their food was the source of TCDD, a sample of small insects was collected From the same area. This sample of several hundred small insects had 40 ppt TCDD. These insects were taken well after the meadowlark breeding season and may have been more contaminated earlier in the spring, particularly species that had just emerged from the ground. In late summer, well after the breeding season was over and the birds were dispersed and not in specific territories, a single adult msadowlark collected had 200 ppt TCDD in the liver and a composite sample from two immature birds had 100 ppt. These birds had net been restricted to the immediate area as the birds during the breeding season had been. Since meadowlarks had only been seen irregularly in that area during the preceding few weeks, they must have been ranging over much larger areas. The young birds' stomachs and contents (insect remains) had a concentration of 46 ppt. It therefore appeared that a major source of TCDD was insects which had :hcmselves become contaminated, probably through close contact witii the soil. A sample of five large grasshoppers was also analyzed to see if they might be a potential source of TCDD for the protected Mississippi kites which were summer residents and sparrow hawks which were winter residents. The large grasshoppers collected in late summer had no detectable TCDD. Perhaps TCDD from the soil, which may have adhered to the exoskclctor of small young grasshoppers and other insects, might be removed during the numerous orowth molts. On the other hand, the surface-to-volumc ratio may account for the TCDD being detected in small insects and not in the large grasshoppers. Since only five grasshoppers were used in this sample, additional sampling is probably warranted. Determination ES to which species of the small insects were contaminated would be useful information. However, an attempt to do this would be impractical until analytical procedures are developed that would permit the use of minute samples. Reference: 15. Isensee, A.R. arid Jones, G.E., Absorption and Translocation of Root and Foliage Applied 2,4-Dichlorophenol, 2,7-Dichloroclibenzo-p-dioxin, and 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin, J. Agr. Food Chem., Vol 19, No. C. (1971). 48 �Mourning doves collected during the breeding season in the same area that the meadowlarks were collected had only 50 ppt TCDD in the composite liver sample. There are major differences in the habits of these two species which probably account for the lower TCDD content in doves. The doves ranged over a much larger area and are seed-eaters. It is possible that a small amount of the TCDD found in these birds could be attributed to preening habits, but the majority probably came from TCDD adhering to seeds or sand picked up with the seeds from the ground. A second sample of mourning doves was collected in the late fall. These birds were collected O'i the more intensely contaminated Grid 1, but since it was no longer the breeding season, the birds ranged over a larger territory. Seed from the crops of the doves had no detectable TCDD at a detection limit of 7 ppt, but the stomach and its seed contents had 10 ppt. Detectable traces of TCDD adhering to the seeds in the crop may have been washed into the stomach by the glandular secretions of the crop. TCDD in the livers of these doves was 58 ppt. Twelve Savannah sparrows were collected within 30 days after they first migrated into the area. The stomach contents of these birds consisted of approximately 85 percent seed, 10 percent insect remains, and 5 percent sand by volume. Analysis revealed the stomachs and contents had a higher concentration of TCDD (84 ppt) than the livers (69 ppt) which probably reflected their recent arrival, or that these particular birds had just begun to feed on the grid. A sample of two six-lined racerunners was analyzed and found to contain a whole body TCDD content of 430 ppt. This is a relatively high whole-body concentration as compared to other biological specimens analyzed from the test area. These two racerunners were taken from Grid 1 and the southern border of the large grid near Grid 1. An analysis of separate tissue types of this species should shed some light on the method of TCDD uptake, but it is not surprising to Find a concentration like this since the reptiles were in a heavily contaminated area and probably never left it. TCDD probably adhered to the rough scales and was ingested in the insect diet. A sample of 18 livers from small sunfish (Lejjorms) was collected from the Hardstand 7 pond. The sample was not large enough to insure a low TCDD detection limit, so six whale fish from the same area were added to the sample. The composite whole body and liver concentration o'F TCDD was 150 ppt. The livers of medium sized (4 to 8 cm) sunfish from the same area had 740 ppt. Analysis of larger sunfish from the Beaver Pond yielded confusing results. Neither liver nor fillet (including flesh, skin, and scales) samples had detectable TCDD (detection limit 5 ppt).. Whole body samples had 14 ppt. These three samples all were from different composite fish samples. Since the procedure and techniques used by Dow Chemical in the TCDD analysis had consistently been reliable and reproducible, experimental error was probably not the cause for this apparent anomaly. More likely causes were that one or more of the fish used in the whole body sample did have a trace of TCDD, or tha: TCDD was contained in other parts of the viscera or in the gills. The mosquitofish (Gambusia) whole body sample contained 150 ppt TCDD. Ten of these fish came from the pond by the hardstand, and ten came from 600 yards downstream. According to Zim (Reference 16), the diet of both of these fishes consists of insects, insect larvae, crustaceans, and small aquatic plants. The diet of the sunfish also include small fish. It is not known if the source of TCDD in these species of fishes were through the food chain or through contact with the water. Neither potential source was analyzed. Reference: 16. Zm, H. S. and Shoemaker, H. H., Fishes, Golden Press, New York, 1955. 49 �4. GENERAL COMMENTS It should be remembered that this report is based largely upon field study and therefore reflects opinions of the authors. The report should not be mis-construed as an indictment against the use of herbicides containing TCDD. Rattier, it should serve as a basis for additional research; it suggests prudent use of these herbicides as well as long term monitoring of areas which receive repeated applications, particularly in areas of drainage and around aquatic habitats. The available evidence provides no positive proof that biologically deleterious effects have occurred in areas that have received even applications of these herbicides far in excess of normal practices. However, bioaccumulation of TCDD was obvious and some adverse effects were suspected. The increase in numbers of bird species observed during the period of this study over that observed by Young in an earlier work has a simple explanation. The larger number of birds reported was due to more intense observation of this vertebrate class which resulted in the identification of more and different transients. Only the red-winged blackbird represents a potentially new breeding bird. On the other hand, the observations of the birds in the surrounding area in different habitats strongly suggest that there are no ill effects, at present, in the adjacent areas. The observed species of birds and other wildlife were generally representative of similar habitats in uncon tarn mated areas. Despite the fact that the study areas had ucen highly contaminated with TCDD, the biological effects are apparently few and they are species dependent. On TA C-52A most of the wildlife is transitory. There appears to be no danger ihat any species would receive a lethal dose or concentration on a single or occasional day's exposure. The areas of highest TCDD concentration around Hardstand 7 could have adverse effects, but since the areas are so small there is little likelihood of significant wildlife poisoning. Concern should therefore be focused on species that remain in highly contaminated environments for significant periods of time. Specific examples are resident birds and rodents of TA C-52A and fish in the aquatic environment near Hardstand 7. It is unlikely that the rodents would receive the average daily dose rates of 125 - 1000 ppt necessary to be teratogenic. Howover, daily dose rates approaching 125 ppt could be experienced by the more voracious birds in highly contaminated areas. This could result in prenatal or postnatal lethality if adaptive mechanisms which are species related were unable to prevent liver or kidney dysfunction. The primary areas of concern are the high concentrations in the livers of meadowlarks on the grid and fishes in the hardstand pond (as well as their predators). These, birds and fishes were both in habitats of relatively low TCDD concentrations. The high concentrations in beach mouse livers is not disturbing, because :liey were from a heavily contaminated area and were not obviously ill-affected. 50 �SECTION VI CONCLUSIONS ANO RECOMMENDATIONS 1. TCDD is very persistent and widespread on the grids of TA C-52A and has spread off the lest grids to the immediately adjacent areas in low concentrations. TCDD was found in various kinds of wildlire. 2. TCDD contamination from the area around Hardstand 7 has entered the adjacent aquatic habitat and was found in fish. Investigation of the method of uptake by the fish and possible uptake by birds preying on the fish is recommended. 3. TCDD probably does not occur in high enough concentrations to cause teratogenesis in the wildlife, but may be present in sufficient quantities to cause a gradual liver dysfunction, in certain species. Analysis of single samples is necessary to determine the range of TCDD content, as opposed to mean values, in pooled biological specimens. The highly contaminated specimens could then be more closely evaluated for tolerance and possible harmful effects. 4. Bioaccumulation was demonstrated and it appeared that ihere may have been deleterious effects in selected species, in restricted and contaminated habitats. Ingestion of contaminated insects may bo the major hazard to birds, such as the meadowlark, particularly during the breeding season when their range is restricted and the newly emerged insects are probably the most highly contaminated. 5. Wildlife in the areas adjacent to the locations of high contamination appear to have suffered no ill effects. Birds were obviously highly successful in their breeding in these adjacent areas. There was no reason to suspect harmful effects to wildlife transients, occasional visitors, or migrating birds. 6. The rate of degradation of TCDD in areas of high concentrations could probably be accelerated by increasing the fertility of the soil. It is not considered necessary or advisable to do this on the Eglin Reservation,, however. The test range is a unique field laboratory that should be preserved for valuable research on the long term effects of TCDD, If further research reveals proven methods of decontamination of TCDD, then decontamination of Hardstand 7 might be considered. In the meantime it is advisable to restrict fishing in this habitat to prevent human consumption of the fish until all traces of the TCDD disappear. 7. The analytical procedures and techniques of Dow Chemical proved to be reliable and highly reproducible. Additional sources for TCDD analysis should be developed. Detection of TCDD, in the low ppt range, is required, end an increased capability to permit use of smaller samples sizes is desirable in order to facilitate studies on the long term environmental effects of TCDD. 51 (The reverse of this page is blank) ��INITIAL DISTRIBUTION USAI; (SAMI) 1 APIS (INTA) 1 AI;SC (JJDWJ 2 ASD (CNYS) 1 ASD (HNYniM) 1 ALII, (AUL/LSn-70-239) 1 Ogdcn ALC (MMNOP) 2 AI:W:, (LR) 2 DlC 2 A1;SC (I)I-V) 2 USAl-1 (RDP) 2 (l-nvir 5 Life Sciences) 7. (Tech Lib) 3 USA:;A (Dept of Chem f, Physiology) 2 ASA::IL (SAFILE) 2 An.C (MMNOJ 1 AFLC (DS) 1 Ldgewood Arsenal (SAREA-TS-L) 1 Ft Derrick (Veg font Div) Chem Lab ISARI-A-C1.-VJ 2 LISAMC (AMCRI)-WB/A!:SC-SDWC) I OOAMA (MMNO) 2 SAAMA (SFQT) " 3 NWC (Tech Lib) * 1 NWI, (Tech Lib) 1 USD/V (Pesticide Coordinator/ Dr F. II. Tschirley) 3 CINCPAC/J3A1 Sci Adv C,p 2 USAF linv Health Lab (Dr Melvin) 3 USDA (Ag F.nv Quality Inst) USDA (AUS/Dr. Kearney) 2 NASA MTF (Mr Wolverton) 1 USDA Forest Service (Eastern Region) 2 Spec Asst for Env Quality (Dr Welch) 2 AMRL (THE/Dr London) 3 AMD (RD/Col Mohr) 2 Ogdcn ALC (MMNOP) 2 ADTC (DEN/Mr Britt) 2 ADTC (SGPE/Maj Hartman) 2 ADTC (CSV/Maj Conrad) 1 TAWC (TRADOC) 1 APATL (DL) I AFATL (DLOSL) 2 AFATL (DLV) 20 53 (The reverse of this page is blank) ��*• • • ADTC EGLIN AFB, FLA. 32542 OFFICIAL BUSINESS PENALTY FOR PRJVATE USE *3OO THIRD CLASS � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange Description An account of the resource <p style="margin-top: -1em; line-height: 1.2em;">The Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange comprises 120 linear feet and spans the late 1800s to 2005; however, the bulk of the coverage is from the 1960s to the 1980s and there are many undated items. The collection was donated to Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in 1985 by Dr. Alvin L. Young (1942- ). Dr. Young developed the collection as he conducted extensive research on the military defoliant Agent Orange. The collection is in good condition and includes letters, memoranda, books, reports, press releases, journal and newspaper clippings, field logs and notebooks, newsletters, maps, booklets and pamphlets, photographs, memorabilia, and audiotapes of an interview with Dr. Young.</p> <p>For more about this collection, <a href="/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/alvin-l--young-collection-on-a">view the Agent Orange Exhibit.</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Box The box containing the original item. 012 Folder The folder containing the original item. 0098 Series The series number of the original item. Series II Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Bartleson, Fred D. Don D. Harrison John D. Morgan Description An account of the resource <strong>Corporate Author: </strong>Air Force Armament Laboratory, Armament Development and Test Center, Environics and Human Factors Office (DLV), Eglin AFB Florida Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1975-03-01 Title A name given to the resource Field Studies of Wildlife Exposed to TCDD Contaminated Soils Subject The topic of the resource dioxin Eglin AFB ecological fate Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange Description An account of the resource <p style="margin-top: -1em; line-height: 1.2em;">The Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange comprises 120 linear feet and spans the late 1800s to 2005; however, the bulk of the coverage is from the 1960s to the 1980s and there are many undated items. The collection was donated to Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in 1985 by Dr. Alvin L. Young (1942- ). Dr. Young developed the collection as he conducted extensive research on the military defoliant Agent Orange. The collection is in good condition and includes letters, memoranda, books, reports, press releases, journal and newspaper clippings, field logs and notebooks, newsletters, maps, booklets and pamphlets, photographs, memorabilia, and audiotapes of an interview with Dr. Young.</p> <p>For more about this collection, <a href="/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/alvin-l--young-collection-on-a">view the Agent Orange Exhibit.</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Box The box containing the original item. 020 Folder The folder containing the original item. 0305 Series The series number of the original item. Series II Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Herbicide Materials Given to Alvin L. Young by G. C. MacDonald, 1971-1972 Subject The topic of the resource herbicide disposal public opinion Eglin AFB