2 15 40 https://www.nal.usda.gov/exhibits/speccoll/files/original/e62a4e950c53cf75d3fab44903cf304f.pdf 799a41ec4843b6b02e8a48c6744dca19 PDF Text Text Item ID Number on 89 Author Braun, Daniel C. Corporate Author Report/Article TitlB Establishing Environmental Criteria JOIirnal/BOOk Title Archives of Environmental Health Year ™™ Month/Day September Color n Number of Images 3 DOSCriptOll NOtOS ^'v'n *-• Young filed this Item under the category "DDT/Human Toxicology and Environmental Fate" Heading: Pollution Medical Research Conference. Wednesday, April 11, 2001 Page 1189 of 1242 �lution Medical Research Conferefee Establishing j/ Environmental Qrtteria 1 Medical Perspectives , MD; reasonable Nosuggestisthatperson todayofwould pollution the environment not a serious problem, one which demands the application of all the intelligent, scientific, and technical effort we can muster—and can afford. Physicians are aware of this. Industrialists, for the most part, are aware of it. Scientists from a number of disciplines are working diligently to define the problems and to find solutions. Unfortunately, the greatest deterrent to sound progress at present comes from those who engage in unscientific exaggerations while demanding instant results. All sorts of dire predictions are being made by all sorts of people, but those most frightening with respect to health are being made by persons who are not physicians. In their importance to humanity, the possible effects of pollution on health far outweigh aspects of aesthetics or comfort. Health is the Submitted for publication Dec 6, 197% accepted M««h 19,1978. From the Industrial Health Foundation, Inc., PJUfburgh. Mr. tJurgiel it now with Byckman Edgerley Tomiinfon * Awociatew, 8t Loufe. Road before t)te Air Pollution Medical Research Conference of the American Medical A> •ocietion, Chicago, Oct a, 1972, • . |^|^ntr»a«eit« to Induitriil Health Paunda. Won, Inc., 58$1 Centre Av», ntt*b,ur0h, PA if. 0raun)i '-—-,.: iron HMlth/Vol 27, Sept 1973 realm of physicians, and so it is important for physicians to know what substances in the environment are hazardous to health, or potentially so. A major problem is that zealots are calling some situations health hazards when they are in fact merely nuisances, because this makes the sequences dire. Sometimes this is done out of ignorance of the significance of dose-response relationships. Beyond all others, physicians are aware of such relationships; they know that for every substance a certain dosage level is needed to produce an expected response. Because health is the most important concern in community contamination, and because the doctor it best able to understand the physiological response to various levels of contaminanta, the physician should play a more important role in public information about and community rosponse to pollution control. Contaminant* emitted into the atniosphere arise from maty ******** Sorn^ result from communiiy operations, such at garbage diapoaal and incineration. Agricultural burninf, fertilising, and insect-control account tor tome, and still other* have their origin in industrial proceaM* <* &• jjjwration of automobile!, trucks, Establishing Environment* CrtttftyBraun «t at t|| �buses, boats, and airplanes. We call attention to the fact that we said "contaminants" and not "pollutants," The introduction of harmful, impure, or otherwise undesirable substances into something previously untainted constitutes contamination, The result may, for practical purposes, be negligible. It is only when these substances render the atmosphere or water foul or noxious to health or life that the word "pollution" is properly applicable. This may seem to be only an exercise in semantics, but the point of emphasis is that many people have fallen into the sad practice of loose speech and fuzzy definitions in the whole area of environmental control. They cry havoc when what is really needed is merely nuisance abatement. The fact is that the far-out claims about air pollution are, at best, frightening citizens, especially parents, and, at worst, are in a fair way to leading to panic, simply because of the lack of precise understanding of the actual health effects of contaminants in the air we breathe. In a few well-publicized acute episodes of near-disastrous magnitude, serious illness and death have resulted from polluted air. Therefore, pollution in high enough concentrations can be serious. On the other hand, it is perfectly apparent that even in the urban areas of our country the life-span and general state of health continue to improve, and so the concentrations commonly found in urban areas must be less than disastrous. Again we return to dose-response relationships. High enough concentrations can be harmful to health. Lower concentrations, even though they may offend us in terms of aesthetics or comfort, can be completely harmless to health. Physicians know that the respiratory system is equipped with very efficient self-cleansing mechanisms, and can defend against and dispose of even abnormal amounts of foreign substances which are inhaled. One seldom hears or sees this fact referred to, however, in the talks or feature articles on air pollution. Physicians know that the body also has marvelous d«to«ifying mechanisms that can III Arch Environ Health/Vol 27, Sept 1973 handle low doses of a wide variety of /"Spots and gases. Sulfur dioxide has substances with no harmful effects, a in the public press as fact the public press almost unive%^ ttfe" 'jiq|St 'damaging, corrosive, and sally ignores. irritating to humans. Actually, in f/ It is well, too, to keep in mind that concentrations it can "pollution" of the air is an inherent bronchoconstriction. We part of the phenomena of nature. Volioians would not be likely to canic ash has been an important pol- lerm Such effect on airway resistance lutant, as has smoke from forest fires. as "corrosive." Careful research on humans has shown that more than Ozone in high concentrations is tem13,000/ig of SO, per cubic meter of air porarily present in the air following is needed to produce any measurable lightning storms. Many others could bronchoconstriction. This can be be listed. compared with the governmental Man, blamed and maligned as the community air quality standard of worst polluter, produces only about 80/ng of SO, per cubic meter of air. 0.5% of the total air contamination The physiological response to SO, through his inventions and activities. may be enhanced in the presence of It is true that this relatively small particulatefa, moisture, and oxidation, amount can cause serious problems because, in contrast to that from natand is also influenced by individual ural sources, those for which man is susceptibility. But it is apparent that responsible are localized and may be SO, levels in community air must concentrated. reach relatively high concentrations Thus, a power-generating plant to be deleterious to health. may emit several hundred tons of sulfur dioxide (SO,) per day, and air movement across an urban area can increase the participate loading by tenfold compared to the air of a nearby rural area. The articles which follow will deal in greater depth with specific contaminants and their effects. We wish merely to touch on a few examples that, in our judgment, indicate the areas in which physicians have much to offer and in which the medical perspective is essential. Of the millions of tons of material thrown into the atmosphere each year, carbon monoxide (CO), largely from transportation sources, is the major pollutant, constituting about 50% of the total loading by man. Its most serious effects, of course, are to be expected in persons with chronic heart and lung disease, but at low concentrations the effects may be manifested by visual impairment and slowed reaction time. To date, most studies of the effects of CO have employed short-term, high-concentration exposure. Future CO toxicology must be directed to physiological changes produced by low levels ov«r long periods of time. Other major contaminants are the oxides of nitrogen and sulfur, hydrocarbons, particulate matter, and* va-~ Hydrocarbons constitute approximately 15% of the total contamination in the ambient atmosphere. The most important, from the standpoint of being potential photochemical pollutants, ar j the double-bond olefins, substituted aromatic hydrocarbons, and aldehydes and ketones. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are universally present in the atmosphere, and much attention has been directed to some of them because of their carcinogenic potential. Thus far, experimental production of lung tumors in small animals has not been accomplished by inhalation, and the literature presents no clear-cut correlation between the effects of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon pollution and lung tumor production in man. Neitiier does present information indicate any direct health effects due to the gaseous hydrocarbons in ambient a<r, but "present information" is still inadequate to state unequivocally ihat there can be none, for instance, under extremely adverse meteorological conditions. Of the teven oxides of nitrogen known to exist, only two of toxicological importance are present in ambient air-nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO,). No data from either aninal or human studies suggest thai NO is a health hazard at Establishing Environmental Criteria/Braun et at �concentrations found in ambient air, but since it readily oxidizes to NO,, it possesses potential toxicity. The toxicology >f NO, is difficult to discuss because of the inadequacy of relevant data from human studies. An article that follows will describe the effects of NO, on schoolchildren in an urban area. The effects of oxides of nitrogen at levels of community air pollution at this time must be considered as potentially irritating Jlnd possibly related to chronic pulmonary fibrosis, but there is insufficient evidence of its qualitative relationship to them. With regard to water pollution, the problems are vastly different today from those of a few decades ago when the major concern wns waterborne bacteria responsible for cholera and typhoid fever. Development of effective filtration and chlorination techniques has virtually eliminated such epidem cs. At present, the volume of industrial and metropolitan wastes is tremendous and includes an ever-increasing number of synthetic chemical contaminants which did not even exist a dozen years ago. Most available data on the effects of chemicals in water svpplies have come from experiences in industry. However, some information has been obtained from episodes of acute illnesses v^iich result from the presence of some uncommon natural constituents in crinking water, or accidental contamination from spillage or jeepage of sc me chemical. More than 500 new chemicals are developed each year, and many of these fir.d their way into our waterways. Sxtch chemicals as nitrates and nitrites, arsenic and selenium, mercury, organic .carcinogens, and tracemetal antagonists present real challenges to w ater pollution central. Scientific data on thii relative importance of heavy metil toxicity are scarce. The Food and Drug Administration admits to little knowledge regarding levels of toxicity for metals in foods. Many chemical processes, for instance, use mercury, which ultimately escapes into waste water and tends to settle in the sediment of lakes and rivers. Small or- ganisms not only ingest the metal, they transform it into a more toxic * form. Bottom-feeding fish eat the small organisms and are in turn eaten by larger game fish. Mercury becomes increasingly concentrated with each successive step. Although mercury probably has been present in high concentrations in fish for many years, and possibly has no effect on persons eating the fish, it is nevertheless a cumulative poison. It exists in food fishes as methyl mercury, which is a highly toxic substance that causes neurological damage, produces chromosomal aberrations, and has teratogenic effects. Stopping the discharge of mercury into our waterways is only one aspect of the problem; of greater concern is what to do with the mercury already lying on the river bottoms. Recent studies raise the question as to whether drinking water which contains minute amounts of carcinogenic pollutants may, over many years, contribute directly or indirectly to cancer in man. Efforts to link organics in drinking water to cancer prevalence have so far been unsuccessful. Of major consequence with regard to soil pollution are the pebiicides. The dilemma of pesticides lies in the fact that while they do much good, they threaten a great deal of harm. They aid in increasing food and fiber production through protection from insects, rodents, and weeds, but by their poisonous nature they may also endanger human life by long-term, low-level effects. Because of recent adverse publicity, the public seems to believe that pesticides have been spread with reckless abandon all over the landscape, contaminating all food and fiber crops and polluting the whole environment beyond reclamation. As a matter of fact, it is impossible to find anything in current popular literature that puta pesticides in a favorable light. If it can be shown that a pesticide has accumulated in animal tissue, there is no end to the allegations made against it For the last decade the dangers of DDT, its buildup in the environment as well as in human tissues, have been a public health issue in this country. It WM almost completely banned from use in the United State* by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) this year. However, after seven months of hearings by the EPA during which a stream of scientific witnesses testified, the hearing examiner found that there was no conclusive evidence against DDT. In fact, some of the evidence was clearly questionable. The World Health Organization has recently sought to persuade governments to recognize the fact that although DDT may have certain hazards, they should not be allowed to obscure its immense advantages. The World Health Organization feels that, in spite of the adverse publicity, there is no present justification for abandoning this valuable weapon in the fight against disease. Physicians, especially those concerned with public health, are becoming more aware of the relationship of man's well-being to his environment It is imperative that they maintain a scientific and professional approach, and calmly appraise all the facts relating to health, disease, and ecology, Scientific research is a slow, methodical process, and no amount of hyste ria, government funding, or legisla tion will hasten resolution of the problems of physiological reactions. This article has merely referred U some of the aspects of the various kinds of pollution, meanwhile urging physicians to become involved, albeit on a sound and professional basis While we are all familiar with th< acute episodes of serious pollution such as occurred in Donora, Pa, am the Meuse Valley-and the disastei at Minamata Bay, Japan, in whid more than 100 died of mercury poi soning- we, as physicians must lean how to evaluate realistically the long term effects of these pollutants at \o\ levels. With this background, th medical profession can meet what w consider to be its obligation to help I development of proper criteria ft environmental controls, and in mail taining the medical perspective, � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange Description An account of the resource <p style="margin-top: -1em; line-height: 1.2em;">The Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange comprises 120 linear feet and spans the late 1800s to 2005; however, the bulk of the coverage is from the 1960s to the 1980s and there are many undated items. The collection was donated to Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in 1985 by Dr. Alvin L. Young (1942- ). Dr. Young developed the collection as he conducted extensive research on the military defoliant Agent Orange. The collection is in good condition and includes letters, memoranda, books, reports, press releases, journal and newspaper clippings, field logs and notebooks, newsletters, maps, booklets and pamphlets, photographs, memorabilia, and audiotapes of an interview with Dr. Young.</p> <p>For more about this collection, <a href="/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/alvin-l--young-collection-on-a">view the Agent Orange Exhibit.</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Box The box containing the original item. 047 Folder The folder containing the original item. 1189 Series The series number of the original item. Series III Subseries I Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Braun, Daniel C. John A. Jurgiel Paul Gross Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Archives of Environmental Health Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1973-09-01 Title A name given to the resource Establishing Environmental Criteria Subject The topic of the resource ecological impact health effects pesticide toxicology risk assessment ao_seriesIII https://www.nal.usda.gov/exhibits/speccoll/files/original/e787c6e13e415c42d0bd84b559613312.pdf 9fce70516f1fe3304a9e588fd0c482b5 PDF Text Text Item ID Number 01190 Author Corporate Author U. s - ArlT|y Medlcal Bioengmeenng Research and Devel RBDOrt/ArtidO Tltto Report: Problem Definition Studies on Potential Environmental Pollutants, VII. Physical, Chemical, lexicological, and Biological Properties of DDT and Its Derivatives ' Journal/Book Title Year 1979 Month/Day Color rj Number of Images ^ DQSCrlptQn NDtQ8 Alvin Li Young filed this item under the category "DDT/Human Toxicology and Environmental Fate" Technical Report 7906 Wednesday, April 11, 2001 . Page 1190 of 1242 �Technical Report 7906 . / •o* CO PROBLEM DEFINIT70N STUDIES ON POTENTIAL ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTANTS VII. PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL, TOXICOLOGICAL, AND BIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF DDT AND ITS DERIVATIVES JUNE 1979 O Prepared for the OFFICE of the PROJECT MANAGER for CHEMICAL DEMILITARIZATION and INSTALLATION RESTORATION by US ARSSY MEDICAL BIOENGINEERING RESEARCH and DEVELOPMENT LABORATORY ForlDfitrlck Frederick, BSD 21701 Edited by _W.. .JQickinson Burrows , _Ph . D . David R ,-Gogley , -Ph . D . Ph.D. Jack C. Dacre, Ph.D. jGeoffrey Woo4ard, Ph^ APPROVED FOR PUBLIC RELEASE; DISTRIBUTION UNLIMITED US ARMY MEDICAL RESEARCH and DEVELOPMENT COMMAND FortDetr&k Frottertok, RSD217C1 81 1 28 00* �NOTICE Disclaimer The findings in this report are not to be construed as an official Department of the Army position unless so designated by other authorized documents. *» Disposition Destroy this report when it is no longer needed. to the originator. Do not return it �Unclassified SECURITY CLASSIFICATION Of THIS I*ACE READ INSTRUCTIONS BEFORE COMPLETING FORM REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE 1. REPORT NUMBER (fc 2. COVT ACCESSION NO. 3. R E S I E N T ' S CATALOG NUMBER Technical Report 7906 •, V J^ROBLEM DEFINITION STUDIES ONJPOTENTIAL j JNVIRONME^TAL POLLUTANTS, vii/PHYSICAL, ^CJBEMICAL,: ^JXiqOLOGICAL.AKD JIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF DDJ 'ID ITS DERIVATIVES^ ; ~~". - «. PERFORMING ORG. REPORT t^MBER 8. CONTRACT OR GRANT NUMBERf»; Dickinson/Burrows /T fw. Dick: I /OS David R./Cogley R r ^~f William G./Light r~" Jack C/ Dacre Geoffrey/Woodard 1 NAME AND ADDRESS O. PROGRAM ELEMENT. PROJECJ^T ASK AREA « WORK UNIT N U M B S ^ ^ U.S. Army Medical Bioengineering Research and Development Laboratory, ATTN: 'SGRD-UBG, Fort Detrick, Frederick, MD 21701 H. CONTROLLING OFFICE NAME AND ADDRESS U.S. Army Medical Research and Development Comtnan^ ATTN: SGRD-RMS Fort Detrick, Frederick, MD 21701 *i"*"tv- » L L ^^^- L j-^IP. , IIU J.J. / VJX 14. MONITORING AGENCY NAME 6 AOORESSfl/ dlltettnt trom Controlling Olllce) IS. SECURITY CLASS, fof Hit* rcporQ UNCLASSIFIED I5«. OECLASSIUCATION/OOWNGRADING 16. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT (at thlt Rtpott) Approved for public release; distribution unlimited 17. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT (ol th* mbtli-tst nnterfd In Block 30, It dlllorent from Rupert) 18. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES 19. KEY WORDS (Contlnu* on rmvtrl* ila* It ne«»*»«iy and Identity by block number) Amphibians Analytical Methods Bioconcentration Biotransformation Birds Carcinogenesis DDD DDE DDT • Fish Invertebrates Mammals Man Metabolism Microorganisms iV\A BSTH ACT fCoaUaa* *a »»v»r»» •£<*. H n<KnH*JU]r nod Idmlllr fcr Wocfc numfcwj This report is a data base of physical, chemical, toxicological, and biological properties of DDT. Sufficient data are presented to allow a preliminary assessment of the human health impacts and ecological impacts of DDT at sites within the United States where DDT is found. Thia report is intended to be used with chemical analysis data of DDT concentrations in water, sediments, soils, and biota at particular sites of interest to develop a qualitative assessment of potential hazard. DD , KK. W3 EO moHo F , M o V «,so OSO L E T E unclassifed SeCOmTY CLASS! FICATtOH Of THIS PAGE (Mrm D*if £nf»»»d) �ACKNOWLEDGMENT The contributions of David R. Cogley and William G. Light to this report were per f ormedyndfir U.~^~7trmjtsMedical Research and Development Command Contract No. 4SAMD17~77-C-705o't^ Walden Division of Abcor, Inc., Wilmington, MA. The human TWltrorrog JTlection of the manuscrilpt was reviewed by Dr. Marcus Mason (Walden consultant) of Shrewsbury, MA. Guidance for the .:: ecological impacts section was provided by Professor Charles F. Wurster (Walden" consultant.) of the State University of New York at Stony Brook. Geoffrey Woodard ^s consultant to the Environmental Protection Research Division, U.S. Army Medical Bioengineering Research and Development Laboratory. . Editorial assistance was provided by Franklin Research Center under Contract No. DAMD17-79-C-9129, Marsha Hall, principal editor. -1- �TABLE OP CONTENTS . . • • -..:-...-• - Page ACKNOWLEDGMENT . .. . . ., . . . . . . . . .... . .. . . . , , . . . 1 .. ... LIST OF FIGURES . .."... 3 LIST OF TABLES .. . . . ... . . .:v."V". . ... . . . i . "4 I. INTRODUCTION . . • 5 Requirement for Report. Format ..........'......... . Scope .. Objective ................. . . . . . . . . " II. ALTERNATIVE NAMES III. .. 7 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES . . . 8 Composition of Technical DDT Analysis 10 10 ^ . MAMMALIAN TOXICOLOGY 10 Human Exposure Laboratory Animals V. »• VI. STANDARDS AND CRITERIA FOR DDT Air ....... Drinking Water and Food Water for Aquatic Life VII. EFFECTS OF DDT ON A MODEL ECOSYSTEM Manufacturing Practices . . . Composite Hypothetical Site Observed DDT Concentrations Predicted Effects Decontamination Objectives VIII. 10 13 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS Behavior in Soil, Water, and Air ...' Degradation Bioaccumulation and the Food Chain Effects on Terrestrial Animals. Effects on Aquatic Organisms Effects on Microorganisms REFERENCES . 5 5 6 7 15 .... 15 18 19 21 25 41 41 ..... 41 41 42 42 ...... 42 43 43 47 52 53 �LIST OF FIGURES IV-1 Biodegradation of DDT. ... IV-2 Further Degradation Products of DDT and DDE V-l Examples of DDT Bioaccumulation. . V-2 Models of Bioaccumulation Pathways .......... 23 V-3 Effects of DDT on Frog Tadpoles 35 VII-1 Map of Model DDT Plant Site. ........... . . 44 VII-2 Biological Effects of Dietary DDT for Typical Receptors ....................... -3- ..... ...... ..... . . 16 ...... 17 ..... 22 ............ 50 �LIST OF TABLES 1-1 Pollutants at Pine Bluff Arsenal 1II-1 Selected Physicochemical Properties of Components of Technical DDT ......... 11 IV-1 Toxicity of DDT to Man 12 IV-2 Acute Oral Toxicity of DDT for Animals ; V-l Acute Toxicity of DDT to Birds V-2 . 13 .. 24 Concentrations of DDE in Bird Eggs Resulting in 10% Reduction in Normal Shell Thickness ...... 26 Acute Toxicity of p,p'-DDT to Fishes by Static Bioassay 27 V-4 Sac-Fry Mortality for Various Fish Species 31 V-5 Acute Toxicity of p,p'-TDE to Fishes 33 V-6 Toxicity of DDT to Tadpoles. . . 34 V-7 Behavior and Morphological Abnormalities of Tadpoles Exposed to DDT 36 V-8 Toxicicy of p.p'-DDT to Arthropods 37 V-9 Toxicity of DDT Isomers to Mosquito Larvae 39 V-10 Toxicity of p,p'-TDE to Arthropods 40 VII-1 Area and Wildlife Contamination Levels for Various Sites 45 Environmental Concentrations of DDT at the Model Site 48 lexicological Effects of DDT on Typical Wildlife as a Function of Concentrations of DDT in Water, the Diet, and Tissues 49 Predicted Effects on Wildlife. . 51 V-3 VII-2 VII-3 VII-4 -4- �I. INTRODUCTION Requirement for Report The U.S. Army Toxic and Hazardous Materials Agency (USATHAMA), formerly the Office of the Project Manager for Chemical Demilitarization and Installation Restoration, has identified an initial list of substances requiring assessment because of their actual or potential presence in the environment outside the boundaries of Pine Bluff Arsenal (PBA), Arkansas (Table I-l).1 The U.S. Army Medical Bioengineering Research and Development Laboratory (USAMBRDL) has divided the list into logical units for problem definition studies. Substances used in pyrotechnic devices are treated in two reports.*»' Thiodiglycol and elemental phosphorus have been assessed previously in reports by Rosenblatt e_t_ al_.*»* and Dacre and Rosenblatt;* a separate report on these substances specific to PBA has been deferred indefinitely. DDT is considered separately here because (a) it is neither military-unique nor installation-unique; (b) there is an overwhelming amount of information available in the published literature; and (c) most pertinent data have been suiwnarized in review articles. The present report deals exclusively with DDT, its isomers and metabolites. The format of this report departs from that of previous reports in this series2"*'7»' because it incorporates both the data base and site-specific TABLE I-l. POLLUTANTS AT PINE BLUFF APSENAL8 *" DDT Thiodiglycol Phosphorus (white) Auramine Benzanthrone 1,4-Di-p-toluidinoanthraquinone 1,4-Diamino-2,3-dihydroanthraquinone 1-Methylaminoanthraquinone a. As provided in Reference 1. -5- �considerations for a hypothetical installation. There are two reasons, for this approach. First, Redstone Arsenal (RSA) also has major DDT contamination, and USATHAMA personnel have indicated that RSA data are as important to their mission as PBA data. Second, contamination surveys and corrective measures were initiated at both PBA and RSA while this report was in preparation. Thus, in view of the continuous output of new data, it appeared neither practical nor useful to analyze site data for either installation. Instead, a hypothetical site has been created (Section VII) to illustrate the qualitative relationships of DDT levels in water, sediment, and biota to effects of DDT on health and the environment. Quantitative considerations for this site are derived from fragmentary data available for PBA and RSA at the time this study was initiated. This section may be used to estimate the potential ecological effects of DDT waste disposal relative to past known or postulated declines in wildlife populations as well as to the lower DDT concentrations in soil and water resulting from cleanup operations. An important caveat must be given here. Concentrations of DDT in soil, sediment, water, and biota, and the toxic effects predicted therefrom, have been derived using concentration factors, i.e., the ratio of DDT in sediment to DDT in water, DDT in biota to DDT in water, etc. To do so is strictly valid only if these concentration factors represent true equilibrium or steady state values. In very few cases are data sufficient to make such a distinction, and for this reason, soil, sediment, water, or food chain concentrations predicted to lead to a particular toxic effect may be in error by an order of magnitude. This report is ecologically oriented. Mammalian toxicology and human health effects of DDT have been exhaustively reviewed in a 1979 document of the World Health Organization (WHO).' Some representative data are included in the present report, but investigators concerned with human health aspects of DDT (and the tradeoff between health benefits and hazards) should refer to the WHO text. The volume of data on environmental effects of DDT has obliged USAMBRDL to exercise considerable and arbitrary selectivity in choice of material to review. For the most part, data relevant to the environments of south central Arkansas and northern Alabama have been collected. The ecological literature has been surveyed systematically through mid-1976 and selectively thereafter. Because of the availability of many definitive reviews, efforts concentrated on surveying the literature of the last ten years, and few references published prior to 1970 were retrieved. In the case of aquatic organisms, a search was conducted not only for DDT, but also for the seven isomers and metabolites detected in the soil of PBA—p»p'-, o,p'-, and m,p'-DDT; p,p'- and o,p'-TDE (ODD); and p,p'- and o,p'-DDE—and for in,p'-TDE, m,p'-DDE, DDMU, and DDMS, metabolites not detected at PBA but judged likely to be present (see Fig. IV-1 for structures). Throughout this report, DDT (unprefixed) refers to the technical product, sometimes designated DDTR in the literature. -6- �Objective The objective of this report is to provide, to those charged with assessment and amelioration of DDT contamination at Army installations, guidance on the health and environmental hazards of DDT and the ecological consequences of various actions. II. ALTERNATIVE NAMES DDT is the name approved by the International St&iviards Organization for the technical product of which p,p'-DDT is the predominant component. As used in the present report, DDT refers to the technical product or any of ten isomers or degradation products listed below. DDT trade names: Anofex, Arkotine, Chlorophenothane, Dicophane, Estonate, Gesarol, Guesarol, Neocid, Zerdane. p,p'-DDT: 1 , l'-(2,2,2-trichloroe<.-.hylidene)bis[4-chloro]benzene; o,o-bis(pchlorophenyl)-B,8,0-trichlorethane; 2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)-!,!,1trichloroethane; 4,4'-dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane; l,l,l-trichloro-2,2bis(p-chlorophenyl)ethane. o,p'-DDT: l-chloro-2[2,2,2-trichloro-l-(4-chlorophenyl)ethyl]benzene; 1,1,1-trichloro~2-(o-chlorophenyl)-2-(p-chlorophenyl.)ethane. m,p'-DDT: l-chloro-3[2,2,2-trichloro-l-(4~chlorQphenyl)ethyl]benzene; 1,1,1-trichloro-2-(m-chlorophenyl)-2-(p-chlorophenyl)ethane. p,p'-DDD: l,l'-(2,2-dichloroethylidene)bis[4-chloro]benzene; l,l-dichloro-2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)ethane; p,p'-TDE. o,p'-DDD: l-chloro-2l2,2-dichloro-l-(4-chlorophenyl)ethyl]benzene; l,l-dichloro-2-(o-chlorophenyl)-2-(p-chlorophenyl)ethane; mitotane; o,p'-TDE. m,p'-DDD: l-chloro-3[2,2-dichloro-l-(4-chlorophenyl)ethyl]benzene; l,l-dichlorq-2-(m-chlorophenyl)-2-(p-chlorophenyl)ethane; n,p'-TDE. p,p'-DDE: l,l'-(2,2-dichloroethenylidene)bis[4-chloro]benzene; l,l-dichloro-2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)ethylene. o,p'-DDE: l-chloro-2[2,2-dichloro-l-l(4-chlorophenyl)ethenyl]benzene; 1,l-dichloro-2-(o-chlorophenyl)-2-(p-chlorophenyl)ethylene. DDMU: l,l'-(2-chloroethenylidene)bisl4-chloro}benzene; l-chloro-2,2-bi8(p-chlorophenyl)ethylene. DDMS: l,l'-(2-chloroethylidene)bis[4-chloro]benzene; 2-chloro-l,l-bis(pchlorophenyDethane, -7- �PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES1* III. p,p'-DDT: Chemical Abstracts Service Registry Number: 50-29-3 Toxic Substances List: KJ33250 Wiswesser Line Notation: GXGG YR DG&R DG Molecular Weight: 354.48 Molecular Formula: Structural Formula: CC1. o.p'-DDT: Chemical Abstracts Service Registry Number: Toxic Substances List: KH7910000 *" Wiswesser Line Notation: GXGG YR BG&RDG Molecular Weight: 354.48 Empirical Formula: Structural Formula: -K 789-02-6 �p,p'-TDE (DDD): . Chemical Abstracts Service Registry Number: 72-54-8 Toxic Substances List: KI0700000 Wiswessor Line Notation: Molecular Weignt: GYGYR DG&R DG 320.0 Empirical Formula: Structural Formula: .CHC1. p,p'-DDE Chemical Abstracts Service Registry Number: Toxic Substances Lint: KV9450000 Wiswesser Line Notation: GYGUYR DG&R DG Molecular Weight: 318.0 Empirical Formula: Structural Formula: CCL /"*~~~\ ci—(\ /V-c- -9- 72-55-9 �Composition of Technical DDT DDT is the name approved by the International Standards Organization for the technical product of which p,p'-DDT is the predominant component. Pure p,p'-DDT is a colorless crystalline solid, whereas the technical material takes the form of a white or cream-colored waxy solid or amorphous powder. Technical DDT is a mixture of isomers containing 65 to 80% p,p'-DDT and up to 14 other components. The major impurities are o,p'~DDT (15 to 21%); p,p'-TDE (>4%; l-(p-chlorophenyl)-2,2,2-trichloroethanol (>1.5%); traces of o,o'-DDT and m,p'-DDT; and traces of bis(p-chlorophenyl)sulfone. On exposure to sunlight or alkaline conditions, p,p'-DDT is converted to stable p,p'-DDE, which may constitute a significant fraction of any environmental sample. Physicochemical properties of the pure substances comprising technical DDT are summarized in Table III-l. Analysis No attempt has been made to review analytical methods for DDT. Approved methods for detection and estimation of DDT and its derivatives in environmental samples (soil, sediment, water, and tissues) have been compiled by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and are subject to frequent revision. l ; »l * IV. MAMMALIAN TOXICOLOGY Human Exposure was introduced in 1945 for t^e control of malaria mosquitoes. It is a highly potent contact poison of the nervous system in insects. It is very stable, so it persists, offering continuous protection for many months after a single application. During World War II, DDT was widely used to prevent insect vector-borne disease among troops, prisoners, and refugees. DDT vas .applied directly to the skin and clothing in concentrations as high as 25% in powder form. Despite these massive exposures, very few, if any, authentic cases of human poisoning have been observed as a result.1* DDT is moderately toxic to man by oral administration; Table IV-1 gives dosages and expected or observed effects in man. Laws £t £l. "» ls conducted extensive tests on 35 individuals employed in the manufacture of DDT who had been exposed from 16 to 25 years (21 years median) to amounts up to 18 mg per person per day. Phyi ical examinations, medical histories, and liver function tests failed to reveal any evidence of an untoward effect on human health. Experimental work on human volunteers has not produced convincing evidence that DDT is harmful to man at exposure levels 100 times those likely to be encountered in the workplace or environment.1""1* Despite extensive studies over the past 30 years, the exact mechanism of DDT1 s toxic action in man is still uncertain. Based upon studies primarily -10- �TABLE tlt-l. SELECTED PtnrSICOCHEHICAL PROPERTIES OF COMPONENTS OF TECHNICAL DDT Pure Substance! Comprising Technical DDT Property Description Melting point Boilidg point Solubility Molecular .sight Molecular formula Volatility Chenical . reactivity and atability p,p'-DDT o,p'-DDT White, crystalline solid Colorless crystal* 74.2*C 108.5*C 185* Practically insoluble in water Water, 0.085 ng/1 at (1 vg/1), moderately soluble in 25'C; soluble in fat hydroxylie and polar solvent!, readily and most organic solvents soluble in most aromatic and chlorinated solvents 354.5 354.5 Vapor pressure • 1.9 x 10"' Torr at 20*C Dehydrochlorinated at temperatures Stable in concentrated above its melting point into sulfuric acid ethylene derivative (DDE), a reaction catalyzed by ferric and aluminum chloride and by UV light. In solution, it is readily dehydtochlorinated by alkalis or organic bases; otherwise it is stable being unattccked by acid and alkaline permanganate and by aqueous acids and alkalis. With technical DDT.-dehydrochlorination may proceed at temperatures »« low as 50*C p,p'-TDE (ODD) p.p'-DDE Colorless crystals 109'-110*C White, crystalline solid 88.4*0 Similar to p,p'-DDT Hater, 0.12 mg/1 at 25*C; soluble in fat snd most organic solvents 320.0 318.0 Similar to p.p'-DDT, but it is more slowly hydrolyzed by alkalis Stable in concentrated sulEuric acid. It may be oxidized to p.p'-di'-Morobenzophenone•, a r« ction catalyzed by UV radiation �in laboratory animals, using relatively massive doses, it has been speculated that DDT affects the metabolism of some of the biogenic substances in the central nervous system and some of the carbohydratemetabolizing enzymes in the uterus, kidney cortex, and liver. The microsomal enzyme systems in the liver and possibly other tissues are increased when exposure levels become sufficiently high.17 The occurrence of enzyme induction in man at current environmental exposure levels has not been established. Human exposure to DDT has resulted in no reported cases of cancer or other neoplasms, although carcinogenesis has been demonstrated in some laboratory animal species. Feeding DDT to men for nearly 2 years did not result in tumors,18 and no tumors were found in men whose occupation w&s the manufacturej formulation, or application of DDT." (However, the latency period for appearance of cancer in humans may exceed the 35 years since DDT was introduced.) The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency*' has estimated an upper-limit lifetime cancer risk of 1 in 10^ for males consuming 7.3 x 1CT* tng/day (10 ng/kg/day) of DDT. This estimate is derived from the observation that Jewish males in Israel have higher fat levels of DDT than males in New York State (16.S3 versus 9.04 ppra) and that the lifetime incidence of nervous system cancer is correspondingly higher (1.1 versus 0.5%). It is based on the assumption that cancer resulting from DDT it^estion will be expressed in humans solely in the nervous system and on tie admittedly unsupported corollary that the excess incidence of .nervous system cancer results solely from excess DDT consumption. TABLE IV-1. TOXICITY OF DDT TO MANa Dosage (mg/kg/day) mg 70-kg person Remarks Unknown'' — Fatal 16-286b 1,100-20,000 Vomiting at higher doses, convulsions in some 6-10b 400-700 Moderate poisoning in some 0.5 35 Tolerated. Periods lasted 21 months with volunteers, 6.5 years with workers 0.25 (inhalation ?) 18 Tolerated by workers for 19 years a. Adapted from Jukes.1* b. Precise dosage unknown. -12- �Laboratory Animals Acute Toxicity.' Data on the acute toxicity of DDT to mammals are summarized in Table IV-2.*1 These data indicate that the short-term toxicity to mammals is moderate to high, depending on the mode of ingestion, and that DDT i • generally more efficiently absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract when dissolved in an oil vehicle. TABLE IV-2. ACUTE ORAL TOXICITY OF DDT FOR ANIMALS8 » tug/kg Species Water Suspension or Powder Oil Solution Rat 500-2,500 113-450 Mouse 300-1,600 100-800 Guinea pig Rabbit 2,000 275 250-560 300-1,770 Cat 100-410 Dog >300 From Hayes.*1 Careinogenicity. Carcinogenesis experiments have been performed in which rodents were fed DDT at concentrations ranging from 2 to 1,650 pptn.**"'1 There appear to be wide ranges in susceptibility to DDT-induced carcinogenesis for different mammalian species and strains. Other studies have found that no increase in tumors was induced by feeding DDT to golden hamsters,11 and no tumors vere induced in a small number of dogs and monkeys.1* DDT, TOE, and DDE were tested in the National Cancer Institute Bioassay Program. The summary of their results follows.11 -13- �"Bioajsays of technical-grade DDT, TDE, and p,p'-DDE for possible carcinogenicity were conducted using Osborne-Mendel rats and B6C3F1 mice. Each compound was administered in the feed, at either of two concentrations, to groups of 50 male and 50 female animals of each species. Twenty animals of each species and sex were placed on test as controls for the bioassay of each compound. The time-weighted average high and low dietary concentrations of DDT were, respectively, 642 and 321 ppm for male rats, 420 and 210 ppm for female rats, 44 and 22 ppm for male mice, and 175 and 87 ppm for female mice. The time-weighted average high and low dietary concentrations of TDE were, respectively, 3294 and 1647 ppm for male rats, 1700 and 850 ppm for female rats, and 822 and 411 ppm for male and female mice. The time-weighted average high and low dietary concentrations of DDE were, respectively, 839 and 437 ppm for male rats, 462 and 242 ppm for female rats, and 261 and 148 ppm for male and female mice. After the 78-week dosing period there was an additional observation period of up to 35 weeks for rats and 15 weeks for mice. "There were significant positive associations between increased chemical concentration and accelerated mortality in female mice closed with DDT and in both sexes of rats and in female mice dosed with DDE. This association was not demonstrated in other groups. There wr.s, however, poor survival among control and dosed male mice used in th.5 bioassays of DDT and DDE. In all car.es adequate numbers of animals in all groups survived sufficiently long to be at risk from late-developf • •} tumors. "When those male rats receiving TDE and their controls were combined within each group so that the numerators of the tumor incidences represented those animals with either a follicular-cell carcinoma or a follicular-cell adenoma of the thyroid, the incidence in the low dose group was significantly higher than that in the control. There was a significant positive association between the concentration of DDE administered and the incidences of hepatocellular carcinomas in male and female mice.. Among dosed rats and mice no other neoplasms occurred in statistically significant incidences when compared to their respective control groups. "Under the conditions of these bioassays there was no evidence for the carcinogenicity of DDT in Osborne-Mendel rats or B6C3F1 mice, of TDE in female Osborne-Mendel rats or B6C3F1 mice of either sex, or of p,p'-DDE in Osborne-Mendel rats, although p,p'-DDE was hepatotoxic in Osborne-Mendel rats. The findings suggest a possible carcinogenic effect of TDE in male Osborne-Mendel rats, based on the induction of combined follicular-cell carcinomas and follicular-cell adenomas or the thyroid. Because of the variation of these tumors in control male rats in this study, the evidence does not permit a more conclusive interpretation of these lesions. p,p'-DDE was carcinogenic in B6C3F1 mice, causing hepatocellullar carcinomas in both sexes." -14- �Mutagenicity. The fact that DDE is tnutagenic in mammalian cells" and DDT is not suggests that the proximate carcinogen is DDE, a metabolite of DDT. It has been shown that chlorinated hydrocarbon carcinogens, such as carbon tetrachloride and dieldrin, are negative in the standard Ames test. These materials presumably require metabolic activation, possibly dehalogenation, for mutagenic activity. Because the Ames test includes only metabolic activation mediated by the liver microsomal system and dehalogenation is not so mediated, it is reasonable that pure DDT is negative in the Ames test. Metabolism. The principal pathways for DDT metabolism are depicted in Fig. IV-1, with lesser pathways presented in Fig. IV-2. It is important to note that DDD and DDE arise by independent mechanisms and that DDE is relatively inert. Hence, environmental DDT samples will show increasing percentages of DDE with time where use of DDT has been discontinued. Equivalent metabolites arising from the o,p'-DDT isomer in technical DDT also appear in residues. The biological transformation of DDT is further discussed in the following section of this report. V. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS The literature on the toxicology, ecology, environmental fate, and bioaccumulation of DDT is extensive and has been comprehensively reviewed elsewhere, notably by Brown,'* Edwards,** Matsumura," Tahori,*7 White-Stevens," and Wurster and coworkers."'112 Information on the environmental fate of DDT and the bioaccumulation of DDT in the food chain is summarized in the following subsections. Behavior in Soil, Water, and Air To summarize, factors affecting the behavior of DDT in soil, water, and air include low water solubility, ease of adsorption on soil, chemical reactivity (p,p'-DDT conversion to p,p'-DDE), low vapor pressure, and ease of uptake by plants and animals. When present in soil, DDT tends to remain for years, acting as a long-lived reservoir for gradual release to surface waters and biota. When present in surface waters, DDT is assimilated rapidly by aquatic organisms and i,;. accumulated in the food chain. Evaporation into the atmosphere also occurs. Atmospheric transport leads to low (background) concentrations over wide geographic areas. Worldwide, rainwater DDT levels fall in the range from 0.018 to 0.066 ppb.' Although practically insoluble in water, DDT readily adsorbs to particulate material in aquatic systems. In addition to accumulation through the food chain, DDT may be incorporated into aquatic organisms by direct contact with DDT-containing water or through ingestion of particulate matter containing DDT. DDT may enter an aquatic ecosystem by physical, chemical, or biological transport. Atmospheric transport and erosion of contaminated solids appear to be the most frequent routes. Eventually, the DDT tends to reach the -15- �DDE R-C-R (1 cc.i t R— CH p __* R-CH-R —-»-R—C— R . 1 1 CCI, CHCIj DDT DDD - »^ R— CH — R a R—C— R »~ II CHCI 1 CH2C! II CH, DDMU DDMS DDNU R-CH-R —-*- R— CH— R —-^- R^CHj— R —-»- R— CH— R CH2OH COZH DDOH DDA OH DPM DBH Fig. IV-1. Biodegradation of DDT (R=C,H4CI) -*•"-§-' O DBP �R—CH—R I CC1, DDT OH t -R-C-R I CGI, and Kelthane R-CH—R I CN DDCN CCb OCli DDE Fig. tV-2. Further Degradation Products of DDT and DDE (R-C.H«CI) CCI, �water surface where it can co-distill with water and reenter the atmospheric cycle. As noted earlier, DDT is converted to DDE by sunlight. Various organisms also convert p,p'-DDT to p,p'-TDE and p,p'-DDE, the latter being the most abundant DDT compound in the environment. For the purpose of this review, the three compounds are considered collectively, unless specified otherwise. The amount of DDT that runs off into water bodies depends on the degree of slope of the ground, the fineness of the ao'j.. ind th«» degree of vegetation cover.*8 Water transport of DDT depe: v. on .•rision runoff because DDT is strongly adsorbed to soil particles. Dv. SVfo.uiMjs so tightly bound to soil particles that it does not rea-'ily le.;ci LM'JV groundwater.** Nonpolar compounds such as DDT either reach Che aqt-.-r,/r sink adsorbed onto soil particles in the runoff or, when directly .ip\>!Leil '<.c water, become adsorbed onto the suspended matter. When a pond was treated with DDT at 0.02 '. vi, an Tfective concentration for mosquito control, the DDT disappeared from the water after 3 weeks and was found in the mud for 8 weeks after the treatment.** Greater amounts of DDT reach the bottom of a water body when the sedimenting material is composed of fine particles.*5 The stability of DDT in soil has been studied by Guenzi and Beard, who have also reviewed the subject.**'** The rates and products of degradation are dependent on temperature, oxidation-reduction potential, and moisture content of the soil. In aerobic soils, DDT is converted to DDE by a predominantly chemical process.** In anaerobic soils, the products are TDE and its transformation products.***** In dry aerobic soils, DDT is stable; loss is very slow by either degradation or volatilization.*'**7 Degradation Reviews by.Fries** and Rhead51 summarize much of our knowledge concerning the natural degradation of p,p'-DDT. A proposed scheme for partial biodegradation of DDT is presented in Fig. IV-1. Although the metabolites have all been identified, the pathway depicted must be considered only representative because no single organism has been found to produce all the metabolites (with the possible exception of Aerobacter aerogenes'*), and it is likely that different organisms emphasize different pathways. TDE is by far the most prevalent metabolite of bacteria and fungi, whereas phytoplankton species produce small amounts of DDE only. Only TDE has been isolated from the intestinal microflora of the northern anchovy (Engraulis mordax).* * Two other minor products of microbiai degradation of DDT are Kelthane and DDCN (Fig. IV-2), although the latter may result in part from chemical degradation. It should be emphasized that complete biodegradation of DDT proceeding via a series of hydrodechlorination steps, as in Fig. IV-1, requires both anaerobic and aerobic conditions. -Itt- �Fish that have received DDT by intravenous injection,** feeding,** cr uptake from water produce TDE and DDE in various proportions in addition to some DDMU. Brook trout receiving intramuscular DDT are reported to produce only DDE.*' -DDT administered to lobsters (Homerus americanus) by intravascular or oral routes is converted to TDE, DDE, and DDA.*7 Sheridan has shown that DDT concentrated from the water is converted to TDE and DDE in the hepatopancreas of the blue crab, Callinectes sapidus.** Lower aquatic invertebrates convert DDT to TDE, DDE, and other metabolites, but daphnids are reported to produce only DDE.** Zinck and Addition have noted that p,p*-DDE is probably a metabolic dead end.*' However, ringhydroxylated metabolites of DDE, shown in Fig. IV-2, have been isolated from the fat of the guillemot (Uria algae) and grey seal (Halichoerus grypus).* * Fries has reviewed data indicating that o,p'-DDT is degraded to o,p'-TDE by mechanisms and rates similar to those for p,p'-DDT.*° It is likely that the degradation pathways presented in Fig. 1V-1 are followed. DDT may also undergo chemical degradation. Photolysis is reported to convert DDT to TDE, DDE, DBF, and p,p'-dichlorobiphenyl, and heat also converts DDT to TDE and DDE. DDT is unchanged after 8 weeks in river water.'1 Bioaccumulation and the Food Chain % The direct accumulation of DDT from water may, in certain cases, make the additional uptake from food insignificant. The algae and bacteria in water are very efficient concentrators of DDT; their small size, and consequently high surface-to-mass ratio, results in rapid and thorough adsorption.** For example, bacteria concentrated DDT from 1 ppb in water to 1,140 to 3,400 times that within 30 minutes,'* and freshwater algae concentrated DDT from 1 ppm in water to 130 to 270 ppm in their cells within 1 week.'8 When exposed to DDT in water at concentrations between 50 and 100 ppt for 3 days, aquatic arthropods achieved increases in concentration ranging from 3,000 to 114,000 times.'* When exposed to DDT in salt water for 2 weeks, the Atlantic croaker concentrated 0.1 ppb by 40,000 times.'* Brown trout exposed to 2.3 ppb and given DDT-free food for 3 weeks concentrated the DDT in their tissues by 3,000 times." DDT, applied onca at the rate of 1 Ib/acre (1.12 kg/ha), persisted in the soil of Maine forests with little change throughout a 9-year period.'* Robins li"v .- in the forest had higher DDT levels than those in surrounding areas, indicating a period of continuous availability of residues through the food chain, as shown in the following table: -19- �Robin Body DDT Concentration (ppm) Time of Analysis 13.53 4.50 3.55 0.47 1 year after treatment 3 years after treatment 9 yearn after treatment Untreated areas DDT applied to a forested area in Montana at the rate of 0.5 Ib/acre (0.56 kg/ha) resulted in the following concentrations in the blue grouse.** Concentration in Fat (ppm) Time of Analysis 80 22 18 Within 1 week of spraying 1 year after spraying 2 years after spraying Predatory or fish-eating birds usually have higher DDT residues than seed-eaters. Alaskan peregrine falcons, which feed primarily on birds, contained far higher residues than the small birds in their area.i?«** Scaup, which feed more heavily upon animal material than mallards, accumulated residues that were 2 to 4 times as great when both were placed on a DDT-treated marsh for the same periods of time.'* Various small mammals were collected in Maine forests after a single application of DDT at the rate of 1 Ib/acre (1.12 kg/ha).'* In the year of treatment, shrews, mice, and voles contained an average of 15.6, 1.1, and 1.1 ppm, respectively. The relative differences between shrews and the mice and voles prevailed throughout the years after treatment. In the same areas, mink, which are carnivorous feeders like the shrews, accumulated higher totcl DDT residues (8.5 ppm) in the first year of treatment than hares (0.08 ppm). For areas treated seasonally with DDT, residues in small mammals increased and decreased seasonally in relation to the treatment times. Food Chain. The bioaccumulation of DDT in the food chain is primarily a consequence of its stability and high fat solubility. In the food chain, energy is transferred from one trophic level to another. In general terms, -20- �only about IOZ of the energy in one troph.lc level will be transferred to the next level, and the rest will be respired or released as wastes.•' Chemicals that are preferentially taken up by living organisms and stored for extended periods, svh as DDT and its derivatives, tend to be concentrated in the foou chain. Examples of DDT bioaccunulation in the food chain**"71 are displayed graphically in Fig. V-l. A review of the extensive literature on aquatic and terrestrial food chains is given by Brown.** These studies are based on measurements of the DDT content in the environment (e.g., soil and water) as well as measurements of the DDT content in tissues of various wildlife species. It would be advantageous and would simplify an environmental assessment if it were possible to relate the concentrations of DDT in the environment (viz., in soil and water) to the toxicological impact on wildlife by using established factors for DDT bioaccumulation and translocation through the food chain. Once the bioaccumulation factors were determined, it vould be possible to relate toxicological effects at dietary concentrations to soil and water concentrations. This relation could be represented by bioaccumulation pathway models, such as those shown in Fig. V-2, The bioaccumulation factors given in Fig. V-2 were estimated from limited actual data for the purpose of demonstration and should be considered hypothetical. Although attempts have been made to predict mathematically the behavior of DDT introduced into the environment,7* the predictive capacity and utility of these models suffer from the enormous complexity of the environment. Due to the many concomitant variables (e.g., environmental site differences, species and strain differences, wide ranges in DDT base concentrations, and different lipid/water partition coefficients and equilibrium factors), it is not possible to establish categorically DDT bioaccumulation factors that have a reasonable level of significance for all ecosystems of the world. It is important to consider each environmental setting individually. Effects on Terrestrial Animals Mammals. No information was retrieved concerning the effects of DDT on mammalian wildlife. As noted in Section IV, acute toxicity for mammals is low in terms of likely environmental concentrations. Data from laboratory studies of mice indicate that teratogenesis and carcinogenesis could result in mammalian wildlife exposed to DDT, but this has not been confirmed by field studies. Likewise, there is no field evidence to indicate DDTassociated reproductive failure in mammals. The high fat solubility of DDT may pose a threat to hibernating insectivores and other mammals that are exposed to high levels of dietary DDT and that release large amounts of DDT to the bloodstream from body fat during periods of high activity and scant food supply. Such DDT releases have been observed for bats containing certain chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides in their tissues and might also occur for mammalian carnivores. -21- �sea water (0.1 ppb) sea water (0.1 ppb) ' sea water (1 ppb) 40 days oyster (7ppm) "7555 hooked mussel (0.126 ppm) 1.260X hard shell clam (0 6ppm) 600X ' sea water ppb) 11 fish species "(12-20 ppm) phytoplankton estuarlne waters dppb) 2QOX tidal marsh surface water (0.3 ppm) lake sediments (0.014 ppm) pond (0.02 ppm) water (1 ppm) ... . »_ d'tcn 30X 3.4 ppm drywt. «^.. Insects ^..Insects (0.41 ppm) (0.41 ppm) 22QX fish (is ppm) <AV <ftY 10X 22X 75 ppm drywt. - porpoise (100 ppm) ^. 4 species of algae (220 ppm) Fig. V-1. Examples of DDT Bioaccumulation -22- 4-89 ppm wetwt j^. risn _»^__»""» g^flsh j^.8""8 (3.8-5.8 ppm) ?xx (90 ppm, muscl (3.8-5.8 ppm) 2OTV (9°. ppm. muscle ^' 2,411 ppm, fat) ^ rainbow trout (4.15 ppm) black bullhead (3.11 ppm) crayfish (1.47 ppm) 150X ay 1Q-100X ... »». sediment __^ vegetation _^. J«J • v (4ppm) 13X birds �Amphibians (tadpoles) w»t«r ?l "S. 200X '\ A— ~_k»> tarlnolrti fla if 7" sediments —' Fish and Birds yf plants -*«- birds »*. fish water sediments soil 300X 10X —£^ birds {predatory) 20X worms Land-Dwelling Mammals (herblvoi es and ctrnlvores) soil , 20X *~ plants 25X mammals (herbivore) j mammals Carnivore) Insects worms SOX birds /^" Fig. V-2. Models of Bloaccumulatlon Pathways -23- �Birds. DDT and its metabolites are universally distributed so that exposure is essentially continuous, and few, if any, birds are free from these compounds. Although the acute toxicity of DDT to birds is low, direct toxic effects occur due to bioaccumulation of DDT in birds and in their food. The most serious hazard of DDT to birds is that of decreasing their reproductive capacity through eggshell thinning. It is estimated that as little as 67 ppb of DDE (the proximate agent) in the diet can cause a substantial increase in embryo mortality due to eggshell failure. The many instances of bird kills in woodlands sprayed with DDT are believed to be due to secondary poisoning by the oral route and not to contact poisoning.**-•• However, the direct lethal toxicities of DDT to birds are low, as indicated in Table V-l. TABLE V-l. ACUTE TOXICITY OF DDT TO BIRDS7 » Speoies Dosage Route Toxic Effects Mallard Pheasants Coturnix Sandhill cranes Oral , capsule Oral , capsule Oral , capsule Oral, capsule LD5Q > 2,240 mg/kg LD5Q a 1,296 mg/kg LDso s 841 mg/kg LD50 > 1,200 mg/kg Mallard Pheasants Bobwhites Coturnix Oral, 5 Oral , 5 Oral , 5 Oral , 5 LC50 LCso LCso LCso Pheasants p,p'-DDT, oral Technical DDT, oral days days days days » 850-1,200 ppm * 300-700 ppm » 600-1,000 ppm • 400-600 ppm LC5Q - 550 ppm LCso * 935 PPm The direct toxic effects of DDT to birds accompany bioaccumulation in the birds' food. Although bioaccumulation is most pronounced for precatory birds, it also can be significant for birds lower on the food chain. i?or example, soil contaminated with 5 to 10 ppm DDT is sufficient for earthworms to pick up 50 to 200 ppm, which could result in a lethal dose for a robin (ca. 3 rag)."* High residues of DDT in bird fat and other tissues can be mobilised to become lethal if the birds are starved or hyperactive."* These processes reduce the adipose fat and release DDT into the body circulation to concentrate in the nervous system. House sparrows with DDT residues of 800 ppm in body fat displayed no adverse physiological signs if well fed, but died if not well fed; the DDT mobilization engendered tremors that further reduced fat and sent lethal concentrations into nerve and brain.•*>•* The minimum content of DDT in the brain at which death occurs is 50 ppm for American robins and 60 ppm for house sparrows,'1 while it is 14 ppm for female ring-necked pheasants." -24- �Concerning reproductive e f f e c t s , a 30% decline in breeding pairs'of the fish-eating osprey on the coast jf Connecticut in 1963 was found to be associated with a high body content of DDT residues, especially DDE, 111 *** The reproductive failure was later related to a reduction of the eggshell' thickness due to contamination of the eggs by DDT and its metabolites. Feeding experiments with mallards showed that 40 ppm of DDE in the diet resulted in frequent shell cracking, leading to 40% embryo mortality and 75% reduction in duckling production.* 5 A concentration of 20 ppm of DDT in the diet of mallards resulted in 20% reduction in eggshell thickness.** A concentration of 10 ppm of DDE in the diet caused 25% shell thinning in the American sparrow hawk, 8 7 13% in the screech owl,'* and 18 to 29% in the black duck." DDT in the diet of pheasants had little or no effect on egg production or fertility, but hatchability and chick survival were reduced at concentrations of 100 ppm or more." In bobwhite quail on a diet containing 100 ppm, egg production was normal, but fertility and hatchability were reduced, and chick survival was eventually zero.*' In addition, high dietary doses of DDT have reduced sperm production in cockerels'* and the bald eagle. 9 * It is generally accepted that DDE is the major shell-thinning factor, because a linear inverse relationship between shell thickness and DDE content of the egg has been demonstrated for the prairie falcon, herring gull, doublt crested cormorant, brown pelican, and peregrine falcon.'**** In general, whenever the residues induced eggshell thinning more than 10% below the normal thickness, that bird population would decline.'* Concentrations of DDE that elicit this effect in various species of birds are listed in Table V-2. The bird prey for one population of peregrine falcons have whole body residues of 0.3 to 6*0 ppm DDE, whereas the f.it and eggs of the falcons contain 560 and 15 ppm DDE, respectively.* 7 This concentration factor of 2.5 to 50 for eggs, combined with an observed concentration of 8 ppm in peregrine falcon eggs for onset of reproductive failure (Table V-2). corresponds to a dietary limit of 0.16 to 3.2 ppm. If the same concentration factor is arbitrarily assumed for other birds, then the dietary threshold for reproductive failure would fall in the range of 1.6 to 32 ppm for the great blue heron, 0.05 to 1.0 for the osprey, and 0,02 to 0.4 for the brown pelican. Based on the latter two birds being fish-eaters, it appears that substantially lower levels of DDE (and hence DDT) in fish may be required to assure the survival of these birds than to protect human health. Effects on Aquatic Organisms Because the proportions of the various isomers and metabolites of DDT in different environmental samples are quite distinct, and because the toxicological data base for aquatic organisms is large, every effort has been made to identify the toxic effects associated with each specific isomer or metabolite throughout this section. -25- �TABLE V-2. CONCENTRATIONS OF DDE TN BIRD EGGS RESULTING IN 10% ' REDUCTION IN NORMAL SHELL Tl'.iCKNESS Bird Species DDE Concentration in Eggs (ppm wet weight) Double-crested cormorant Reference 20 95 Prairie falcon 7 96 Brown pelican 1 97 t r e a t b l u e heron 80 71 Herring gull 70 71 A t l a n t i c gannet 25 71 White pel lean 10 71 Fish-eating osprey 2.4 99 Alaskan peregrine f a l c o n 8 68 Fish. The acute toxicity of p,p'-DDT to fishes has bee.i reviewed by Pimentel71 and others. 18C ~ I •* Some representative data are presented in Table V-3, which shows that the 96-hr LC50 for most fishes falls between 1 and 20 wg/1. Fish and Wildlife Service investigators at the Fish-Pesticide Research Laboratory in Columbia, Missouri, report 96-hr LCs^'s in this range for 18 common freshwater fishes.110 They also report that p,p'-DDT is roughly three times as toxic to bluegills (Lepotnis macrochirus) at 7°C as at 24°C. Macek notes that for most common formulations containing DDT and other pesticides, acute toxicities to bluegills are additive.11* The low LC5Q valiies may be due to the rapid uptake and concentration of DDT in fish. For example, brown trout exposed to 2 ppb DDT can concentrate it about 500 times in the gill tissues and about 3,000 times in the muscle.*' The gills of 2-lb brown trout pass about 700 liters of water per day. 11 * In addition, certain fish, such as catfish, appear to be fairly tolerant to DDT under laboratory conditions, whereas in a natural setting they may succumb through bottom-feeding at the sediment level. Sublethal concentrations of DDT to adult fish may lower their reproductive success because DDT accumulates in egg yolk and kills the fry shortly after they hatch from contaminated eggs.'*»102 The DDT is passed into the egg yolk, the embryo develops and hatches, and at the stage of -26- �TABLE V-3. ACUTE TCXICITY OF p,p'-DDT TO FISHES BY STATIC BIOASSAY Temp. Species Rainbow trout Salmo gairdneri Exposure Time (hr) LCso (ug/O 7 (5-10)a 3.8 (3.4-4.3) 1.72 (1.42--2.09) 28 0.26 Reference 104 105 106 107 108 13 16 12.9 96 96 96 96 360 Brown trout Salmo trutta 13 96 2 U-3) 104 Brook trout Salvelinus fontinalis 13 96 7.4-11.9 106 Cutthroat trout Salmo clarki 13 96 0.85-1.37 106 13 9-11 13 96 96 96 13 96 0.68 110 18 24 23 96 96 96 8 (6-10) 2.2 ( . - . ) 1826 7 104 105 111 Redear sun fish Lepomis nticrplophus 18 . 96 5 (3.9) 104 Largemouth bass Micropterus salmoides 18 96 2 (1-3) 104 18 24 96 96 96 Coho salmon Oncorhynchus kisutch Chinook salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytschak > c Bliiegill Lepomis macrochirus Goldfish Carassius auratus Carassius carassius -27- 11.3-18.5 13 4 (3-6) 21 (14-30) 9.8 (7.3-13.2) 25 106 109 104 104 105 107 �TABLE V-3. (Cont.) Exposure Time (hr) LC50 (ug/D Species Temp, CO Carp Cyprinufl carpio 18 96 10 (7-13) 104 Fathead minnow Pimephales promelas 18 96 19 (13-27) 104 18 24 26 96 96 24 16 (9-28) 13.5 (9-20) 104 105 111 Black bullhead Ictalurus me las 18 96 5 (3-7) , 104 Yellow perch Perca flavescens 18 96 9 (7-11) 104 Channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus Mosquitofish Gambusia af finis 34 Reference 96 96 20 27 112 111 Guppy Poecilia reticulata 96 3 112 Mozambique mouthbreeder Tilapia mossambica 96 7 112 Aholehole Kuhlia sandvicensis^ 96 3.9 112 Nehu Stolephorus purpureus^ 12 1.0 112 96 0.53 ( . 8 0 8 ) 03-.4 0.9 1.13 110 Striped bass Roccus (Morone) saxatilis^ Roccus (Morone) saxatilis^ 17 96 -28- �TABLE V-3. (Cont.) Temp. Species Shiner perch Cymatogaster aggregate Exposure Time (hr) LC5Q (wg/O Re f erence 13 17 96 96 7.6 0.45 114 110 Dwarf perch Micrometrus minimus^ Micrometrus minimus'' » c 13 18 96 96 4.6 0.26 114 110 White seaperch Phanerodon furcatus^« c 19 96 0.74 110 English sole Parophrys vetulus^* 0 16 96 0.91 110 Pacific staghorn sculpin Leptocottus armatus"*0 19 96 0.98 110 Rubberlip seaperch Rhacochilus toxotes^« c 19 96 1.01 110 Goby Acinthrogobius flavimanusb» c 19 96 2.40 110 19 19 19 19 19 24 48 96 120 144 Speckled sanddab C i th ar i ch t h y s 8tigmaeus^» c a. b. c. d. • 10.0 7.2 3.7 1.7 0.9 Numbers in parentheses are 95% confidence interval. Seawater. Dynamic bioassay. Brackish water. -29- 110 110 110 110 110 �final yolk sac adsorption after hatching, the fry will die if the DDT concentration in the yolk is sufficiently high. 11T » l l i This phenomenon was first observed in the lake trout of Lake George, New York; 1 1 ' and later at Ja-jper, Alberta; 1 4 * Lake Taupo, New Zealand; 121 Lake Michigan; 1 * 2 Sebago Lake, Maine; 111 and other locations.'* Data for studies in these areas are listed in Table V-4 and indicate that DDT concentrations in water a» low as 0.004 ppb can cause a significant increase in sac-fry mortality. No reports were recovered describing systematic studies of the chronic effects of DDT on life stages of fishes. A DDT concentration of 5 mg/1 has been shown to result in 4(!% mortality of carp embryos reared j.n vitro.' 2 * Exposure of Atlantic salmon (Salmp sf.lar) eggs to 50 pg/1 of DDT at gastrulation retards behavioral development in the newly hatched alevins. 1 2 * The coughing frequency in juvenile coho salmon was found to be enhanced significantly after 4 days' exposure at a sublethal concentration of 5 ug/1. 1 ** High sublethal (0.3 to 3 ug/1) levels of DDT have been found to result in loss of glycogen and other pathological changes in the liver of 7 zebrafish (Br^chydanio rgrio) and, to a much lesser extent, of guppy. 1 2 Interrupted exposure of salmon;d fishes to high sublethal concentrations of DDT is reported to raise the lower lethal temperatures, alter the temperature selectivity,12diminish learning ability, and affect the central nervous system in general. ** 1 ** Continuous exposure to 110 Mg/^? for 4 days is said to alter the exploratory1'1 and locomotor *2 behavior of goldfish (Carassius auratus). Desaiah e_t al. have presented evidence for 50? or greater inhibition of activity of mitochondrial Mg2+ ATPase, an important energy-linked enzyme, in brain homogenates of fathead 1 minnows chronically exposed to DDT at a level of 0.5 ug/1 for 266 days. " There is also a substantial, although lesser, drop in gill Na-K-ATPase activity. The latter enzyme functions in osmoregulation in marine fishes, and in this regard, Leadem e£ ajU have found that seawater-acclimated rainbow trout receiving 2.75 tng/kg DDT/48 hr in their diet exhibit 1 impaired osmoregulation as well as inhibition of gill Na-K-ATPase activity. '* Kinter £t al. have reported similar disruption of osmoregulation in two marine species, mummichog (Fundulus heteroclitus) and American eel (Angui11a rostrata), at lethal DDT concentrations. 111 Weisbart and Feiner report that goldfish (C. auratus) exposed to DDT at a level of 17.5 to 35 wg/1 exhibited no clear" evidence for impaired osmoregulation. 1 " This agrees with the observation of Leadem e£^l_. that osmoregulation is unimpaired by DDT in the diet of the freshwater rainbow trout. • The 90-dose (30-day) oral LD5Q for juvenile coho and chinook (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) 7 salmon have been reported as 64 and 27.5 ing/kg/day, respectively. 1 ^ Sublethal 1oral doses may result in loss of light discrimination in rainbow trout. '* -30- �TABLE V-4. SAC-FRY MORTALITY FOR VARIOUS FISH SPECIES Fish Species DDT Cone. in Eggs (ppm) Effect Estimated DDT Cone. in Water* (ppb) Reference Lake trout 3-355 Fry containing more than 3 ppm died at the time of final adsorption of the yolk sac 0.03 119 Brook, rainbow, and cutthroat trout >0.4 30 to 90% sac-fry mortality >0.004 120 Rainbow trout 5 45% sac-fry mortality 0.05 121 Coho salmon 1.1-2.8 15 to 75% sac-fry 0.011-0.028 mortality, respectively 122 The DDT concentrations in water were estimated using a concentration factor of 100,000. The factor was based on data from a study with fathead minnows reared in 2 ppb DDT for a 9-month period. DDT concentrated in their eggs to more than 100,000 times the water concentration.1** This is the only long-term study giving both egg and water concentrations that could be found in the literature. Fragmentary evidence indicates that o,p'-DDT is less toxic to fish than p,p'-DDT. The 96-hr LC5Q for goldfish (C. auratus) t as measured by Ginsburg, 1 ** is 1.0 mg/1 for o,p'-ODT, compared with about 0.06 mg/1 for the p,p'-isomer. Gardner reports that brook trout fingerlings are unharmed by 24-hr exposure to o,p'-DDT at a concentration of 0.05 mg/1, although there is a noticeable effect on temperature selection at 0*02 mg/1, i.e., cooler water is preferred by exposed fish. 1 ** According to Alabaster, the 24-hr LC5Q for harlequin fish (Rasbora heteromo_rj)ha) ie 30 ug/1 for o,p'-DDT, compared with 13 jig/1 for the~p,p"'-"Isomer.l* * No information was retrieved for m,p'-DDT. -31- �Toxicity data for p,p'-TDE (ODD) have been reviewed by McKee and Wolfe. 1 " Fragmentary evidence, presented in Table V-5, indicates that TDK is highly toxic to fishes, although perhaps a half ovder of magnitude less toxic than p,p'-DDT. Gardner has demonstrated that high sublethal levels of TDE affect temperature selection by fingerling brook trout. 12 ' He further reports that brook trout are unharmed by 24-hr exposure to o,p'-TDE at a concentration of 50 yg/1, although there is some effect on temperature selection at 10 pg/1. 1 ** No information was retrieved for m,p'~TDE. Gardner has found that brook tr< u; •".•..-• 'mharmed by exposure to 50 -;g/l of p,p'-DDE for 24 hours and that there la almost no effect on temperature selection. 1 ** Applegate et_ al_. re >orc' Chat v^inbow trout, bluegills, and the larvae of sea lampreys -(Pt£: y .;>I • *},"',.*•'.>• "£ arc ""affected by 24-hr ; exposure to DDE at 5 mg/1 and 5: ' " o t h t j . s " report 96-hr LC^Q'B of 10 to 100 ng/1 for bluegills and rai'•);-w trout at 24° and 13°C, respectively. 11 * No information was retrieved for m,p'-DDE. Reptiles. No quantitative toxicity data were recovered, but Stickel has stated that the box turtle population of a Maryland forest was not noticeably affected by DDT applied at a dosage of 2 Ib/acre (2.2 kg/ha). 1 ** Evidence both for and against loss of reptiles through land application of DDT is summarized by McKee and Wolfe. 1 ** Direct treatment of ponds at DDT concentrations of 2 ppm or more has killed water snakes and turtles. 1 ** In the Brazos River floodplain of Texas, where cottonfields had been heavily treated with DDT, the average residues in the fat bodies of aquatic snakes were DDE, 510 ppm; TDE, 1.5 ppm; and DDT, 16.0 ppm. 1 * Tine DDT residues in the brain did not exceed 1.5 ppm, and fat-body residues in terrestrial snakes were much lower than in aquatic snakes.1** In vitro treatment of cellular fractions from various tissues of six species of terrestrial turtles resulted in negligible to substantial inhibition of Mg2*-, (Na + , K*)-, and (Na+, K + , Mg2+)-dependent ATPase at DDT levels of 2 to 76 mg/l. 1 *** 1 ** Similarly, in vitro treatment of cellular fractions from various tissues of the red-eared turtle, Chrysemys scripta elegans, resulted in negligible to substantial inhibition of ATPase at TDE or DDE levels of 2 to 76 mg/1. 1 ** Amphibians. For tadpoles of Fowler's toad (Bufo woodhousii fowleri) and the chorus frog (Pseudacris triseriata), Sanders reports 24-hr LC5Q habitat water values of 2.4 and 1.4 mg/1, respectively, 1 * 7 whereas a 96-hr LC5Q of 0.27 mg/1 for bullfrog tadpoles is reported by Carter and Graves. 1 1 1 Another reference gives a 96-hr LC$Q of 0.8 mg/1 for 5-week-old tadpoles of P. triseriata and 0.74, 1.0, 0.1, and 0.03811 mg/1 for B. woodhoasii tadpoles of 1, 4 to 5, 6, and 7 weeks, respectively. * These data are summarized in Table V-6. A lethal concentration of 0.15 mg/1 is given for Bufo bufo tadpoles. 1 ** Some relative and highly ambiguous toxicity assessments based on DDT application data have been provided by Pimentel 71 and Cooke. 1 ** -32- �TABLE V-5. Species ACUTE TOXICITY OF p,p'-TDE (DDD) TO FISHES Temp. CO Exposure Time (hr> LC50 (pg/1) Goldfish3 Reference 1,000 100 <2,600 15,000 100 110 Channel catfish8 20 18 96 96 Bluegill* 24 96 Striped bassc Morone saxatilis 17 96 Brook trout Salvelinus fontinalis 10 24 45 128 Rainbow trout 3 13 96 43-93 110 Fathead minnow3 18 96 1,000-10,000 110 largetnouth bassa 18 96 39 110 Walleye 3 18 96 10-100 110 a. b. c. d. 30b >10 2.5 <1.6-4)d 100 110 113 Species not given. Toxicity threshold. Bioassay in saline water. Numbers in parentheses are 95Z confidence interval. Field studies showed that 0.1 kg DDT/ha applied as an emulsion did not kill tadpoles, but 1.0 kg DDT/ha achieved 80% mortality in two days.1** The toxic effects on frog and toad tadpoles o_ DDT sprayed in the field at 0.4 to 0.5 kg/ha is given by Cooke.1*' The DDT was sprayed on the water surface,.as would be appropriate to kill mosquito larvae. Five water sites were monitored. DDT concentrations in surface water and in water at a depth of 20 cm decreased as the size of the water body increased, to the extent that DDT was not detected (<0.02 ppb) in water from the two larger sites. The DDT residue concentrations and the behavioral and morphological abnormalities of the tadpoles for the three smaller sites are summarized in Table V-7. The residues were measured one day after spraying. It is important to note that virtually all of the DDT sprayed was taken ui> by algae or incorporated elsewhere within only 3 days. Hence, the increases in -33- �the DDT levels in the tadpoles after the third day may be due to direct ingeoiion of DDT-contaminated algae. A schematic diagram of behavioral abnormalities versus time after spraying DDT is given in Fig. V-3. Average DDT concentrations are derived from data of Table V-7 assuming that there is a linear gradient of concentration with depth. TABLE V-6. : Species TOXICITY OF DDT TO TADPOLES Exposure Time (hr) LC5Q (tng/1) Reference Bullfrog 96 0.27 111 Chorus frog 24 96 1.4 0.8 147 110 Fowler's toad 24 2.4 147 (1 week) (4-5 weeks) (6 weeks) (7 weeks) 96 96 96 96 0.74 1.0 0.1 0.038 110 110 110 110 For tadpoles of Pseudacris triseriata and Bufo exposed to p,p'-TDE, 96-hr LC50's of 100 to 1,000 and 18 jig/1, respectively, have been reported. 11 ' No other information concerning isomers or metabolites was retrieved. Invertebrates. For the most part, only references dealing with nontarget species were retrieved. Toxicity data for arthropods, taken from Pimentel's review, 71 Malina's review, 1 " and some recent papers, are summarized in Table V-8, which shows that marine and freshwater species demonstrate about the same order of acute sensitivity to DDT as fishes, although ostracods appear to be more resistant. There is also evidence for impaired reproductive capability in ostracods, 15 ' brine shrimp, 1 ** and Daphnia at sublethal levels. 1 ** Ingested DDT has been shown to be harmful to crayfish (Procambarus clarkii), blue crabs (Callinec tes sapiduii), *» T »*" and fiddler crabs (Uca pugnax),'* * but the reported data are not readily quantified. Larvae of two caddisflies (Hydropsyche pellucidula and H. instabilis) have been found to construct irregular webs when exposed to DDT at sublethal levels (2.5 jig/1). 1 '* In field studies, it was found that when an unprotected stream was sprayed directly with 1 Ib/acre (1.1 kg/ha), nymphs of all species of mayflies were exterminated and larvae of every species o caddisfly were affected to some extent. 1 * . -34- �Normal k /" Estimated Average DDT Concentrations In the Water 17.5 ppb £ 2.26 ppb ——• 0.57 ppb Reslgnet Dead 4 6 8 1 0 Days After Spraying DDT Fig. V-3. Effects of DDT on Frog Tadpoles -35- 12 14 �TABLE V-7. Total Water Residues One Day After Spraying3 (ng/1) 20 cm below Surface BEHAVIOR AND MORPHOLOGICAL ABNORMALITIES OF TADPOLES EXPOSED TO DDT DDT Levels in Tadpoles (vg/g) Behavioral and Morphological Abnormalities Day 1 Small Ditch 36.2 Day 14° 7.90 6.52 None left Franticc None 3.27 None left Frantic None 0.70 0.77 0.24 Some normal, Some frantic None 0.64 0.38 Frantic None 1.16 0.83 0.52 1.23 1.07 1.97 Frantic Frantic None None Behavior Day 14 Day 3 Day 2 0.99 Surface Day 1 1.21 Site Abnormalities Behavioral Abnormalities Behavior Abnormalities __ Larger 10.5 17.5 4.9 Bitch Fool 2.7 1.9 Resigned All survivors-abnormal No survivors snouts, 4/8 dead tadpoles had tails laterally curled to left Some frantic, All survivors-abnormal No survivors some resigned snouts 4 normal, Few normal, None 1 moribund most frantic, few resigned 13 normal. Most frantic, 2 dead tadpoles with 3 moribund upturned tails few resigned Frantic Frantic None None Normal Mormal a. Other than the 0.19 wg/1 from below-surface sample of small ditch taken on Day 3, no residues were detected in water samples on Days 3 and 14, ...cone. <0.02 wg/1; spraying was uneven; two large sites had no detectable (<0.02 vg/1) DDT in water. b. Increases probably due to eating DDT-contaminated algae. c. ?raittic • hyperactivity, greatly excited, frencied Resigned » passive, submissive Progressive stages of abnormal behavior. Moribund - dying. / (All showed slow rite of metamorphosis.) — 1 downcurved in body and tail 1 with abnomial snout , 2 dovncurved None None �TABLE V-8. TOXICITY OF p,p'-DDT TO ARTHROPODS Species Exposure Time (hr) EC50 or LC50 (wg/l) Reference Sand shrimp 24 3 71 Seed shrimp Cypridopsis vidua 48 54 151 Glass shrimp Palaemonetes kadiakensis Grase shrimp Stonefly Pteronarcella badia Classenia sabulosa Pteronarcys californica , Acroneuria pacifica Waterflea Daphnia pule* Daphnia magr. a Simocephalus serrulatus 4.2 2.3 48 96 12 24 151 110 71 •/ 12 1.9 16 10 3.5 41 19 100 7.0 180 24 96 24 96 96 24 48 96 96 96 0.36-3.6 4 1 0.67 0.4 48 48 96 366 48 71 110 71 150 110 71 71 150 110 150 71 151 150 152 71 Os traced Cyprinotus incongruena Cypridopsia vidua 48 48 l,300a 230a 153 153 Brine shrimp Artemia selina 48 46a 154 -37- �TABLE V-8 (Cont.) Exposure Time (hr) Species Crayfish Procambarus acutas Orconectes nais (10-week) Reference 48 96 96 •** Gammarus fasciatus 22.5 1.0 151 110 4.7 4.0 151 110 24 48 96 48 96 Am phi pod Gammarus lacustris 155 108 110 48 96 Sowbug Asellus brevicaudus 3(7. 2)c 0.24 30 48 96 Damseifly Ishnui-a verticalis Hermit crab3 EC50 or LCjo (pg/D 4.7 2.1 1.0 3.6 3.2 71 71 110 151 110 71 7 1.85 110 96 Purple shore crab Hemigrapsus nudus *-• Market crab Cancer magister'"" 24 96 ' 4.6 110 48 3.3-10 156 » * • Brown shrimp Crangon crangon a. Species not given. b. Extrapolated from author's data. c. Value in parentheses for crayfish acclimated to natural, DDT-contarainated water of an unspecified concentration. -38- �Although mollusks are not so readily killed by DDT, the growth of eastern oysters is reported to be reduced significantly (and reversibly) at a level of 0.1 wg/1, 7 1 and survival of the larvae of the American oyster (Cr88803trea virginica) is diminished by 202 at a level of 25 yg/1. 1 ' 1 Annelids are so insensitive to DDT intoxication as to present a dietary hazard to predator organisms. The 96-hr 1050 for the buffalo leach (Hirudinari manillgnsis) exceeds 100 mg/l, 1 '* and tubeficid worms (Branchiura sowerbv_i"> are said to exhibit no mortality after 72 hours at a level of 4 mg/l and 21°C, although they are completely destroyed when exposed to the same concentration at 4.4° and 32.2°C. l f l The extrapolated 96-hr LC5o for a planarian (Polycel.is felina) is 1.26 mg/l at-6.5°C."* Earlier data for invertebrates have been reviewed by McKee and Wolfe, 1 1 * and some additional toxicity data are contained in Reference 108. Fragmentary evidence, presented in Table V-9, indicates that o,p'- and m,p'-DDT may be less acutely toxic to mosquito larvae than the p.p'-isomer. No information concerning nontarget species was retrieved. TABLE V-9. TOXICITY OF DDT ISOMERS TO MOSQUITO LARVAE Anopheles quadrimaculatus* » • » » » • • Isomer p,p'-DDT 24-hr LC50 (Mg/D 48-hr LC50 (Wg/l) Aedes aegypti'** 96-hr LCso (wg/1) < 2.5 2.5 11 350 o,p'-DDT 15 10 ra,p'-DDT 15 <10 a. 4th instar. Data relating the acute toxicity of p,p'-TDE to arthropods are summarized in Table V-10. Comparison of Tables V-8 and V-10 reveals that for many arthropods TDE is equal to or greater in tox;city than DDT. McKee and Wolfe have reviewed pesticide application data and note that the larvae of Chaoborus (phantom midge) and gnats are "controlled" at 13 tc 14 vg/l and chironomid (midge) larvae are temporarily eliminated.1** With a 96-hr LCso of 740 vg/1, TDE is slightly more toxic to the freshwater planarian Polycelis felina than DDT.1** -39- �The 96-hr LC50 of p,p'-DDE to the freshwater planarian Polycelis felina is 1.23 mg/1, only slightly more than the corresponding value for DDT."* No further information was retrieved concerning isomers or metabolites. TABLE V-10. ACUTE TOXICITY OF p.p'-TDE (ODD) TO ARTHROPODS Species Exposure Time (hr) EC50 or LC50 (ug/D Reference Amphipod Gammarus lacustris Gammarus fasciatus 96 96 Sowbug Asellus brevicaudus 96 Water flea Paphnia magna Daphnia pulex Simocephalus nerrulatus 72 48 AS 0.1« 3.2 4.5 167 108 108 96 72 0.68 O.la 108 167 Mosquito (4th instar) Anopheles quadrimaculatus 24 2 168 Stonefly Pteronarcys californica 96 380 1C8 Glass shrimp Palaemonetes kadiakensis 0.64 0.86 10 a. Sublethal effects. -40- 108 108 108 �Effects on Microorganisms Luard has reviewed, in part, the literature on DDT toxicity to freshwater and marine phytoplankton, and notes evidence for a wide range of sensitivities. 1 *' Other data are contained in Reference 108. A few marine species exhibit inhibition of photosynthesis at 1 to 10 yg/1, but in general there is no e f f e c t on growth at levels below 100 ug/1 (see also Pimentel 7 1 ). A recent study shows an even higher level of resisti.--** in Euglena.' 7 * Bacteria also appear to be resistant to DDT. The growth of Bacillus megaterium in nutrient medis is unaffected by 100 mg/1 of DDT, although the death rate of resting cells is measurably enhanced at 1 mg/1. 1 ** Growth of Azotobacter^ chrooc occum is said to be unchanged in the presence of 400 mg/1. l7z The growth rated of Pseudomonas fluorcscens and Staphylococcug aureus, but not Escherichia coli, are noticeably inhibited at 50 mg/1. 1 '' It is probably safe to assume that microorganisms will be unaffected by p,p'-DDT at levels selected to protect fish and invertebrates. The chernolithotrophic nitrofier, Nitrobactor agilis, is completely v inhibited by TDE at a concentration of 10 tng/l and measurably inhibited at 0.1 mg/1. 17 * % DDE (as well as DDT) at a concentration of 10~6 to 10~5 M (0.35 to 3.5 mg/1) is said to inhibit photosynthetic electron transport in the green algae Codium fragile and Chaetomorpha area^ and in isolated chloroplasts. 1 ** DDE is reported to be more toxic than DDT to the marine dinoflagellate Exuviella baltica, causing significant growth inhibition at levels as low as 0.1 u g / 1 . 1 7 3 N o other information concerning isomers or metabolites was retrieved. *" VI. STANDARDS AND CRITERIA FOB DDT Air Threshold limit values for the workroom environment: 17 * Time-weighted average: 1 Short-term exposure limit: 3 ink in g Water and Food Allowable daily intake:* 0.005 mg/kg/day Maxiuium concentration in fish and agricultural products for interstate commerce: 177 5 ppra �Water f or Aquat ic Lif e - EPA recommended criterion:20 0.00023 l»g/l (24-hr average) and 0.00041 (not to be exceeded at any time) VII. EFFECTS OF DDT ON A MODEL ECOSYSTEM A model ecosystem is used here to illustrate the effects of DDT waste product disposal at U.S. manufacturing sites operated from the mid-1940's to the late 1960's. Data that would accurately and completely define the extent of the hazards resulting from DDT contamination at particular sites are not available. Thus, a hypothetical site was created to demonstrate an approach for relating toxicological and ecological data to levels of contamination and to demonstrate the types of data required for establishing such a relation. The model site was developed from limited data available from actual contaminated sites*7*""1*11 and from hypothetical circumstances (such as geology and hydrology) offered for the purpose of demonstration. The following topics are considered: manufacturing practices, composite hypothetical site, observed DDT concentrations, predicted effects, and decontamination objectives. Manufacturing Practices The contaminated areas of primary concern are those in the vicinity of sites previously used for the manufacture of DDT, typically following World War II until the late 1960's. As a result of manufacturing, handling, and disposal practices prevalent then, large quantities of DDT and its isomers and analogs were conveyed by surface water runoff through drainage ways into traversing E-treams that empty into lakes and major rivers. Depending on the manufacturing site, the methods of DDT handling and storage, and the time manufacturing ceased, theie are wide ranges of possible levels of site contamination. During the manufacturing period, it is possible that tons of DDT in th« form of blocks were present on the ground surface, readily accessible to leaching. After the plants were closed, massive quantities of DDT were either disposed of in burial sites and landfills, destroyed by incineration, or simply left on the ground surface. The DDT residues in areas surrounding manufacturing sites built up over the years as process water containing DDT was discharged to settling ponds or ditches. Analyses of soil, sediment, water, and biological samples showed that undegraded DDT at some sites was being leached to surrounding areas. For example, fish caught in a major river about one mile from a contaminated site contained as much as 500 ppm DDT, two orders of magnitude greater than the maximum concentration allowable for interstate commerce. Biological surveys of the streams in contaminated areas indicated that species diversity is adversely affected in these areas."* -42- �Due to DDT's low solubility in water, the most highly contaminated areas other than DDT storage or burial sites are streambed sludges. This is because the waterways leading from a plant act primarily as carriers for suspended DDT, which settles out in the streambeds. In addition, areas that are not vegetated pose a particular problem since erosion by wind and rain can carry land contaminants into surface waters. Similarly, open du.nps of waste DDT can be constantly errded by surface runoff. Composite Hypothetical Site A map of a composite hypothetical site is given in Fig. VII-1. In later sections of this report, the effects (approximate) of the site configuration on the environmental impacts of various DDT concentrations are considered. The features of the composite hypothetical site are: 1. the DDT manufacturing site discharging to a large drainage ditch 2. a train of shallow lakes and wetlands containing food fish and surrounded by natural areas 3. ipring flooding, periodically causing redistribution of sediments 4. ultimate drainage of DDT-containing waters into the river, which is open to boating and fishing 5. the possibility of free movement of fish and other wildlife from lakes to and from the river. Thus, there are wetland areas where DDT in sediments can persist over many years. There are also physical and biological mechanisms for the periodic redistribution of DDT in the environment. Finally, DDT can enter wildlife and human food chains in many ways. Observed DDT Concentrations Concentrations of DDT in soil, sediment, and various water bodies as well as in various wildlife species are listed in Table VII-1 as a function of the downstream distance from the DDT plant. For simplification, it is assumed that the waste DDT that is buried or landfilled is located at distance zero and, because the principal carrier of DDT is water, that concentrations of DDT in water and underlying sediment are indicative of the level of contamination at each downstream distance. (The referenced data are those for actual areas surrounding DDT plants. Some of these data, however, correspond to samples collected and analyzed more than; 15 years ago and, thus, may not be representative of present conditions in the areas. These data, possibly out of date, are included -43- �1 1 ^(^••••ftTijr^WJtWR*.**-*^"'* "' "*-'^'^ /'nv.f~'"in'' Drainage Ditch Direction of Spring Floods ^ X \ \ Flp. VIM. Map of Model DDT Plant Site -44- �TABU! VII-1. AREA AHD WILDLIFE COOTAHTHAT1OH LEVELS FOR VARIOUS SITES Approximate Distance from Plant Site (*ilea) 0 Approximate Location Ground surface of abandoned production ' area Median Sampled in Area Reference Concentration of DOT in Area* Open dumps of vaste TOT, 100 Ib Reference Concentration of OOT° <PP») Huscle Fat 1001 1002 0 Baseoent of abandoned buildings Blocks of DDT covered vith clay, 3 tont 0 * ; Wildlife Species Stapled Domsatic »ever in plant Water 181 6.0 ppb 0 Drainage ditch Water 181 2.7 ppb 005 -. Drainage ditch Sediscnt 181 7 , 0 ppa 000 O.I Clo«*d drainage ditch Topsoil 181 110 p!» 1 Cloaed drainage ditch Top*oil 181 0.1 pp* 1 Strea* A Water Sedinent 181 2.3 ppb 1 0 0 pp» .0 2 Lake Water Sedinent 1 ppb 100 pp» Crow Rabbit Oposaim Fox Fish Fish Birds Fish Deer Birds Oterbivores) Birds (carnivores) Fish 179 179 179 179 183 184 184 182 183 40 1 23 27 314 20-200 10 300 0.2 2 20 200 750 17 240 SO 800-2.817 50 500 100 ,0 �TABLE VTt-1. Approximate Distance from Plant Sice (niles) Approximate Location Kediim Sampled in Area Reference (Coot.) Concentration of DDT in Area* Wildlife Species Sampled Reference Mannals 3 JS- 3 Lake Bayou Water Sediaent 180 180 Creek6 Water Sediwent 3 River Water Sediment 0.1 ppb 5 PP" 181 0.03 ppb 1 ppo Shad Carp Bass Catfish Ban SunfUh Bluettill Fish Birds (herbivores) Birds (carnivores) Mamuls a. Wf solubility in water • 1.2 F 50 0.5 ppb IS ppa 4 b. FDA tolerance for fish • 5 p»»« . e. Hypothetical data. 5 0.5 ppb 6 ppra Water Sediscnt Concentration of DDTb <PP»> Muscle Fat 182 182 182 184 ISA 184 184 178 71 29 6 112 112 7 35 412 O.OJ 1.0 0.5 1 10 S �here to demonstrate an approach for relating toxicological and ecological effects to levels of DDT contamination.) The concentrations of DDT in wildlife at various distances downstream from the hypothetical site are listed in Table VI1-2, along with the concentrations of DDT in water bodies and sediments at these distances. It can be seen that the high concentrations in water and sediment at the shorter distances are reflected in high concentrations in the tissues of the species sampled. Conversely, the concentrations at a distance o£' 5 miles approach the average levels in t.he United States. For these data, the differences between concentrations found in muscle and fat were estimated from actual measurements. Predicted Effects The ultimate objective of this analysis is to predict potential site-specific environmental impacts of DDT contamination. The predictions, in their simplest form, relate environmental impacts to concentrations of DDT in soil and water. With such information and analyses of DDT in soil (sediment) and water samples, one can estimate impacts of environmental contamination and the benefits of cleaning up the soil and water to known levels. Preceding sections of this report provide evidence that currently available literature data are sufficient to relate environmental impacts to four types of exposure information: DDT concentrations in an affected organism, dietary DDT levels, acute or chronic; doses of DDT, and the DDT concentration in water (for aquatic species). If these four types of information can be related to soil and water concentration data, the objective will be met. USAMBRDL has devised a procedure for estimating safe exposure levels, called preliminary pollutant limit values (PPLVs), from laboratory or field dat/» to protect the health of humans and other animals." >"7 This procedure assumes an equilibrium (or steady state) relationship for a pollutant distributed among soil or sediment, water, and biota. However, as is evident in Tables VII-1 and VII-2, sediment:water and fish:water ratios vary with distance from the model site. Apparently, the PPLV algebra fails .for DDT concentrations that approach the water solubility limit. Thus, an alternative procedufe is required to relate health effects to environmental contaminant levels. For the model site, field data on concentrations of DDT in soil, water, and biota are adequate to predict health and environmental effects in qualitative terms. Data presented earlier on the toxicological effects of DDT on wildlife are summarized in Fig. VII-2 and Table VI1-3. Predicted impacts of DDT contamination at the model site are summarized in Table VII-4, which was derived from data presented in Tables VII-2 and VII-3. Acute toxicity is predicted to be a problem for predatory and fish-eating birds, sensitive fish species, and sensitive amphibian species at distances up to 2 miles from the DDT plant. Very sensitive fish species might be affected over the next few miles. No animal species are predicted to suffer acute toxicity symptoms at greater distances. -47- �TABIS VII-2. EWIROWBEOTA1. COHCENTRATIONS OF DDT AT THE HODEt SITE (pp») Distance fro* Plant Site (ailes) Suple Water Reference 181 1 2 5 0.001 0.00003 i, 090(440 )« 100(100) 1(33) 2(2) Sediasnt 0.0023 Average U.S. Levels 0.000008-0.000144 Reference 16 0.05(1.7) 0.17 Kuicle Ti*s«e Birdt Predatory end fish-eating Son- predatory OB 179,184 Pith 182-184,186 KaBMU 179,184 179.184 750(330) 25(11) 20(20) 1(33) 300(130) 200(200) 100(3,300) 13(5.7) 5(5) 0.5(17) 50(50) 1(33) 500(500) 10(330) F«t Birds Predatory «nd fish eating Non-predator* Fi»h 182-184,186 1,800(780) 1,000(1,000) 500(16.000) Maaoals 179,184 130(57) 50(50) 5(170) a. Values in parentheses are non-steady state concentration factors tines 10~3. 2.3 It �TABLE VII-3. TOXICOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF DDT ON TYPICAL WILDLIFE AS A . FUNCTION OF CONCENTRATIONS OF DDT IN WATER, THE DIET, AND TISSUES Medium Water Diet Tissues Approximate Concentration Species 0.01 ppb 1-20 ppb 5 ppb Fish Fish Amphibians Lethal to sac-fry Lethal Lethal Birds Mammals Birds Mammals Eggshell thinning Possible carcinogenic effects Lethal Lethal Fish Birds Lethal to sac-fry Eggshell thinning 0.15 ppm 2 ppm 600 ppm 200 mg/kg 1-5 ppm (eggs) 1 ,>pm (egga) Effect Reproductive failure is expected for predatory and fish-eating birds and for fish at distances up to 5 miles and more from the DDT plant site. Repopulation of the model site with these species is to be expected only for those species with some accessible breeding populations at distances sufficient to avoid DDT-associated reproductive failure. In other words, fish and predatory birds may be found at the model site, but it is unlikely that sensitive species hatched within 5 miles of the DDT plant. Mammals are generally much more resistant to DDT than birds or fishes. Even so, it is not improbable that fish-eating mammals, e.g., otters, could ingest toxic quantities of DDT, considering the high dietary levels (Table VII-1). Their intake might, for example, exceed the 20 ppm DDT reported to cause teratogenic or embryotoxic effects in mice. Lower levels could conceivably induce cancer, but this would not be ecologically significant because cancer from a weak carcinogen, such as DDT, would be expected to afflict only senescent individuals. Fish taken for human food within 5 miles of the site are virtually certain to exceed the 5 mg/kg limit established by the Food and Drug Administration. For average daily consumption of 18.7 g of such fish, tVie associated lifetime cancer risk, by the EPA's method,2' exceeds 1 in 1,000. For consumption of fish containing 50 mg DDT/kg, the associated risk would exceed 1 in 100. (Note, however., that EPA considers the cancer risk from DDT ingestion derived from epidemiological data to represent an upper bound. The actual risk may be substantially lower.) -49- �LC» (short-term) s LCw (long-term) _ *c Not lethal - Chromosome abnormalities <D « ? Teratogenic ; or embryotoxlc effects c £ Eggshell thinning, increased embryo mortality i O © A D 5 Possible carcinogenic effects _L 0.1 0.4 1.0 4.0 Amphibians Fish Birds Land-dwelling mammals I 10 40 100 I 400 1,000 Concentration of DDT in Diet (ppm) Fig. VII-2. Biological Effects of Dietary DDT Typical Receptors 4,000 �TAiLE VII-4. PREDICTED EFFECTS ON WILDLIFE Distance from DDT plant Site (miles) i, t-« i Effect . 0-2 2-5 ; Acute toxicity for Predatory and fish-eating birds, sensitive fish, sensitive amphibians Very sensitive fish Reproductive failure due to Eggshell thinning in predatory and fish-eating birds, dc»th of fish sac-fry Eggshell thinning in predatory &id fisheatv.tg birds, death of fish sac-fry Eggshell thinning in predatory and fisheating birds, death of fish sac-fry �\ Decontamina t ion Ob j ect i ves In lieu of PPLV's, maximum environmental DDT levels for protection of wildlife have been calculated directly from model site data (Table VII-1). These are 0.1 ppb in water and 4 ppb in sediment for predatory and fish-eating birds and 0.05 ppb in water and 2 ppb in sediment for fish. The critical effect for birds is eggshell thinning leading to reproductive failure. Available data suggest that for sensitive birds, such as the brown pelican, DDT concentrations greater than 1 ppm in the egg can cause a significant decline in reproductive success. Other studies suggest that DDT levels in bird fat are approximately 40 time« the levels in bird eggs. Table VII-2 shows that the ratio of DDT in fat of predatory birds to DDT in water is approximately constant and falls in the ranjje of 300,000 to 500,000. Assuming a ratio of 400,000, it is calculated that a DDT level in water not to exceed 0.1 j t> will provide a safe litnit of 40 ppm in fat and 1 ppm in eggs. This corv spends to a sediment concentration of about 4 ppb. For less sensitive species, safe concentration limits will be higher. (It should be emphasized th«t these calculations assume that measured DDT concentrations are equilibrium or 7* steady-state levels. If not, derived values could be in error by an order of magnitude or greater.) For fish, the critical effect is mortality of sac-fry, which c*n occur at DDT concentt-i.tions of about 1 ppm in fish eggs (Table V-4) and estimated corresponding 'concentrations of 0.01 ppb in water and 0.4 ppb in sediment (assuming a sediment-to-water ratio of 4 ) Data of Table 0. VII-1 indicate that reproductive success could be expected at di»t«nct« ^greater than 5 miles from the model marufacturing site. To establish engineering goals for cleanup efforts, benefitt to wildlife and humans are predicted to occur for any degree of cleanup from present levels uown to 2 ppb in sediments (0.05 ppb in water). These concentrations are so low, and the area of dispersal so great, that it may be better to focus on cleanup efforts giving the greatest reduction of total mass of DDT, accepting the fact that decreases to ppb levels in sediment will have to come through biodegradation. Regular monitoring of DDT levels in fish and waterfowl will provide a measure of restoration. -52- �VIII. 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Hunt, L.B., "Song Bird Breeding Populations in DDT-sprayed Dutch Elm Disease Communities," J. Wildl. Manage. 24:139-146 (1960). 78. Hunt, L.B., "Kinetics of Pesticide Poisoning in Dutch Elm Disease Control,1' U.S. Fish Wildl. gerv. Circ. 226:12-13 (1965). 79. Robbins, C.S. and R.E. Stewart, "Effects of DDT on Bird population of Scrub Forest," J. Wildl. Manage. 13:11-18 (1949). 80. Wallace, G.J., W.P. Nickell, and R.F. Bernard, "Bird Mortality in th6 Dutch Elm Disease Program in Michigan," Cranbrook Inst. Sci. Bull. 41 (1961). 81. Bernard, R.F., "Studies on the Effect of DDT on Birds," Publ. Mus. Mich. State Univ. Biol. Ser. 2:155-191 (1963). 82. Bernard, R.F., "DDT Residues in Avian Tissues," J. Appl. Ecol. 3(Suppl.):193-198 (1966). 83. Hunt, E.G., "Studies of Pheasant-Insecticide Relationships," J. Appl. Ecol. 3(Suppl.):113-123 (1966). 84. Ames, P.L., "DDT Residues in the Eggs of the Osprey in the Northeastern United States and Their Relation to Nesting Success," J. Appl. Ecol. 3(Suppl.):87-97 (1966). 85. Heath, E.G., J.W. Spanna, and J.F. Kreitzer, "Marked DDE Impairment of Mallard Reproduction in Controlled Studies," Nature 224:47-48 (1969). -59- �86* Davison, K.L. and J.L. Sell, "DDT Thins Shells of Eggs From Mallard Ducks Maintained on Ad Libitum or Control-Feeding Regimens," Arch. Environ. Contam. Tpxicol. 2:222-223 (1974). 87. Peakall, D.B., J.L. Lincer, R.W. Risebrough, J.B. Pritchard, and W.B. Kinter, "DDE-Induced Eggshell Thinning: Structural and Physiological Effects in Three Species," Comp. Gen. Pharmaco1. 4:305-313 (1973). 88. McLane, M.A.R. and L.C. Hall, "DDE Thins Screech Owl Eggshells," Bull^Environ. Contam. Tpxicol. 8:65-68 (1972). 89. Longcore, J.R., F.B. Samson, and T.W. Whittendale, "DDE Thins Eggshells and Lowers Reproductive Success of Captive Black Ducks," Bui 1. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 6:485-490 (1971). 90. Azevedo, J.A., E.G. Hunt, and L.A. Woods, "Physiological Effects of DDT on Pheasants," Calif. Fish Game 51:276-293 (1965). 91. DeWitt, J.B., "Chronic Toxicity to Quail and Pheasants of Some Chlorinated Insecticides," J. Agr ic. Food Chem. 4:863-866 (1956). 92. Albert, T.F., "The Effects of DDT on the Sperm Production of the Domestic Fowl," Auk 79:104-107 (1962). 93. Locke, L.N., N.J. Chura, and P.A. Stewart, "Spcrmatogenesis in Bald Eagles Experimentally Fed a Diet Containing DDT," Condor 68:497-502 (1966). 94. Hickey, J.J. and D.W. Anderson, "Chlorinated Hydrocarbons and Eggshell Changes in Raptorial and Fish-eating Birds," Science 162:271-273 (1968). 95. Anderson, D.W., J.J. Hickey, R.W. Risebrough, D.F. Hughes, and R.E. Christensen, "Significance of Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Residues to Breeding Pelicans and Cormorants," Can. Field Nat. 83:91-112 ( 9 9 . 16) 96. Fyfe, R.W., J. Campbell, B. Hayson, and K. Hodson, "Regional Population Declines and Organochlorine Insecticides in Canadian Prairie Falcons," Can. Field Na^. 83:191-200 (1969). 97. Bins, L.J., A.A. Belisle, and R.M. Prouty, "Relations of the Brown Pelicans to Certain Environmental Pollutants," PCStic. Monit. J. 7:181-194 (1974). 98. Keith, J.A. and I.M. Gruchy, "Residue Levels of Chemical Pollutants in North American Birdlife," Proc. 15th Int. Ornithol. Congr.t The Hague, The Netherlands, pp. 437-454""(1972)'. -60- �99. Wiemeyer, S.N., P.R. Spitzer, W.C. Krantz, T.G. Lament, and E. Cromartie, "Effects of Environmental Pollutants on Connecticut and Maryland Oapreys;" J. Wild I. Manage. 39:124-139 (1975). 100. McKee, J.E. and H.W. Wolfe, Water Quality^Criteria, 2nd edition, State Water Quality Control Board, Sacramento, CA (1963). 101. Katz, M., R.S. LaGore, D. Weitkamp, J.M. Cuunings, D. Anderson, and D.R. May, "Effects on Freshwater Fish," J. Water Pollut. Control Fed. 44:1226-1250 (1972). 102. Johnson, D.W., "Pesticides and Fishes - A Review of Selected Literature," Trans, /u.. Fish Soc. 97:398-424 (1968). 103. McKim, J.M., G.M. Chriotensen, J.H. Tucker, D.A. Benoit, and M.J. Lewis, "Effects of Pollution on Freshwater Fish," J. j/ater Pollut. Control Fed. 46:1540 ff (1974). 104. Macek, K.J. and W.A. McAllister, "Insecticide Susceptibility of Some Common Fish Family Representatives," Trans.Am. Fish Soc. 99:20-27 (1970). 105. e^ Ingham, B. and M.A. Gallo, "Effect of Asulam in Wildlife Species: Acute Toxicity to Birds and Fish," Bull. Environ. Contarn. Toxicol. 13:194-199 (197S). 106. Post, G. and T.R. Schroeder, "The Toxicity. of Four Insecticides to Four Salmonid Species," Bull. Environ... Contain. Toxicol. 6:144-156 (1971). 107. Bathe, R., L. Ultnann, and K. Sachsse, "Determination of Pesticide Toxicity to Fish," Schrifteher. Ver. Wasser Boden Lufthyg. Berlin*" Pah1em 37:241-256 (1973). 108. Committee on Water Quality Criteria, HAS-NAE, Water Quality Criteria 1972, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, No. 5501-00520 (1972). 109. Schaumberg, F.D., T.E. Howard, and C.C. 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Gardner, D.R. , "The Effect of Some DDT and Methoxychlor Analogs on Tenperature Selection and Lethality in Brook Trout Fingerlings," Pet tic . Biochem. Phy a iol . 2:437-446 (1973). 129. Aaderaon, J.M. , "Sublethal Effects and Changes in Ecosystems. Assessment of the Effects of Pollutants on Physiology and ," Proc. Roy. Soc. Londcn Ser. B. 111:307-320 (1971). 130. AsyJereon, J. M. and M.R. Peterson, "DL/T: Sublethal Effects on Breolc Trout Nervous Systems," Science 164:477-478 (1969). 131. De'/y, F.B., H. Kleerekoper, and J.H. Matis, "Effects of Exposure to Su&lethal DDT on the Exploratory Behavior of Goldfish (Carassius ," Water Re sour. Res. 2:900-905 (1973). 132. D«vy, F.B., H. Kleerekoper, and P. Gensler, "Effects of Exposure to £ijj> lethal DDT on the Locomotor Behavior of the Goldfish (Carassius •unit us.).," J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 29:1333-1336 (1972). 133. E>e*«iah, D. , L.K. Cutkomp, R.B. Koch, and A. Jarvinen, "DDT: Effect of Contir".ious Exposure on ATPase Activity J.n Fish, Pimephales pr&welas," Arch .Environ. Contain. Toxicol . 3:132-141 (1975T^ 134. iitedem, T.P., R.I>. Cambell, and D.W. Johnson, "Osmoregulatory E«*ponse to DPT and Varying Salinites in jjalnio gairdneri. I. Gill Jto-K-ATPase,:i Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 49A:197-205 (1974). 135. Kmter, W.B., L.S. Merkens, R.H. Janicki, and A.M. Guarino, "Studies on the Mechanism of Toxicity of DDT and Polychlorinated Bip-henyls (PCBs): Disruption of Osmoregulation in Marine Fish," Epyiron.Jealth Perapect. 1:169-173 (1972). 136. Wfisbart, M. and D. Feiner, "Subl?thal Effect of DDT on Osmotic and Ionic Regulation by the Goldfish Carassius auratus," Can. J. Zool. 52;739-744 (1974). 137. B'Jilet, D.R., M.E. Rasmusson, and W.E. Shanks, "Chronic Oral DDT Twxicity in Juvenile Coho and Chinook Salmon," Toxicol. Appl. pfesrmacol. 14:535-555 (1969). -63- �138. McNicholl, G. and W.C. Mackay, "Effect of DDT on Discriminating Ability of Rainbow Trout (Salmo gairdneri)," J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 32:785-788 (1975). 139. Ginsburg, J.M., "Comparative Toxicity of DDT Isomers and Related Compounds to Mosquito Lsrvae and Fish," Science 105:233-234 ( 9 7 . 14) 140. Alabaster, J.S., "Survival of Fish in 164 Herbicides, Insecticides, Fungicides, Wetting Agents rrvd Miscellaneous Substances," Int. Pest Control March/Apr?.l:29-35 (1969). 141. Applegate, V.C., J.H. Howell, A.E. Hall, Jr., and M.A. Smith, "Toxicity of 4,346 Chemicals to Larval Lampreys and Fishes," U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Spec. Sci. Rep. Fish. No. 207 (1957). 142. Stickel, L.F., "Wood Mouse and Box Turtle Populations in the Area Treated Annually with DDT for Pi"- i««ra," J. Wild!. Manage. 15:161-164 (1951). From Ref. 71. 143. Brown, A.W.A., "Insecticides and the Balance of Animal Populations," in Insect Control by Chemicals, John Wiley & Sons, New York, pp. 720-780 (1951). 14% Fleet, R.R., D.R. Clark, and F.W, Plapp, "Residues of DDT and Dieldrin in Snakeo from Two Texas Agro-ecosystems," BioScience 22:664-665 (1972). 145. Phillips, J.B. and M.R. Wells, "Adenosine 'Triphosphataae Activity in Liver, Intestinal Mucosa, Cloacal Bladder, and Kidney Tissue of Five Turtle Species Following In Vitro Treatment with l,l,l-Ti-ichloro-2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)ethane (DDT)," J. Agr. Food Chem. 22:404-407 (1974). »" " 146. Witherspoon, F.G., Jr. and M.R. Wells, "Adenosine Triphosphatase Activity in Brain, Intestinal Kucosa, Kidney, and Liver Cellular Fractions of the Red-Eared Turtle Following In Vitro Treatment with DDT, DDD and DDE," Bull. Environ. Contain. ToxicoU 14:537-544 (1975). 147. Sanders, H.O., "Pesticide Toxicities to Tadpoles of the Western Chorus Frog, Pseudacris triserlata, and Fowler's Toad, Bufo woodhousii fowleri," Copeia 2:246-251 (1970). Quoted in Ref. 71. 148. Ludemanh, D. and H. Neumann, "The Effect of Modern Insecticides on Freshwater Organisms," Anz. Schaedlingskd. 35:5-9 (1962). 149. Cooke, A.S., "The Effects of DOT, When Used as a Mosquito Larvicide, on Tadpoles of the Frog, Rana temporaria," Environ. Pollut. 5:259-273 (1973). -64- �150. Malina, J.F., Jr., "Toxicity of Petrochemicals in the Aquatic Environmenty" Water Sewage Works 10:456-460 ( 9 4 . 16) 151. Macek, K.J. and H.O. Sanders, "Biological Variation in the Susceptibility of Fish and Aquatic Invertebrates tf> DDT," Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. #9:89-90 (1970). 152. Maki, A.W. and H.E. Johnson, "Effects of PCB (Aroclor 1254) and p,p'-DDT on Production and Survival of Daphnia magna Strauss," Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 13:412-416 (1975). 153. Khudairi, S.Y.A-D. and E. Ruber, "Survival and Reproduction of Ostracods as Affected by Pesticides and Temperature," J. Econ. Entomol. 67:22-24 (1974). 154. Grosch, D.S., "Poisoning with DDT: Effect on Reproductive Performai.ce of Artetnia," Science 151:592-593 (1967). 155. Albaugh, D.W., "Insecticide Tolerances of Two Crayfish Populations (Procambarus acutuB) in South-Central Texas," Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxi~col. 8:334-338 (1972). ' 156. Hann, R.W., Jr. and P.A. Jansen, "Water Quality Characteristics of Hazardous Materials," Environmental Engineering Division, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX (no date). 157. Leffler, C.W., "Effects of Ingested Mirex and DDT on Juvenile Callinectes sapidu^ Rathburn," Environ. Iollut. 8:283-300 (1975). 158. Koenig, C.C., R.J. Livingston, and C.R. Gripe, "Blue Crab Mortality: Interaction of Temperature and DDT Residues," Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 4:119-128 (1976). 159. Odum, W.E., G.M. Woodwell, and C.F. Wurster, "DDT Residues Absorbed from Organic Detritus by Fiddler Crabs," Science 16« 576-577 (1969). 160. Decamps, H., K.W. Besch, and H. Vobis, "Effect of Toxic products on the Construction of Webs by Hydropsyche (Insecta, Trichoptera)," C^.R. Acad. Sci. Ser. D 276:375-378 (1973). 161. Davis, B.C. and H. Hidu, "Effects of Pesticides on Embryonic Development of Clams and Oysters and on Survival and Growth of the Larvae," U.S. Fish. yildl.Serv. Fish. Bull. 67(2)-.393-404 (1969). 162. Kimura, T., H.L. Keegan, and T. Haberkorn, "Dehydrochlorination of DDT by Asian Blood-sucking Leeches," Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 16:688-690 (1967). 163. Naqvi, S.M.Z., "Toxicity of Twenty-three Insecticides to a Tubeficid Worm Branchiura sowerbyi from the Mississippi Delta," ,r._ Econ. Entomol. 66:70-74 (1973). -65- �164. Kouyoumjian, H.H. and R.F. Uglow, "Some Aspects of the Toxicity of p,p'-DDT, p,p'-DDE and p,p'-DDD to the Freshwater Planarian Pplycelis feUna (Tricladida)," Environ. Pollut. 7:103-109 (1974). 165. Haller, H.L., "Wartime Development of Insecticides," Ind. Eng. Chem. 39:467-473 (1947). 166. Cristol, S.J., H.L. Haller, and A.W. Lindquist, "Toxicity of DDT Isoraers to Some Insects Affecting Man," Science 104:343-344 ( 9 6 . 14) 167. Kemp, H.T., R.L. Little, V.L. Holoman, and R.L. Darby, Water Quality Criteria Data Book; Vol. 5, Effects of Chemicals on Aquatic Life, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, 13050-HLA 09/73 (1973). 168. Deontier, C.C. and H.A. Jones, "TDE, l,l-Dichloro-2»2-bis(pchlorophenyl)ethane, as an Anopheline Larvicide," Science 103:13-14 (1946)., 169. Luard, E.J., "Sensitivity of Dunaliella an*' Pcenedesmus (Chlorophyceae) to Chlorinated Hydrocarbons," Phycologia 12:29-33 (1973). 170. Poorman, A.E., "Effects of Pesticides on Eiiglena gracilis. I. Growth Studies," Bull. Environ. Contain. Toxicol. 10:25-28 (1973). 171. Hicks, G.F., Jr. and T.R, Corner, "Location and Consequences of l,l,l-TrichlorO"2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)ethane Uptake by Bacillus me^aterium," A_ppl._M_icrobipl. 25:381-387 (1973). 172. Gil, I., J. Morales, A. Martin, C. Ruano, and F. Argones, "Effects of Some Pesticides on Azotobacter," Microbiol. Esp. 23:271-277 (1970); Chero. Abs. 75, 34405z (1971). 173. Collins, J.A. and B.E. Langlois, "Effect of DDT, Dieldrin and Heptachlor on the Growth of Selected Bacteria," Appl. Microbiol. 16:799-800 (1968). 174. Garretson, A.L. and C.L. San Clamente, "Inhibitory of Nitrifying Chemolithotropic Bacteria by Several Insecticides," J. Econ. Entomol. 61:285-288 (1968). 175. Powers, C.D., R.G. Rowland, R.R. Michaels, N.S. Fisher, and C.F. Wurster, "The Toxicity of DDE to a Marine Dinoflagellate," Environ. Pollut. 9:253-262 (1975). 176. American Conference .of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances and physical Agents in tha Workroom Environment with Intended Changes for 1978, Cincinnati, OH, p. 14 (1978). -66- �177. Food and Drug Administration, "Action Levels for Poisonous or Deleterious Substances in Human Food and Animal Peed," Industrial Guidance Branch, Bureau of Foods (HFF-342), 200 C St. S.W., Washington, DC, p. 5 (June 1968). 178. "DDT Contamination Found in Tests," The Rocket ? 3 2 ) 9 (October 5, .(0! 1977). 179. Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, "DDT Analyses by Colorimetric Methods of Muscle and Fat Tissue from Wildlife Near Huntsville Spring Branch, Wheeler National Wildlife Refuge, Alabama," Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, Laurel, MD (February 14-24, 1964). 180. Pearson, J.G., E.S. Bender, D.H. Taormina, K.L. Manuel, P.P. Robinson, anri A.E. Asaki, "Effects of Elemental Phosphorus on the Biota of Yellow Lake, Pine Bluff Arsenal, Arkansas, March 1974-Ja»v:jry 1975," U.S. Army TR EO-TR-76077, Edgewood Arsenal, MD (December 1976). /. 181. Ward, F.P., C.F.A. pinkham, and J.G. Pearson, "Redstone Arsenal, Alabama, Installation Environmental Assessment Statement," Ecological Research Unit, Biomedical Laboratory, Edgewood Arsenal, MD (August 1972). 182. State of Alabama, Dept. of Conservation, Game and Fish Division, Water Pollution Report (February 5, 1971). 183. State of Alabama, Dept. of Conservation, Utilities Division, Utilities Lab Control (March 5, 1971). 184. U.S. Army Environmental Hygiene Agency, "Analytical Results of Biological Samples," Report No. 3, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD (October 14, 1977). 185. Manuel, K.L., E.S. Bender, and J.G. Pearson, "Results of Aquatic Surveys at Pine Bluff Arsenal, Arkansas, September 1973-October 1974," U.S. Army TR EB-TR-76038, Edgewood Arsenal, MD (April 1976). 186. "DDT Residue Tests Ordered at Redstone," Huntsville Times, Evening Edition (July 25, 1977). 187. Cogley, D.R., J.C. Dacre, D.H. Rosenblatt, and W.D. Bvrrows, "Prioritiiation of Research Efforts on Environmental Chemicals: A Rationale for the Calculation of Preliminary Pollutant Limit Values for Soil and Water," presented at the 1979 National Conference on Hazardous Material Risk Assessment, Disposal and Management, Miami Beach, FL (April 25-27, 1979). -67- �DISTRIBUTION LIST Project No. 3E16272QA835/OQ/137 do, of Copies 5 12 •; ... ' . : • ' . , . • . ..,' ." :/.•-'..:. . •.. ,, • . ' • - """"•"%.-.;' US Army Medical Research and Development Command ATT,<: SGRD-RMS Fort Detrick Frederick, MO Zl.701 Defense Technical Information Center (DTIC) ATTtt: QTICrDUA Cameron Station Alexandria, VA 22314 1 Conmandant Academy of Health Sciences* US Army ATTrt: AHS-COM Fort Sam Houston, TX 78234 2 USAHBROL Technical Library 68 �m � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange Description An account of the resource <p style="margin-top: -1em; line-height: 1.2em;">The Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange comprises 120 linear feet and spans the late 1800s to 2005; however, the bulk of the coverage is from the 1960s to the 1980s and there are many undated items. The collection was donated to Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in 1985 by Dr. Alvin L. Young (1942- ). Dr. Young developed the collection as he conducted extensive research on the military defoliant Agent Orange. The collection is in good condition and includes letters, memoranda, books, reports, press releases, journal and newspaper clippings, field logs and notebooks, newsletters, maps, booklets and pamphlets, photographs, memorabilia, and audiotapes of an interview with Dr. Young.</p> <p>For more about this collection, <a href="/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/alvin-l--young-collection-on-a">view the Agent Orange Exhibit.</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Box The box containing the original item. 047 Folder The folder containing the original item. 1190 Series The series number of the original item. Series III Subseries I Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Description An account of the resource <strong>Corporate Author: </strong>U. S. Army Medical Bioengineering Research and Development Laboratory Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1979-06-01 Title A name given to the resource Report: Problem Definition Studies on Potential Environmental Pollutants, VII. Physical, Chemical, Toxicological, and Biological Properties of DDT and Its Derivatives Subject The topic of the resource aquatic animals health effects pesticide toxicology ecological impact ao_seriesIII Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange Description An account of the resource <p style="margin-top: -1em; line-height: 1.2em;">The Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange comprises 120 linear feet and spans the late 1800s to 2005; however, the bulk of the coverage is from the 1960s to the 1980s and there are many undated items. The collection was donated to Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in 1985 by Dr. Alvin L. Young (1942- ). Dr. Young developed the collection as he conducted extensive research on the military defoliant Agent Orange. The collection is in good condition and includes letters, memoranda, books, reports, press releases, journal and newspaper clippings, field logs and notebooks, newsletters, maps, booklets and pamphlets, photographs, memorabilia, and audiotapes of an interview with Dr. Young.</p> <p>For more about this collection, <a href="/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/alvin-l--young-collection-on-a">view the Agent Orange Exhibit.</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Box The box containing the original item. 047 Folder The folder containing the original item. 1191 Series The series number of the original item. Series III Subseries I Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Burnett, Robin Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Science Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 5 1971 Title A name given to the resource DDT Residues: Distribution of Concentrations in Emerita analoga (Stimpson) along Coastal California Subject The topic of the resource aquatic animals pesticide toxicology ecological impact ao_seriesIII Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange Description An account of the resource <p style="margin-top: -1em; line-height: 1.2em;">The Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange comprises 120 linear feet and spans the late 1800s to 2005; however, the bulk of the coverage is from the 1960s to the 1980s and there are many undated items. The collection was donated to Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in 1985 by Dr. Alvin L. Young (1942- ). Dr. Young developed the collection as he conducted extensive research on the military defoliant Agent Orange. The collection is in good condition and includes letters, memoranda, books, reports, press releases, journal and newspaper clippings, field logs and notebooks, newsletters, maps, booklets and pamphlets, photographs, memorabilia, and audiotapes of an interview with Dr. Young.</p> <p>For more about this collection, <a href="/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/alvin-l--young-collection-on-a">view the Agent Orange Exhibit.</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Box The box containing the original item. 047 Folder The folder containing the original item. 1192 Series The series number of the original item. Series III Subseries I Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Carlson, Lars A. Birgitta Kolmodin-Hedman Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Acta Medica Scandinavica Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1972 Title A name given to the resource Hyper - [alpha] - Lipoproteinemia in Men Exposed to Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Pesticides Subject The topic of the resource industrial exposure pesticide toxicology human testing health effects ao_seriesIII Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange Description An account of the resource <p style="margin-top: -1em; line-height: 1.2em;">The Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange comprises 120 linear feet and spans the late 1800s to 2005; however, the bulk of the coverage is from the 1960s to the 1980s and there are many undated items. The collection was donated to Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in 1985 by Dr. Alvin L. Young (1942- ). Dr. Young developed the collection as he conducted extensive research on the military defoliant Agent Orange. The collection is in good condition and includes letters, memoranda, books, reports, press releases, journal and newspaper clippings, field logs and notebooks, newsletters, maps, booklets and pamphlets, photographs, memorabilia, and audiotapes of an interview with Dr. Young.</p> <p>For more about this collection, <a href="/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/alvin-l--young-collection-on-a">view the Agent Orange Exhibit.</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Box The box containing the original item. 047 Folder The folder containing the original item. 1193 Series The series number of the original item. Series III Subseries I Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Clifford, Nathan J. Jerry Weil Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Archives of Environmental Health Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1972-02-01 Title A name given to the resource Cortisol Metabolism in Persons Occupationally Exposed to DDT Subject The topic of the resource industrial exposure pesticide toxicology human testing health effects ao_seriesIII Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange Description An account of the resource <p style="margin-top: -1em; line-height: 1.2em;">The Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange comprises 120 linear feet and spans the late 1800s to 2005; however, the bulk of the coverage is from the 1960s to the 1980s and there are many undated items. The collection was donated to Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in 1985 by Dr. Alvin L. Young (1942- ). Dr. Young developed the collection as he conducted extensive research on the military defoliant Agent Orange. The collection is in good condition and includes letters, memoranda, books, reports, press releases, journal and newspaper clippings, field logs and notebooks, newsletters, maps, booklets and pamphlets, photographs, memorabilia, and audiotapes of an interview with Dr. Young.</p> <p>For more about this collection, <a href="/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/alvin-l--young-collection-on-a">view the Agent Orange Exhibit.</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Box The box containing the original item. 048 Folder The folder containing the original item. 1196 Series The series number of the original item. Series III Subseries I Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Deichmann, W. B. W. E. MacDonald Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Food and Cosmetics Toxicology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1971 Title A name given to the resource Organochloride Pesticides and Human Health Subject The topic of the resource adipose tissue testing animal testing pesticide properties pesticide toxicology ao_seriesIII Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange Description An account of the resource <p style="margin-top: -1em; line-height: 1.2em;">The Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange comprises 120 linear feet and spans the late 1800s to 2005; however, the bulk of the coverage is from the 1960s to the 1980s and there are many undated items. The collection was donated to Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in 1985 by Dr. Alvin L. Young (1942- ). Dr. Young developed the collection as he conducted extensive research on the military defoliant Agent Orange. The collection is in good condition and includes letters, memoranda, books, reports, press releases, journal and newspaper clippings, field logs and notebooks, newsletters, maps, booklets and pamphlets, photographs, memorabilia, and audiotapes of an interview with Dr. Young.</p> <p>For more about this collection, <a href="/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/alvin-l--young-collection-on-a">view the Agent Orange Exhibit.</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Box The box containing the original item. 048 Folder The folder containing the original item. 1198 Series The series number of the original item. Series III Subseries I Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource D'Ercole, A. Joseph Robert D. Arthur Jimmie D. Cain Ben F. Barrentine Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Pediatrics Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1976-06-01 Title A name given to the resource Insecticide Exposure of Mothers and Newborns in a Rural Agricultural Area Subject The topic of the resource DDT pesticide toxicology human testing ao_seriesIII Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange Description An account of the resource <p style="margin-top: -1em; line-height: 1.2em;">The Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange comprises 120 linear feet and spans the late 1800s to 2005; however, the bulk of the coverage is from the 1960s to the 1980s and there are many undated items. The collection was donated to Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in 1985 by Dr. Alvin L. Young (1942- ). Dr. Young developed the collection as he conducted extensive research on the military defoliant Agent Orange. The collection is in good condition and includes letters, memoranda, books, reports, press releases, journal and newspaper clippings, field logs and notebooks, newsletters, maps, booklets and pamphlets, photographs, memorabilia, and audiotapes of an interview with Dr. Young.</p> <p>For more about this collection, <a href="/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/alvin-l--young-collection-on-a">view the Agent Orange Exhibit.</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Box The box containing the original item. 048 Folder The folder containing the original item. 1199 Series The series number of the original item. Series III Subseries I Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Devlin, Robert M. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Environmental Science and Technology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1974-04-01 Title A name given to the resource DDT: A Renaissance? Subject The topic of the resource pesticide toxicology ecological impact pesticide regulation safety ao_seriesIII Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange Description An account of the resource <p style="margin-top: -1em; line-height: 1.2em;">The Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange comprises 120 linear feet and spans the late 1800s to 2005; however, the bulk of the coverage is from the 1960s to the 1980s and there are many undated items. The collection was donated to Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in 1985 by Dr. Alvin L. Young (1942- ). Dr. Young developed the collection as he conducted extensive research on the military defoliant Agent Orange. The collection is in good condition and includes letters, memoranda, books, reports, press releases, journal and newspaper clippings, field logs and notebooks, newsletters, maps, booklets and pamphlets, photographs, memorabilia, and audiotapes of an interview with Dr. Young.</p> <p>For more about this collection, <a href="/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/alvin-l--young-collection-on-a">view the Agent Orange Exhibit.</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Box The box containing the original item. 048 Folder The folder containing the original item. 1224 Series The series number of the original item. Series III Subseries I Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Miller, H. J. Ita Aronovski Simi Cucos Dora Wasserman M. Wasserman Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1979 Title A name given to the resource Effects of Organochlorine Insecticides on Serum Proteins in Occupationally Exposed People Subject The topic of the resource DDT industrial exposure human testing pesticide toxicology ao_seriesIII Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange Description An account of the resource <p style="margin-top: -1em; line-height: 1.2em;">The Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange comprises 120 linear feet and spans the late 1800s to 2005; however, the bulk of the coverage is from the 1960s to the 1980s and there are many undated items. The collection was donated to Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in 1985 by Dr. Alvin L. Young (1942- ). Dr. Young developed the collection as he conducted extensive research on the military defoliant Agent Orange. The collection is in good condition and includes letters, memoranda, books, reports, press releases, journal and newspaper clippings, field logs and notebooks, newsletters, maps, booklets and pamphlets, photographs, memorabilia, and audiotapes of an interview with Dr. Young.</p> <p>For more about this collection, <a href="/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/alvin-l--young-collection-on-a">view the Agent Orange Exhibit.</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Box The box containing the original item. 048 Folder The folder containing the original item. 1225 Series The series number of the original item. Series III Subseries I Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Morgan, Donald P. Clifford C. Roan Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Archives of Environmental Health Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1974-07-01 Title A name given to the resource Liver Function in Workers Having High Tissue Stores of Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Pesticides Subject The topic of the resource DDT industrial exposure human testing pesticide toxicology ao_seriesIII Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange Description An account of the resource <p style="margin-top: -1em; line-height: 1.2em;">The Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange comprises 120 linear feet and spans the late 1800s to 2005; however, the bulk of the coverage is from the 1960s to the 1980s and there are many undated items. The collection was donated to Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in 1985 by Dr. Alvin L. Young (1942- ). Dr. Young developed the collection as he conducted extensive research on the military defoliant Agent Orange. The collection is in good condition and includes letters, memoranda, books, reports, press releases, journal and newspaper clippings, field logs and notebooks, newsletters, maps, booklets and pamphlets, photographs, memorabilia, and audiotapes of an interview with Dr. Young.</p> <p>For more about this collection, <a href="/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/alvin-l--young-collection-on-a">view the Agent Orange Exhibit.</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Box The box containing the original item. 048 Folder The folder containing the original item. 1226 Series The series number of the original item. Series III Subseries I Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Odum, W. E. G. M. Woodwell C. F. Wurster Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Science Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource May 2 1969 Title A name given to the resource DDT Residues Absorbed from Organic Detritus by Fiddler Crabs Subject The topic of the resource aquatic animals ecological impact plant pesticide toxicology ao_seriesIII Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange Description An account of the resource <p style="margin-top: -1em; line-height: 1.2em;">The Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange comprises 120 linear feet and spans the late 1800s to 2005; however, the bulk of the coverage is from the 1960s to the 1980s and there are many undated items. The collection was donated to Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in 1985 by Dr. Alvin L. Young (1942- ). Dr. Young developed the collection as he conducted extensive research on the military defoliant Agent Orange. The collection is in good condition and includes letters, memoranda, books, reports, press releases, journal and newspaper clippings, field logs and notebooks, newsletters, maps, booklets and pamphlets, photographs, memorabilia, and audiotapes of an interview with Dr. Young.</p> <p>For more about this collection, <a href="/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/alvin-l--young-collection-on-a">view the Agent Orange Exhibit.</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Box The box containing the original item. 048 Folder The folder containing the original item. 1227 Series The series number of the original item. Series III Subseries I Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource O' Shea, Thomas J. W. James Fleming III Eugene Cromartie Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Science Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource July 25 1980 Title A name given to the resource DDT Contamination at Wheeler National Wildlife Refuge Subject The topic of the resource animal testing ecological impact waste disposal pesticide toxicology ao_seriesIII Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange Description An account of the resource <p style="margin-top: -1em; line-height: 1.2em;">The Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange comprises 120 linear feet and spans the late 1800s to 2005; however, the bulk of the coverage is from the 1960s to the 1980s and there are many undated items. The collection was donated to Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in 1985 by Dr. Alvin L. Young (1942- ). Dr. Young developed the collection as he conducted extensive research on the military defoliant Agent Orange. The collection is in good condition and includes letters, memoranda, books, reports, press releases, journal and newspaper clippings, field logs and notebooks, newsletters, maps, booklets and pamphlets, photographs, memorabilia, and audiotapes of an interview with Dr. Young.</p> <p>For more about this collection, <a href="/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/alvin-l--young-collection-on-a">view the Agent Orange Exhibit.</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Box The box containing the original item. 048 Folder The folder containing the original item. 1228 Series The series number of the original item. Series III Subseries I Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Pedersen, N. Bang J. Thormann A. Senning Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Contact Dermatitis Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1980 Title A name given to the resource Occupational Contact Allergy to bis-(4-chlorophenyl)-methyl chloride Subject The topic of the resource industrial exposure DDT human testing pesticide toxicology ao_seriesIII Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange Description An account of the resource <p style="margin-top: -1em; line-height: 1.2em;">The Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange comprises 120 linear feet and spans the late 1800s to 2005; however, the bulk of the coverage is from the 1960s to the 1980s and there are many undated items. The collection was donated to Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in 1985 by Dr. Alvin L. Young (1942- ). Dr. Young developed the collection as he conducted extensive research on the military defoliant Agent Orange. The collection is in good condition and includes letters, memoranda, books, reports, press releases, journal and newspaper clippings, field logs and notebooks, newsletters, maps, booklets and pamphlets, photographs, memorabilia, and audiotapes of an interview with Dr. Young.</p> <p>For more about this collection, <a href="/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/alvin-l--young-collection-on-a">view the Agent Orange Exhibit.</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Box The box containing the original item. 048 Folder The folder containing the original item. 1229 Series The series number of the original item. Series III Subseries I Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Quinby, Griffith E. John F. Armstrong William F. Durham Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Nature Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource August 14 1965 Title A name given to the resource DDT in Human Milk Subject The topic of the resource human testing human exposure pesticide toxicology breast milk testing ao_seriesIII Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange Description An account of the resource <p style="margin-top: -1em; line-height: 1.2em;">The Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange comprises 120 linear feet and spans the late 1800s to 2005; however, the bulk of the coverage is from the 1960s to the 1980s and there are many undated items. The collection was donated to Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in 1985 by Dr. Alvin L. Young (1942- ). Dr. Young developed the collection as he conducted extensive research on the military defoliant Agent Orange. The collection is in good condition and includes letters, memoranda, books, reports, press releases, journal and newspaper clippings, field logs and notebooks, newsletters, maps, booklets and pamphlets, photographs, memorabilia, and audiotapes of an interview with Dr. Young.</p> <p>For more about this collection, <a href="/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/alvin-l--young-collection-on-a">view the Agent Orange Exhibit.</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Box The box containing the original item. 048 Folder The folder containing the original item. 1230 Series The series number of the original item. Series III Subseries I Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Shiplov, J. C. D. Graber J. E. Keil S. H. Sandifer Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Immunological Communications Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1972 Title A name given to the resource Effect of DDT on Antibody Response to Typhoid Vaccine in Rabbits and Man Subject The topic of the resource Human testing animal testing pesticide toxicology ao_seriesIII