1 15 40 https://www.nal.usda.gov/exhibits/speccoll/files/original/a43524e853447ff25b9c6cdce1df9cc7.pdf eac9e207abbff5e41591d8b44990dc3b PDF Text Text 00172 Author CorporatG Author Kotchmar, George S,, Jr. Flame, Incendiary, and Explosives Division, Air Force Armament Laboratory, Eglin AFB, Florida Metabolism of High Concentrations of the Organophosphorus Insecticide Phorate Applied Foliariy to Selected Plant Species Journal/Book Title Year MOIltll/Day Color February n 54 Project No. 5066 Friday, January 05, 2001 Page 172 of 194 �AFATL-TR-71-22 THE METABOLISM OF HIGH CONCENTRATIONS OF THE O R G A N O P H O S P H O R U S INSECTICIDE PHORATE APPLIED FOLIARLY TO SELECTED PLANT SPECIES PYROTECHNICS BRANCH FLAME INCENDIARY, AND EXPLOSIVES DIVISION TECHNICAL REPORT AFATL-TR-71-22 F E B R U A R Y 1971 Approved for public release; distribution unlimited, AIR FORCE ARMAMENT LABORATORY AIR FOtCE SYSTIMS COMMAND • UNITED STATES AIM FORCE EGLIN AIR FORCE BASE, FLORIDA �The Metabolism of High Concentrations of the Organophosphorus Insecticide Phorate Applied Foliarly to Selected Plant Species George S. K o t c h m a r , Jr., Capt, U S A F Billy C. W o l v e r t o r t E l i z a b e t h I. Soothe Sandra M. L e f s t a d Approved for public release; distribution unlimited, �FOREWORD The active Air Force project directly related to the information discussed in this report is Exploratory Development Project 5066. Requests for further detailed information or any comments on this report may be referred to Air Force Armament Laboratory (DLI), Eglin Air Force Base, Florida 32542. Statistical analyses were performed by Booz-Allen Applied Research. The use of trade names is for identification purposes only and does not constitute endorsement by the United States Air Force. This report has been reviewed and is approved. r ^ ^ { t^ —~z—/- te FRANKIN C. p M E S w i o n e l , USAF KLI Chief, Flame, Incendiary and Explosives Division �ABSTRACT Gas chromatographic and enzymatic analyses (cholinesterase-inhibition SthSr«re used to monitor the metabolism of the organophosphorus insect dde 0,0-diethyl S-[(ethylthio)methyl] phosphorod thioate (Pforate) Ippfied fofiarly to three economically important plants (Homestead tomato, Siley sorg m" and Honey sorghum). The resulting data provided guide ines in predicting toxicity and persistence of metabo ite residues £r high ^binr^r^ei^i^ Ice d'on ass plates located adjacent to treated Plants, indicated the formation of toxic phorate metabolites was without the influence of biological substrates within the plants. There were no statisticaljy s gnificant differences with respect to the rate of increase of cholinesterl e- n ibition percentage values between the sorghum and glass plates, the rate of formation of anticholinesterase oxidized metabolites was predominantly through chemical oxidation on the leaf surface and not by K enzymecatalysis, or at least, the oxidation occurred at_such a ratfas tfmask the enzyme catalysis. The large droplet size in the application^ phorate resulted in higher toxic residue values, especially on the surface of the plant, than would normally be expected. Approved for public release; distribution unlimited. m (The reverse of this page is blank) ��TABLE OF CONTENTS Section I II Title Page INTRODUCTION 1 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES 4 MATERIALS AND METHODS 4 STATISTICAL ANALYSES 9 III RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 12 IV SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 40 REFERENCES 43 �LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 Title Page Plant Metabolism Pathway of Phorate (Based on Reference 5) 2 Horse Serum Cholinesterase Inhibition Versus Concentration of 0,0-Diethyl S-[Ethylsulfinyl)methyl] Phosphorothiolate.. 8 3 Cholinesterase Inhibition of Homestead Tomato..... 13 4 Cholinesterase Inhibition of Wiley Sorghum 14 5 Cholinesterase Inhibition of Honev Sorqhum (Phorate Applied in May) 15 6 Comparison of Percent Cholinesterase Inhibition for Three Varieties of Plants. 17 7 Percent Cholinesterase Inhibition, Homestead Tomato 19 8 Effects of Passage of Time upon Percent Cholinesterase Inhibition, Homestead Tomato 20 2 9 Percent Cholinesterase Inhibition, Wiley Sorghum 10 Percent Cholinesterase Inhibition, Honey Sorghum.. 11 Percent Chlinesterase Inhibition, Wiley and Honey Sorghum.. 23 12 Effects of Passage of Time Upon Percent Cholinesterase Inhibition, Wiley Sorghum(March) and Honey Sorghum(April).. 24 13 Percent Cholinesterase Inhibition, Wiley and Honey Sorghum (May) 26 Effects of Passage of Time Upon Percent Cholinesterase Inhibition, Wiley and Honey Sorghum (May) 27 14 21 22 15 Percent Cholinesterase Inhibition, Glass Plates 16 Comparison of Percentage Cholinesterase Inhibition for Glass Plates and Wiley Sorghum 33 Comparison of Percentage Cholinesterase Inhibition for Gl ass PI ates and Honey Sorghum 34 17 VI 32 �LIST OF TABLES Table I II III Title Page Plant Parameters Employed With High Concentrations of Phorate. 5 Efficiency of Extraction Technique for Phorate With Tomato and Sorghum 6 Measurement Days by Species and Experiment. 10 IV Gas Chromatographic Analysis for Phorate From Tomato and Sorghum. ,,. V Average Percent Cholinesterase Inhibition, Homestead Tomato 12 VI VII VIII IX Average Percent Cholinesterase Inhibition, Wiley Sorghum (March) and Honey Sorghum (April). Average Percent Cholinesterase Inhibition, Wiley and Honey Sorghum (May). Gas Chromatographic Analysis for Phorate from Glass Plates and Sorghum. " ?R ^ *' Persistence of Phorate Oxygen Analog Sulfoxide Equivalent in Sorghum. ™ vii (The reverse of this page is blank) ��SECTION I INTRODUCTION The research reported in this study constitutes part of a program to elucidate toxicological and ecological hazards associated with repetitive aerial applications and spills of organophosphorus insecticides. Toxicological hazards may exist in plant foliage even after environmental persistence studies determine the absence or safe level of the parent insecticide. These hazards result from the conversion of the parent insecticide to toxic oxidized metabolites. The rate of this conversion determines the nature and magnitude of the toxic residues in the plant tissues. The use of organophosphorus insecticides is increasing because of their wide spectrum of effectiveness (comparable to the chlorinated hydrocarbons) and their short residual action in water, soils, and plants. Any accident involving ultra-low-volume formulations of insecticides could result in a per-unit-area concentration that would be detrimental to agronomic plants because of unacceptable residue levels. For this reason, data relating the tolerance of agronomic plants to repetitive aerial applications of ultra-low-volume formulations of organophosphorus insecticides are of interest to military pest control programs. Guidelines were desired for predicting toxicity and persistence of metabolite residues in plants after application of high concentrations of the insecticide. Insecticides in or under considerations for the Air Force inventory include malathion (dithiophosphoric derivative), naled (phosphoric acid derivative), fenthion (thiophosphoric acid derivative with sulfide linkage), and Dursban^(thiophosphoric acid derivative). Phorate, 0,0-diethyl S-[(ethylthio) methyl] phosphorodithioate, was the insecticide selected because it is a model compound containing oxidation sites analogous to those found in sulfur-containing organophosphorus insecticides. Its toxicity, expressed as an oral 105^ value, is more tnan 100 times as great as the most toxic insecticide presently used by the militaryO). Thus, persistence data on toxic metabloties of phorate should provide a model system of maximum toxic residues on foliage wnich should be unapproachable for insecticides presently used by the military wnen applied at the same concentration. Furthermore, previous studies^' ^» "> ^J have elucidated the plant metabolism pathway (Figure 1) of the insecticide along with solvent-partitioning functions of phorate and its metabolites(2, 4). Conclusive research data are not available concerning insecticide pnytotoxicity; however, it is known tnat plant species exhibit a wide range of tolerance to applications of organophosphorus insecticides ^»'t. 1 �(CH3CH20)PSCH2SCH2CH3 S 0 (CH3CH20)2PSCH2SCH2CH3 0 ^^ II I *r (CH3CH20)2PSCH2SCH2CH3 N. 0 0 X 11 * (CH3CH20)2PSCH2SCH2CH3 (CH3CH20)2PSCH2SCH2CH3 Figure 1. Plant Metabolism Pathway of Phorate (Based on Reference 5} The basis for this phytotoxic resistance or susceptibility is not clear. The experimental procedure used in this study allowed an investigation into the role performed by individual plant chemistries in metabolizing organophosphorus insecticides. Studies of the morphological effects caused by highly concentrated foliar applications of mevinphos and methyl demeton on selected plant species indicated that, in general, brpadleaf plants were more susceptible to the insecticides than were grasses^ 7 /. Severe morphological injuries were observed on soybean, cotton, and tomato plants one day after foliar treatment, w h i l e seven days were required before comparable injuries were noted on corn and sorghum. Coleman and Dean^°' found that resistance of sorghum to methyl parathion was genetically controlled in their studies with a resistant and a susceptible variety, Wiley and Honey, respectively. Thus, differential phytotoxicity to organophosphorus insecticides can be expected between plant species as well as w i t h i n a given species. Differences do occur in the rates of metabolism of insecticides in different plant species. A study^) of the plant metabolism of Di-Syston® (dithioSystoxdD) and phorate indicated that the rates of a reaction may vary slightly from one plant species to another and according to the stage of growth, but the data obtained may be used as a guide to the relative proportions of the metabolites present at intervals after application. In �another study w y the effects of temperature and plant species upon the rates of metabolism of systemically applied Di-Syston®were considered, and s i m i l a r results were obtained. Phorate differs from Di-Syston® due to the presence of an ethylene rather than a methylene group in its side chain. Thus, this study attempted to relate the metabolism of the insecticide to phytotoxic damage among plant species and within a plant species. Oxidation can increase both the water solubility and the anticholinesterase activity of organophosphorus insecticides^"'. The logical approach for monitoring anticholinesterase compounds (toxic phosphorus esters) formed during the metabolism of phorate was a cholinesterasei n h i b i t i o n method. Phorate alone is too weak an inhibitor to be detected in micro amounts, but when applied to plants, it is very rapidly converted to potent anticholinesterase agents. The final unhydrolyzed metabolite (phorate oxygen analog sulfone) in the oxidation series (Figure 1) is the most active i n h i b i t o r ' ^ ' . The 150 value (molarity of i n h i b i t o r which results in 50 percent of the activity of the control) of phorate is approximately 250 times that of the phorate oxygen analog s u l f o n e ' ^ ) . One day after the application of phorate to corn, the residue of phorate sulfoxide, which has an 159 value approximately 1/100 that of phorate, was more than three times that of phorate^. �SECTION II EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES 1. MATERIALS AND METHODS a. Apparatus. A Son/all Omni-mixer^ was used for macerating plants. A gas chromotograph equipped with a flame photometric phosphorus detector and a digital integrator was employed in the phorate analyses. A recording pH stat was used to determine cholinesterase activity. b. Reagents and Solvents. Standards, supplied by the American Cyanamid Company, were technical grade phorate (Thimet® ) of 90-percent purity, analytical grade phorate of 97.8-percent purity, and 94-percent phorate oxygen analog sulfoxide containing 6-percent phorated oxygen analog sulfone. Reagents were anhydrous sodium sulfate, certified A . C . S . ; acetylcholine perchlorate (a "rare and fine" chemical from K and K Laboratories, Inc.); sterile filtered horse serum (Colorado Serum Co.); sodium chloride (crystals), analytical reagent grade; sodium chloride (granular), U.S.P. grade; sodium hydroxide pellets, analytical reagent grade; and potassium hydrogen phthalate, certified A.C.S. acidimetric standard. Solvents were certified A.C.S, acetone, certified A.C.S. hexanes, and vegetable oil. c. Plant Parameters. The representative broadleaf plant selected was Lycopersicon esculenturn mill, var. Homestead 24 (tomato), and the grasses were Sorghum vulgare Pers. var. Wiley (sorghum), and Sorghum vulgare Pers. var. Honey (sorghum). The two varieties of sorghum were selected to represent a variety (Wiley) that was resistant to an organophosphorus insecticide and one (Honey) that was susceptible. The plants were grown in a clear glass greenhouse with a minimum night temperature of 60° to 65°F and a maximum day temperature of 95° to 100°F. Seeds were planted in a soil consisting of a 7:3:1 mixture of sandy loam, peatmoss, and perlite with four pounds of dolomitic limestone and one pound of superphosphate added per cubic yard of soil. The pH of the soil was 6.5. Each tomato plant was transplanted to an individual four-inch plastic pot at the age of four weeks. The sorghum experimental unit consisted of 10 plants per four-inch plastic pot. A 15-15-15 liquid fertilizer was applied bi-weekly. A 2 percent or 1 percent solution of phorate (0.2 milliliter or 0.1 milliliter of technical grade phorate dissolved in 10 mi Hi liters of vegetable oil medium) was applied foliarly as 0.01 milliliter droplets with microsyringe to the tomato and sorghum at the concentrations shown in Table I. This procedure allowed a uniform and exact application to all �TABLE I. PLANT PARAMETERS EMPLOYED WITH HIGH CONCENTRATIONS OF PHORATE Species Age, Weeks Homestead Tomato Date of Application 8 August1969 19 November 1969 Phorate, Concentration, pprrr lb/Ab 19,839 16,630 2.19 1.84 Wiley Sorghum 4 3 2 March 1970 20 May 1970 8,753 (c) 1.26 (c) Honey Sorghum 4 3 8 April 1970 20 May 1970 8,461 (d) 1.22 (d) Concentration of phorate solution based on gas chromatographic analysis with analytical grade phorate. "Concentration applied to plant based on leaf area (pounds of active ingredient per acre). c Same concentration applied as 2 March 1970, but no gas chromatographic analysis. "Same concentration applied as 8 April 1970, but no gas chromatographic analysis. the plants. The levels of phorate applied were adjusted to the maximum amount that would result in minimal visible damage. To insure similarity in plant size at each application, the phorate was applied after three to six weeks of initial plant growth. The varying lengths of time between planting and insecticide application were to compensate for seasonal variation in plant growth. Table I shows the age of the plants with the date of application of phorate. During the March (Wiley sorghum) and April (Honey sorghum) portions of the experiment, the phorate in the vegetable oil medium was applied to glass plates located adjacent to the treated and control plants. d. Extraction Technique. The plants to be sampled were severed at soil level, sectioned, and rinsed in a 400-milliliter beaker containing 25 mi 11 iliters of hexanes and 25 mi Hi liters of acetone in distilled water (60 percent by volume) to remove any residues remaining on the plant surface. The solvent mixture, followed with the plant material, was poured into a cup for the Sorvall Omni-mixer®. The beaker was rinsed with 5 mi 11iliters of hexanes and then by 5 mi 11iliters of acetone in distilled water (60 percent by volume). After the plant material was thoroughly macerated, the macerate was filtered through three layers of 5 �cheesecloth into a separatory funnel. The cup which had contained the macerate was rinsed with 10 milliliters of hexanes and then by 10 millilitars of acetone in distilled water (60 percent by volume). The rinsings were added to the separatory funnel followed by 15 milliliters of a saturated sodium chloride solution which aided in separating the organic and aqueous phases. Acetone was removed from the aqueous layer by use of a rotary evaporator attached to a water aspirator. Complete removal of the acetone was essential because of its ability to inhibit cholinesterase. The aqueous layer was filtered (to remove minute pieces of plant material) through Whatman No. 2 paper into a 50-mi Hi liter volumetric flask and brought to volume with distilled water. The organic phase was placed over 10 grams of anhydrous sodium sulfate, filtered into a 50-mi11iliter volumetric flask, and brought to volume with hexanes. If the samples could not be analyzed immediately, they were stored at 5°C. The aqueous layer was analyzed for cholinesterase-inhibiting metabolites and breakdown products. Gas chromatographic analysis of the organic phase for phorate allowed monitoring of the rapidity of breakdown and oxidation. The efficiency of the extraction technique, based on the recovery of phorate in the organic phase, is shown in Table II. TABLE II. EFFICIENCY OF EXTRACTION TECHNIQUE FOR PHORATE WITH TOMATO AND SORGHUM Species Date of Experiment Homestead Tomato August November Wiley Sorghum March Honey Sorghum Apri 1 Efficiency of Extraction, Percent Controls3 Insecticide-Treated Plants^ 3 3 66.2 87.7 32.4 63.2 63.3) [ Qla ss 75.9) pla tesc 46.7 51 .7 ^Concentration of phorate applied to plant placed through extraction scheme. b Phorate-treated plants from day 0 placed through extraction scheme. c Glass surface residues from day 0 placed through extraction scheme. e. Cholinesterase-Inhibition Method. The advantages of using cholinesterase-inhibition methods for determining organophosphorus residues are that (a) the sensitivity is far greater than for chemical methods and (b) the method is particularly suitable when the insecticide undergoes 6 �changes in the plant to produce metabolites with a high inhibitory activity(10,11}_ One of the disadvantages is the lack of specificity or inability to distinguish among different types of cholinesterase inhibitors found within the plant. The persistency of toxic metabolites and breakdown products in the respective plant species was monitored using an automated pH stat method(12) to determine cholinesterase activity. The cholinesterase inhibition for each species and glass plate sample was measured immediately after the application of the insecticide and on various succeeding days for one month. Control plants were treated with only the corresponding amounts of vegetable oil and were similarly measured. The experiment was repeated for each species. The cholinesterase activity of the prepared water sample was recorded with a recording pH stat. A sample (0.2 milliliter tomato or 0.4 milliliter sorghum sample) was placed in a microbeaker containing 5 milliliters of a 0.154-molar saline solution (9.000 grams of analytical reagent grade sodium chloride in 1000 mi Hi liters distilled water) and 0.5 milliliter horse serum. The microbeaker solution was heated to 37.5°C and adjusted to pH 8.0 prior to addition of 0.3 milliliter of the cholinesterase enzyme substrate, 0.110-molar acetylcholine perch!orate (0.675 grams crystalline substrate in 10 milliliters distilled water). The titrant, 0.0100N sodium hydroxide.was standardized with 0.0100N potassium acid phthalate (0.20423 grams acid in 1000 milliliters distilled water). Normal-activity curves (no samples added) and control-activity curves (aqueous samples from control plants) were obtained prior to measuring cholinesterase activity for the aqueous samples from phoratetreated plants. Cholinesterase inhibition of the phorate metabolites and breakdown products was expressed as a percentage value obtained from a ratio of cholinesterase activity (expressed in units of micromoles of acetylcholine hydrolyzed per minute per milliliter of horse serum) of the samples from the phorate-treated plants to samples from the control plants. A second percentage of cholinesterase inhibition was calculated using the normal activity value as the base. f. Calibration Curve. To equate the percentage of cholinesterase inhibition to the concentration of the metabolite extract, a log-linear plot was made of the phorate oxygen analog sulfoxide equivalent, in parts per million (ppm) of 0,0-diethyl S-[(ethylsulfinyl) methyl] phosphorothiolate, versus the percentage of cholinesterase inhibition. Figure 2 contains the calibration curve based on 0.4 milliliter samples of the standard parts-per-million solutions of the phorate oxygen analog sulfoxide. Sample sizes of 0.2 milliliter gave cholinesterase inhibition percentages that were approximately half the values shown in Figure 2. �109 a 76 5 4 uu Ci I—I X o u. 2- co .9- uu 1 !?• .6.5.4- .3.2- JO- 20 Figure 2. 30 50 60 HORSE SERUM CHOIIMESTERASE INHIBITION (PERCENT) Horse Serum Cholinesterase Inhibition Versus Concentration of 0,0»Diethyl S-[(Ethylsulfinyl)methyl] Phosphorothiolate �g. Gas Chromatographic Analysis. Gas chromatography was used to detect unaltered phorate in the organic phase from the plant extracts. A gas chromatograph equipped with a flame photometric phosphorus detector was employed. A six foot by one-fourth inch stainless steel column containing Chromport X X X , 80/90 mesh, coated with 3 percent SE-30, and conditioned for 24 hours at 220°C, was used for the phorate analysis of the August tomato extracts. A retention time of 105 seconds was recorded with the inlet temperature set at 250°C, the column-oven temperature at 200°C, and the detector temperature at 235°C. Gas flow rates in cubic centimeters per minute were nitrogen 80, hydrogen 150, air 20, and oxygen 20. A six foot by one-fourth inch glass column containing Chromosorb id , 80/90 mesh, coated with 3 percent QV-1 and conditioned for 24 hours at 210°C was used for the phorate analysis of the November tomato extracts, March Wiley sorghum extracts, April Honey sorghum extracts, and glass plates. A retention time of 130 seconds was recorded with the inlet temperature set at 245°C, the column-oven temperature at 190°C, and the detector temperature at 185°C. Injection sample sizes 1 for August tomato extracts were 5 microliters, and all others were 2.7 microliters. Concentrations of phorate present in the August analysis were determined by integration of peak area by a digital integrator. Concentrations of all other analyses were determined by peak height. All determinations were expressed in parts per million based on standard curves. 2. STATISTICAL ANALYSES. Before any of the data were analyzed, all of the cholinesterase inhibition percentages were transformed using the arc sine formula: 8 = 2 arcsin P where 6 is the new variable to be analyzed and P is the percent of cholinesterase inhibition divided by 100. Tnis transformation minimized and stabilized the variation of the data and created the homogeneity of variance that was essential to the use of the analysis of variance technique, and the other statistical procedures used for the analysis of these experiments. The results were stated in percentage notations for presentation throughout the report. It was not possiole to analyze all of the cholinesterase inhibition percentages on an experiment-wide basis because the measurements of the three experimental species were taken on various and differing days �during the month following application of the insecticide. To make comparisons that were valid and meaningful, it was necessary to select those days on which all species under consideration were measured. Table III shows the days of measurement for each species. During the first week TABLE III. HEASUREMENT DAYS BY SPECIES AND EXPERIMENT Days After Application 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 25 26 27 Homestead Tomato August November X X X X X X Wiley Sorghum March May Honey Sorghum April May X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X following application of the insecticide, only those measurements that were made on the same day were compared; during the next three weeks, measurements that were made on contiguous days were also included in the comparison. 10 �Only one measurement of cholinesterase inhibition was made on each of the days for the Homestead tomato experiments and for the March and April Wiley and Honey sorghum experiments. It was not possible, therefore, to test for significance of the interaction between seasonal effects and the number of days following application. Since this interaction would have been used to test the seasonal and time-passage effects individually, an unduly large interaction would have masked significance of the main effects, Paired t-tests with the same or contiguous days' results were used to circumvent this possibility. When nonsignificance of the paired values was determined, an analysis-of-variance technique was used to test for significance of the passage of time upon the cholinesterase-inhibition percentage. In those cases in which these results were significant, Duncan's new multiple range test was used to identify where the differences did, in fact, exist. In the absence of significance, means were computed, and the effects of the passage of time upon the cholinesterase inhibition were studied. Two replicates of measurements were made for the May Wiley and Honey sorghum plants, and it was, therefore, possible to use the analysis of variance technique when only these data were involved in comparisons. Initially, all testing was conducted at the 95-percent probability level (significant). When this proved significant, subsequent testing was conducted at the 99-percent probability level (highly significant). 11 �SECTION III RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Ultra-low-volume formulations of insecticides used by the military involve the aerial application of a low-volume concentrate (0.75 to 10 ounces per acre, undiluted). Phorate is applied with normal formulations at rates of 0.5 to 3 pounds of active ingredient per acre. Table I presents the application rates within this range. However, the defined, directed application of phorate to the leaf surface without spraying resulted in a maximum interface between insecticide droplet (10 microliters) and leaf area. This large droplet size represented the application of high concentrations of phorate; the droplet contained more phorate (0.25 milligram) and is larger than that ordinarily found following routine application of insecticides. The optimum3 diameter for insecticide spray droplets is in the range of 20 microns'' '. The percentages representing the efficiency of the extraction technique employed (Table II) are minimum values because of the volatility of phorate. Phorate is lost from the soil by volatilization and about 25 percent of the loss occurs in the first hour after treatment^'^/. Similar results would be expected on the leaf surface, therefore, the length of time between treatment and initial extraction of the plant would result in a value of phorate present that is slightly less than that which was applied. The time before initial extraction was approximately the same in all cases; however, the extraction of the August tomato after application of phorate during the late morning heat probably accounts to some degree for the lower value in extraction efficiency. Phorate was applied to the other plants in the early morning. A comparison of the percentage of cholinesterase inhibition obtained using the normal-activity value and the percentage obtained using the control-activity value as a base is shown in Figures 3 and 4 for Homestead tomatoes and for Wiley sorghum for each of the two applications of insecticide. A comparison for Honey sorghum is shown in Figure 5 for the May application; however, the April control plants were not usable due to contamination. The results of paired t-tests in analyzing the differences between percentages for each species allowed the use of all the cholinesterase-inhibition percentages based on the normal activity value. Cholinesterase-inhibition values obtained showed no correlation with plant weight. A comparison of the percentages of cholinesterase inhibition during the month following application of the insecticide for each of the three plants, using the analysis of variance technique, indicated that the average for the Homestead tomato was significantly lower than those for 12 �/D fe CJ 50 - uj ex. O t~~t K h~, — UJ -J < nr .? j ( fc to o t~t GO 2:. uj t ^ —c > ---* rf t,^ »/ '• .• " « • ' lc b UJ CO '-=C CJ fti K UJ •< r™"- ••—— • 0 U o^ UJ -5 • CONTROL 25 § O NORMAL 1 I I § o 1 0 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 4 6 S 10 12 14 U U 20 22 1 1 24 26 21 TIME FROM APPLICATION WS) a. _ Phorate Applied in August 75 iUj | — 50 C±- 8 r^ 0 ft S^ A«s UJ UJ S oo t-i S^ uu o 0 8 • >-~< UJ m ° 8 8 0 8 — h- Oi c/) -< UJ •—• 3: o j. -25 • CONTROL 1 0. I I I I 1 1 1 2 4 6 6 10 12 14 U O NORMAL I 1 1 18 20 22 1 I 24 26 TIME FROM APPLICATION [VMS] b. Phorate Applied _in November Figure 3. Cholinesterase Inhibition of Homestead Tomato 13 2B �/p s- § • A UJ CJ c* 50 UJ O UJ »—1 —1 - » § • 8 » o 8 25 e CO V) ^— 1 1 1 ?5 t—< CO UJ 5ur§ 5t CO CJ tf <c UJ — n U to UJ t—1 —1 • CONTROL -5 — O NORMAL o CJ 1 1 1 1 1 1 f I 6 -25 i 1 1 1 1 « /O 12 14 16 H 20 TIME FROM APPLICATION (PAKS) 22 24 26 28 1 26 21 a. Phorate Applied in March /5 * 8i | 0- O UJ t—t —J \~ •< 50 8 • 8 * ' o • 881$ 8 » 8 UJ o e* UJ 25 t-i CJ CO CO b-< 1—t UJ W "<t UJ •— 1- UJ t—< —1 o 5 — '.r • CONTROL -5( 3: o O NORMAL i ^c 0 i 2 4 i 6 1 B 1 10 1 12 1 14 1 16 1 U 1 20 1 22 1 24 TIME FROM APPLICATION b. Phorate Applied in May Figure 4. Cholinesterase Inhibition of Wiley Sorghum 14 �72 !s UJ 75 ^* o CM UJ (X "~" 50 — 25 i ii o S 8 * • ^k ^k ^ ^fc. - 8 O t—1 — PQ •< 8 8 •t ^2 "» 8 ^h t—t CJ (-1 UJ UJ *-< C/) C/) 5 - So UJ CM UJ t—t —4 O -C o 0 _ 1 * CONTROL O WORMAL I 1 1 i I t I i I i t i I g 10 12 J4 76 JS 20 22 24 26 28 TIME FROM APPLICATIOW (PA^S) Figure 5. Cholinesterase Inhibition of Honey Sorghum (Phorate Applied in May) 15 �the two varieties of sorghum. Figure 6 shows the inhibition percentage values for each of the three plants; the lower level for the tomato plants is evident. Therefore, for statistical purposes, data from the tomato plant experiments were analyzed independent of the sorghum data. Gas chromatographic analysis of the hexanes phase after extraction from tomato and sorghum indicated less than one ppm phorate present by the sixth day (Table IV). A determination of residues of-phorate and five of its netab- TABLE IV. GAS CHROMATOGRAPHIC ANALYSIS FOR PHORATE FROM TOMATO AND SORGHUM Day Tomato August November Concentration of Phorate, ppm Sorq lum March (Wiley) April (Honey) 0 128 42 16 18 1 140 34 9-12 9 28 6-7 5-6 9 <3 1 2 3 23 4 <1 5 4 6 1 <1 elites from various parts of corn plants (treated with one pound of the.insecticide per acre) indicated that phorate was essentially gone in 14 days(4). During this determination, phorate was recovered from fortified samples with 96 percent efficiency using a Soxhlet apparatus in an eight-hour extraction technique. The higher values of phorate in the August tomato samples, as compared to the November samples, were due to the concentration of the sample to 10 milliliters instead of the 50-milliliter final volume of all other samples. Small differences in the data are probably due to the slight variations in extraction efficiencies for each plant. The disappearance of phorate proceeds at approximately the same rate in each plant variety. 16 �75 A D A A 9 50 — O 9 • o A D nc '--' O g «-< o _ =5 °° 0 • * A | > • UjS C/) CO UJ CM ^ A H * • o 00 — D A UJ (X *vl S UJ Q A UJ PuJ t—< —J CO •< n A 1 P * (* ^9 r 5 0 o o —1 o o 0 - HOMESTEAD TOMATO , 0 1 2 i 1 4 i | 6 i 1 8 O.VO I/EMBER WILE/ SORGHUM I3 •AUGUST * MARCH ^ MA/ HO/JE/ SORGHUM i 1 i 1 i 10 12 • APRIL 1 i 1 14 16 D MA/ t 1 20 i 1 IS i TIME FROM APPLICATIO/V (3A/S) Figure 6. Comparison of Percent Cholinesterase Inhibition for Three Varieties of Plants 1 22 i | 24 I 2< �The results of a cholinesterase-inhibition analysis for the Homestead tomato plants for all of the days measured for the August and November applications of insecticide are shown in Figure 7. An analysis of comparable daily measurements in August and November indicated no significant differences between the two application dates or by the number of days after application. The average percentages of cholinesterase inhibition for the days used in the comparison are given in Table V and Figure 8 and are not significantly different at the 95 percent probability level. TABLE V. AVERAGE PERCENT CHOLINESTERASE INHIBITION, HOMESTEAD TOMATO Days After Application Cholinesterase Inhibition, Percent 21,22 27.1 6 24.4 12,13 23.9 4 21.4 9,10 15.9 1 12.4 0 11.3 Figures 9 and 10 show the percentages of cholinesterase inhibition for Wiley and Honey sorghum, respectively. Analyses of the possible daily comparisons for each variety indicated significant differences between the March and May data for the Wiley sorghum and highly significant differences between the April and May data for the Honey sorghum. Similar analyses of those cholinesterase-inhibition percentages which were obtained on the same or contiguous days for Wiley sorghum in March and Honey sorghum in April indicated no significant differences between the two varieties for those two months (Figure 11). An analysis of the differences in cholinesterase-inhibition percentages with respect to the number of days after application of phorate to sorghum during March and April indicated highly significant differences. Table VI shows average daily percentages. In Figure 12, the average values with associated letters are shown graphically. The cholinesterase-inhibition percentage peak was reached by the ninth day following application of phorate, and an 18 �14J C_> {* U-i o « I4J CO O *-» CO U3 2 UU UJ •< CO UJ o o AUGUST APPLICATIOM WOI/&MBER APPLICATION 70 72 74 16 18 TIME FROM APPLICATION (VAVS) Figure 7. Percent Cholinesterase Inhibition, Homestead Tomato O �75 UJ UJ PL. \~ UJ CO t— t\3 25 UJ O )—< UJ CO •<C C_> UJ •< UJ a: «—< —i o » -5 10 n TIME FROM APPLICATION Figure 8. H 14 (VMS) 20 Effects of Passage of Time Upon Percent Cholinesterase Inhibition, Homestead Tomato 24 26 �uj UJ h- UJ t~> —J CQ • < t~< O UJ V) uj »oo O UJ MARCH APPLICATION • APPLICATIOW JO 72 H 16 TIME FROM APPLICATION (VAVS] Figure 9, Percent Cholinesterase Inhibition, Wiley Sorqhum O �fe UJ o Be: UJ R- CQ ™ UJ2 APRIL APPLICATIOW MAV APPLICATION Figure 10. O TIME FROM APPLICATION {DAYS} Percent Cholinesterase I n h i b i t i o n , Honey Sorghum �95 WILEV SORGHUM MARCH APPLICATION HOWE/ SORGHUM APRIL APPLICATION O -25 10 72 14 U TIME FROM APPLICATION (PA/S) Figure 11. Percent Cholinesterase Inhibition, Wiley and Honey Sorghum �Cxi UJ R- 1- UJ 1-1 •—I CO •< l-« CJ K CJ UJ C* V- < TIME FROM APPLICATION Figure 12. Effects of Passage of Time Upon Percent Cholinesterase Inhibition, Wiley Sorghum (March) and Honey Sorghum (April) �average peak level of 63.9 percent Inhibition was maintained until the eighteenth to twenty-first day, when it began decreasing. By the twentythird to twenty-fifth day it had decreased to 31.5 percent. TABLE VI. Days After Application AVERAGE PERCENT CHOLINESTERASE INHIBITION, WILEY SORGHUM (MARCH) AND HONEY SORGHUM (APRIL) Cholinesterase Inhibition , Percent Remarks (Common letter indicates no significant difference at 99-percent Probability Level) 11 67.9 a 16,18 62.5 ab 9 61.1 ab 14 51.0 be 4 49.1 be 7 49.0 be 21,20 42.1 c 25,23 31.5 d 2 18.5 e 0 10.2 e 1 9.8 e Figure 13 shows the percentages of cholinesterase inhibition for Wiley and Honey sorghum on various days during May. The analysis indicated highly significant differences only with respect to the number of days after application; neither the species of sorghum nor the species/day interaction yielded results which indicated any significant effect. The average percentages for the various days after application are shown in Table VII. All averages that are not significantly different at the 99 percent probability level have a common letter. In Figure 14, the average values with associated letters are shown graphically. May Wiley and Honey sorghum plants reached a peak percentage 25 �o H- Uj CQ < 5: <s> 2: t-t UU li? Lu a: Ol l-t UU o WILE/ SORGHUM O WNEV SORGHUM n u TIME FROM APPLICATION Figure 13. Percent Cholinesterase Inhibition, Wiley and Honey Sorghum (May) �UJ (X o l— ul t-i ~j B3 • < »—* O r\> i60 >-' ty uj Si UU Oi h- •< o o -5 1 I I 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 n 1 1 1 1 n 1 1 1 i 20 1 1 1 1 24 TIME FROM APPLICATION (PAW) Figure 14. Effects of Passage of Time Upon Percent Cholinesterase Inhibition, Wiley and Honey Sorghum (May) 1 1 26 1 �of cholinesterase inhibition by the fourth day and maintained an average peak level of 64.5 percent for the remainder of the month. TABLE VII. AVERAGE PERCENT CHOLINESTERASE INHIBITION, WILEY AND HONEY SORGHUM (MAY) Days After Application Cholinesterase Inhibition, Percent Remarks (Common letter indicates no significant difference at 99-percent Probability Level ) 14 68.8 a 12 68.7 a 8 65.2 a 7 65.1 a 19 64.5 a 4 64.0 a 5 63.1 a 16 60.6 a 21 60.4 a 2 28.9 b 0 -1.5 c With no significant differences existing between the two varieties of sorghum in May or during continuous experiments in March and April, it appeared that the metabolism of high concentrations of phorate proceeded at the same rate in each variety; however, distinct visible differences occurred between the two plant varieties. Despite slight initial visible damage, both sorghum and tomato recovered from insecticide damage within 30 days of treatment. The preliminary data did show, however, that neither variety of sorghum recovered from insecticide damage when exposed to the same concentration of phorate as was used on the tomato plants. This is indicative of the 28 �effects of a high concentration of phorate due to the large droplet size, since any visible damage at the rates used in this experiment would not be expected. With the tomato, minor c u r l i n g of the leaves was observed and many plants had a loss of apical dominance indicating that possibly, at the concentrations of phorate used, there was a change in the auxin content or hormonal distribution w i t h i n the plant. The first injury symptoms for both sorghum varieties were characterized by a localized bleaching of the blade pigments ( i . e . , chlorophyll) to a yellow-green coloration with a s l i g h t l y flaccid condition. These necrotic blotches were more distinct with Honey sorghum as they acquired a red-brown coloration. This characteristic color difference was apparent in the aqueous samples, as Honey samples were much darker than those of Wiley. The flaccid condition was more evident with Honey sorghum. The more v i s i b l e damage to sorghum compared to tomato in preliminary experiments, with both exposed to the same concentration of phorate, may appear to contradict the research reported in Reference 7. However, that report notes that (a) conclusions regarding the possible effects of organophosphorus insecticides, except mevinphos and methyl demeton, could not be made since the experiment was a fixed-effects model and not a random selection of possible organophosphorus insecticides; and (b) differences in plant response (susceptibility or resistance) could be accounted for by a postulation that differences may be related to leaf area interception of the insecticide. The reason for existing differences between March/April and May sorghum can only be postulated. Peak percentages of cholinesterase i n h i bition by the fourth day (64.5 percent) in May versus the n i n t h day (63.9 percent) in March/April indicate a more rapid oxidation of phorate to anticholinesterase metabolites. A s i g n i f i c a n t factor may be the relatively higher mean temperatures in May. In an evaluation of the effects of environmental temperature on Di-Syston©systemically applied to cotton leaves, the oxidation of the s u l f i d e , Di-Syston®, to the sulfoxide occurred so rapidly at temperatures above 70°F that only traces could be detected, even at intervals as short as one hour after treatment'**) The major^component in the leaves during the one-week experiment was the Di-Syston®sulfoxide. The rate of disappearance of sulfoxide was increased approximately 1.86 times for each 10°C rise in temperature (energy of activation of 10 kcal/mole). The i n i t i a l oxidation of phorate in cotton leaves was less rapid than the oxidation of Di-Syston®with traces of phorate found up to three days, although these never.exceeded 5 percent of the total radioactivity in the labeled experiment'^). It was also noted^ that the rate of oxidation of the sulfoxides in the oxidation series (Figure 1) was measurably slower for phorate than for Di-Syston® The sum of the rate constants for the disappearance of phorate sulfoxide due to oxidation is h a l f that of Di-Syston®sulfoxide. This indicates that phorate sulfoxide was probably the major metabolite during the first two weeks of this investigation. Also, when a l f a l f a seed was treated with 29 �treated with phorate or Di-Systorr% the effectiveness for aphid control varied by as much as several weeks depending on the rate of plant grow The rate of metabolism is slower in cooler weather, and the slower the plant growth, the longer the persistence of toxic residues. Tomato behaved similarly to the May sorghum. Tomato maintained a mean percentage value of 19.5 throughout the experiment; sorghum maintained a constant mean value throughout the month after, the third day. Thus, the results indicated that the metabolism of high concentrations of phorate proceeded at approximately the same rate in each species and between plant varieties. These results were not in complete harmony with those from earlier experiments. In previous metabolism studies of phorate and Di-Syston®on various plants such as cotton, alfalfa, lemon, and bean, it was found that the rates of reaction may be expected to vary slightly among pjant species and according to the stage of growth^). Later,, studies\°' specifically oriented toward the metabolism of Di-Syston^in a * variety of plant species, indicated that at 70°F, the metabolism of Di-Syston sulfoxide and hydrolytic decomposition of the toxic products occurred two to three times faster in tomato leaves than in cotton leaves. Differences in results and insecticide application parameters indicated the experimental data resulted from the chemical nature of phorate on the plant surface without the influence of biological substrates. Application methods^ 5 > included topical application of 5 to 25 microliters of insecticide to the base of a young plant or placement of isolated leaves in a water dispersion (0.1 percent solution) of the insecticide to permit the study of the rates of metabolism uncomplicated by the continual accumulation of translocated material. The method of application used in this work was foliar with a definite quantity of phorate aoplied as larae droplets to each intact plant. An earlier study' '^/ with Systox^(similar to phorate in structure) showed that the chemical nature of the surface washes from fruit treated with thiono- and thiolo-isomers changed rapidly upon exposure to light and air. Exposure of the isomers to light and air under controlled conditions on glass plates, uncomplicated by biological substrates, resulted in a surprisingly rapid conversion of the Systox®isomers into compounds which appeared to be chromatographically similar to those found within the plant tissues. Another study'''' showed that the action of air and sunlight on surface residues of Systox®isomers has a rapid effect and appears to promote their oxidation in the same sequence as found in vitro with hydrogen peroxide and in plant tissues. Thin films of phorate exposed to ultraviolet light or sunlight and air gave similar results^» ^8, 19, 20) ^ Exposure to sunlight on paper, glass, and leaf surfaces indicated that the initial stable residues of phorate may not be the original compound or its simple oxidation products; prolonged exposure resulted in the formation of more polar compounds^' 0 '. Results of ultra- 30 �violet irradiation of phorate on the surface of a liquid suggested that the oxidation products are the sulfoxide and sulfone of the parent compound, with the sulfone showing greater persistency and the s p]foxide being in greater quantity during the early stages of irradiation''^» ^0). To substantiate the concept that the experimental results in these investigations were without the influence of biological substrates within the plants, the same concentrations of phorate were applied to glass plates as were applied to the treated plants. The glass plates were located on the greenhouse bench adjacent to the control and treated plants. This was done with Wiley and Honey sorghum, in March and April, respectively, Table VIII shows a comparison of the gas chromatographic data for the plants and glass plates. Within 48 hours, phorate could no longer be detected on the glass plates; the same rapid disappearance was noted with the plants—approximately one ppm detected after 96 hours. TABLE VIII. GAS CHROMATOGRAPHIC ANALYSIS FOR PHORATE FROM GLASS PLATES AND SORGHUM Day Phorate Concentration, ppm March Aoril Wiley Sorghum Glass Plates Honey Sorghum Glass Plates 0 16 22 18 26 1 9-12 5-6 9 5 2 6-7 5-6 4 <3 1 <1 6 The cholinesterase-inhibition percentages obtained from the glass plates for the March and April experiments (Figure 15) were compared with the values obtained for the treated plants (Figure 11). The plots are very similar, with the glass plate cholinesterase-inhibition values being significantly higher on all days considered. However, most noteworthy is that the data through the twentieth day following application exhibited logarithmically linear trends (99 percent probability level) with no quadratic tendencies for both the sorghum and glass plates in March and April. The best-fitting straight lines have been plotted (Figures 16 and 17), and the equations for each of the lines are: 31 �99. Sr hUJ O R3 •< UJ (A) ro CO UJ CJ I UJ o CJ 25 O * Figure 15. n APRIL APPLICATION u TIME FROM APPLICATION (PAKS) Percent Cholinesterase Inhibition. Glass Plates �99.5 UJ CJ c*: o •— l~> UJ co to t"-t 3= <Z 50 *—» UJ CJ SORGHUM, MARCH APPLICATION O GLASS PLATES, MARCH APPLICATION 2 7 TIME FROM APPLICATION (PAVS) (LOGARITHMIC SCALE) Figure 16. Comparison of Percentage Cholinesterase Inhibition for Glass Plates and Wiley Sorghum I 24 29 �99.5 UJ UJ UJ _J t—1 I— •< uj II UJ kV) UJ o • HONEV SORGHUM, APRIL APPLICATION OGLASS PLATES, APRIL APPLICATION I I I I 4 7 3 TIME FROM APPLICATION (VMS) (LOGARITHMIC SCALE) Figure 17. Comparison of Percentage Cholinesterase Inhibition for Glass Plates and Honey Sorghum 79 24 29 �Wiley sorghum, March Y = 0.597 + 0.484 log (X + 1) Glass plate, March Y = 0.922 + 0.626 log (X + 1) Honey sorghum, April Y = 0.489 + 0.480 log (X + 1) Glass plate, April Y = 0.917 + 0.621 log (X + 1) where Y is the arc sine transformation of the percent cholinesterase inhibition and X is the number of days after the application of phorate in vegetable oil. An analysis of comparison of the linear plots gave significant results. The percentage of cholinesterase inhibition increased at the same rate for both varieties of sorghum. The percentages of cholinesterase inhibition for Wiley and Honey sorghum increased at the same rate as did those for the glass plates. The percent of variation explained by the linear trend is as follows: Wiley Sorghum 78.6 Glass Plate, March 89.3 Honey Sorghum 88.2 Glass Plate, April 92.4 The rate of formation of cholinesterase-inhibiting compounds appeared the same between the glass plates and sorghum plants. It appeared that, at least at high concentrations of phorate, formation of anticholinesterase oxidized metabolites was predominantly through a chemical oxidation on the leaf surface, and not plant enzyme catalysis. This took place at least at such a rate as to mask enzyme catalysis. With low concentrations of phorate within sorghum blades, methods similar to those described in References 5 and 8 could distinguish any difference in the rates of metabolism between the two varieties of sorghum. The higher cholinesterase inhibition values for the glass plates, (Figure 15) in comparison with the sorghum (Figure 11), can be attributed to the higher extraction efficiency with the glass plates. However, the phorate plant residue analysis by gas chromatography indicated the presence of phorate 48 hours after it could no longer be detected in samples from 35 �the glass plates. Although the cholinesterase-inhibition analysis Indicates the same rapid oxidation of phorate on leaf and glass plate, phorate could be present witnin certain portions of the leaf, e.g., within stomatal pores, and hence, within a potentially low-oxygen environment. This could explain the gas chromatographic data. An examination of roots resulted in no detectable cholinesterase inhibitors. Metabolism studies with lemon leaves showed the presence of large amounts of intact Di-Syston® accompanied by very slow conversion to other oxidative products(8). This suggested that the oil-soluble esters were being protected from aqueous hydrolysis by the oil content of the leaves. This was confirmed bv a radioautograph which showed nearly all of the radioactivity from P^2 Di-Syston® translocated into a lemon leaf is confined to the oil glands. A similar radioautograph of Systox®-thiol-isomer translocated into lemon leaves showed that, most of the radioactivity was located in the aqueous tissues of the plants^''. These differences were correlated with the relative water solubilities of the compounds, i.e., Di-Syston® 66 ppm and Systox®thipl-isonner 3900 ppm. The water solubility of phorate was recorded as 85 With the rate of formation of cholinesterase inhibitors the same en glass plates and sorghum leaf surfaces, the lower cholinesterase-inhibition percentage values for tomato (Figure 6) are difficult to explain. The values are lower than expected with tomato having received a concentration of phorate double that received by sorghum. Since the gas chromatographic data for tomato and sorghum agree, the distinct differences in cholinesteraseinhibition percentage values could have resulted from poorer efficiency in recovering oxidized metabolites from tomato compared to sorghum. The similarities in graphic plots for May sorghum (Figure 14) and tomato (Figure 8) would support this rationale. Evaluation of the cholinesterase-inhibition percentage values with the calibration curve resulted in values relating the concentration of toxic residues present in and on the plant foliage. Fourteen days after application of phorate to Honey sorghum in April, sample preparation of a foliar rinse of the surface of the plant accounted for approximately 50 percent of the total cholinesterase inhibition of the plant. A lack of detection of phorate within seven days indicated that residues of the oxidized metabolites in sorghum occurred to a very large degree via oxidation of phorate on the leaf surface, absorption within the leaf, and possible translocation within the plant. This is not in agreement with the previous studies presented in References 5 and 9. Other researchers have postulated(S) that the relative rates of absorption and translocation of phorate and Di-Syston® increased as the experiment proceeded because of the formation of more water-soluble oxidative metabolites in the subcuticular layers of olant tissue around the region of application. In Reference 9, the postulation is that the parent compounds were fairly persistent on the surface of the leaves but were metabolized rapidly once they had penetrated. �These variations can be explained by the differences in application method and in insecticide concentration: i.e., a 5 microliter topical application to the base of the stem of a cotton plant versus a 0.2 milliliter application of a 2 percent solution of phorate in vegetable oil to the blades of sorghum. It must be remembered that as the toxic metabolites are forming, they are concurrently being hydrolyzed to nontoxic phosphoric or thiophosphoric acids. Though the oxygen-analogs of phorate can inhibit cholinesterase activity more than their thionpohosphate precursors, they appear to have a higher degree of instability'^' ^'• The phosphorus is considerably more electrophilic in the P=0 compounds, thus weakening the P-S ester bond and facilitating hydrolysis and accelerating phosphorylation of the enzyme'^). Consequently, the presence of relatively large amounts of a highly oxidized metabolite in a plant would result in higher cholinesterase inhibition and higher apparent residue values than would an equivalent amount of a metabolite with less cholinesterase activity in another plant. The higher cholinesterase-inhibition values mean the presence of metabolites which are easily hydrolyzed, resulting in an overall faster rate of metabolic detoxification. The concentrations of phorate metabolites in tomato and sorghum were expressed in parts per million (ppn.) as phorate oxygen analog sulfoxide equivalent via a cholinesterase-inhibition method of analysis. The calibration curve for the residue method is given in Figure 2. It is independent of plant material analyzed and of the sample preparation technique. It reflects none of the losses that may occur in the various steps of sample preparation. A sample calculation follows the formula: .v = parts per million of phorate oxygen analog sulfoxide equivalent in sample analyzed. Where w is the phorate oxygen analog sulfoxide equivalent obtained in the analyses, micrograms. v is the aqueous extract in the determination, mi Hi liters. V is the total solvent in sample extraction, milliliters. W is the sample extracted, grams (fresh weight). The toxic residues present in tomato foliage were based .on the average weight of tomato plants initially after application of phorate (six weeks) and at the conclusion of the experiment (nine weeks), 6 grams and 28 grams, respectively. Thus, residues in the tomato foliage ranged from 1.1 to 5.3 ppm phorate oxygen analog sulfoxide equivalent. 37 �Residue persistence in sorghum (Table X) was higher. The May sorghum had concentrations with a range of 0 to 20.2 ppm. The average residue value after the second day was 17.9 ppm. The March/April sorghum had concentrations with a range of 2.4 to 18.5 ppm. The fourfold increase in residues by the ninth day is comparable to that found by Bowman and Casida'^' in considering the persistence of phorate-P 2 and its metabolites in vegetable crops. The total anticholinesterase activity of greenhouse pea plants, sprayed with phorate at one pound per acre, increased for about the firslv four days and then declined, but inhibitors persisted for 20 to 30 ^ ' Foliage application of 0,0-diethyl S-[(isopropylthio) methyl] phosphorodithioate to pea plants resulted in the appearance of anticholinesterase metabolites within one day and persistence of such metabolites in high concentration for at least nine days with detectable amounts present for 21 days^'. The results of this investigation were comparable: the main difference was higher residue levels. In crops treated with phorate., the ultimate toxic residues are present in a fractional part per million'". When applied to corn at a rate of one pound per acre, phorate was essentially gone in 14 days, while very low levels of its sulfoxide and sulfone (0.1 ppm or less) persisted through the 28-day experimental interval. At harvest time, the plant was essentially 4 free of insecticide, less than 0.01 ' The concentration of phorate metabolite residues present, though high, would probably be at a safe level by harvest time. The ultimate toxic metabolites present in harvest time residues are dependent upon both the interval between application and harvest and the method of application. Older plants having phorate applied at high rates would definitely have to be monitored for toxic residues. The lower residue values for tomato foliage are due in part to a larger daily plant weight—approximately threefold that of sorghum. The result could be a more rapid metabolism and hydrolysis and provides another possibility for the cholinesterase-inhibition percentage values being lower for tomato than for sorghum. Generally, oxidation. in plants never increases the toxicity of an application significantly^"'. However, the large residue values obtained in this study indicate that the toxicity is increased considerably on the surface of the plant when high concentrations are involved. A number of researchers, in speculating upon potential residue problems after various methods of treatment with systemic insecticides, have concluded that persistence curves should be 8 established on different crops grow under different environmental conditions' '. Military application of insecticides at normal rates results in residues which can be monitored with guidance from available literature. Residue breakdown of these organophosphorus insecticides is usually rapid with no persistency problems. However, the result of repetitive 38 �aerial application or spillage of insecticides in cropland areas may result in concentrations higher than usual. This study indicates exposure studies of the respective insecticides on glass plates alone under different environmental conditions would serve as a guide in predicting residues from high concentrations of insecticides. TABLE IX. PERSISTENCE OF PHORATE OXYGEN ANALOG SULFOXIDE EQUIVALENT IN SORGHUM Time From Application, Day 0 1 2 4 5 7 8 9 11 12 14 16 18 19 20 21 23 25 a Concentration, ppm March /April 3 2.4-5.3 2.4-5.3 2.4-5.3 10.3-14.5 10.3-14.5 Mayu 0 8.3 17.1 19.7 18.7 18.5 12.6-18.5 16.0-18.5 10.3-14.5 12.6-18.5 12.6-18.5 16.6 20.2 18.0 15.3 10.3-11.9 10.3-11.9 6.9-7.9 6.9-7.9 17.0 Concentration range is the result of considering the standard deviation for the average plant weight for the entire experimental period in May; this is due to the lack of plant weight values for March/April. Results are averages of two samples, three replications each. 3 Results are averages of four samples, three replications each. 39 �SECTION IV SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Data on the metabolism of foliar applications of high concentrations of the organophosphorus insecticide phorate on Homestead tomato and Wiley and Honey sorghum are reported. The investigation of phorate metabolism, monitored by gas chromatographic and enzymatic analysis, produced the following results: 1. The cholinesterase activity values obtained showed no correlation with plant weight. 2. The disappearance of phorate appeared to proceed at the same rate in each plant species and variety; phorate disappeared more quickly from glass plates than from March/April sorghum under the same experimental parameters. 3. No significant differences were apparent between the two varieties of sorghum in May or during continuous experiments in March and April. It appeared that the formation of anticholinesterase metabolites, after high foliar applications of phorate, proceeded at the same rate in each variety although distinct visible differences occurred between the Wiley and Honey sorghum. 4. The peak percentages of cholinesterase inhibition from sorghum samples by the fourth day in May versus the ninth day in March/April indicated more rapid oxidation of phorate to anticholinesterase metabolites at higher temperatures. 5. The phorate metabolism in tomato was similar to metabolism in the May sorghum; however, actual comparison of percentage values of cholinesterase inhibition during the month for each of the three plants indicated that the average for the Homestead tomato was significantly lower than those for the two varieties of sorghum. 6. The percentage values of cholinesterase inhibition for the Wiley and Honey sorghum increased at the same rate as for the glass plates, indicating that the rate of formation of anticholinesterase-oxidized metabolites was predominantly through chemical oxidation on the leaf surface and not by plant enzyme catalysis; this surface oxidation took place at least at such a rate as to mask enzyme catalysis. 7. The larger droplet size in application technique resulted in higher toxic-residue values for phorate metabolites, especially on the surface of the plant, than would normally be expected. 40 �This study was initiated to find a basis for predicting toxicity and persistence of metabolite residues in plants after application of high concentrations of sulfur-containing oraanophosphorus insecticides during military spray operations. The results indicate that exposure studies of high concentrations of insecticides on glass plates alone, under different environmental conditions, would serve as a guide in predicting residues from repetitive aerial application or spillage of insecticides used by the military in cropland areas. Such studies with a controlled environment would yield toxic-residue-persistence data under various conditions for high concentrations of insecticides. 41 (The reverse of this page is blank) ��REFERENCES 1. Thomson, W.T. Agricultural Chemicals, Book I. Insecticides, Acaricides, and Ovicides. Thomson Publications, Davis, California, 1967. 2. Bowman, J.S. and J.E. Casida. Metabolism of the Systemic Insecticide 0,0-Diethyl S-Ethylthiomethyl Phosphorodithioate (Thimet) in Plants. J. Agr. Food Chem. 5: 192-197, 1957. 3. Bowman, J.S. and J.E. Casida. Further Studies on the Metabolism of Thimet by Plants, Insects, and Hammals. J. Econ. Entomol. 51:838-843, 1958. 4. Bowman, M.C., M. Beroza, and J.A. Harding. Determination of Phorate and Five of Its Metabolites in Corn. J. Agr. Food Chem. 17:138-142, 1969. 5. Metcalf, R.I., T.R. Fukuto, and R.B. March. Plant Metabolism of Dithio-Systox and Thimet. J. Econ. Entomol. 50:338-345, 1957. 6. Coleman, O.H. and J.L. Dean. Inheritance of Resistance to Methyl Parathion in Sorgo. Crop Sci. 4:371-372, 1964. 7. Wolverton, B.C., W.J. Wallace, A.L. Young, and D.D. Harrison. Studies on the Systemic Uptake of Toxic Phosphorus Esters by Plants. Morphological Effects of Foliar Applications of the Organophosphate Insecticides Mevinphos and Methyl Demeton on Selected Plant Species. Air Force Armament Laboratory Technical Report AFATL-TR-69-116, Eg!in Air Force Base, Florida, September, 1969. 8. Metcalf, R.L., H.T. Reynolds, M. Winton, and T.R. Fukuto. Effects of Temperature and Plant Species upon the Rates of Metabolism of Systemically Applied Di-Syston. J. Econ. Entomol. 52:435-439, 1959. 9. Heath, D.F. Metabolism in Plants and Soils. Jm Organophosphorus Poisons, Anticholinesterases and Related Compounds edited by D.F. Heath. Pergamon Press, Mew York, 1961. 10. Archer, T.E. Enzymatic Methods. Jm Analytical Methods for Pesticides, Plant Growth Regulators, and Food Additives, Volume I edited by G. Zweig. Academic Press, New York, 1963. 11. Sutherland, G.L., P.A. Giang, and T.E. Archer. Thimet. I_n Analytical Methods for Pesticides, Plant Growth Regulators, and Food Additives , Volume II edited by G. Zweig. Academic Press, New York, 1964. 43 �12. Nabb, D.P. and Florence Whitfield. Determination of Cholinesterase by an Automated pH Stat Method. Arch. Environ. Health. 15:147-154, 1967. 13. Himel, C.M. The Optimum Size for Insecticide Spray Droplets. J. Econ. Entomol. 62:919-925, 1969. 14. Young, A.L. and B.C. Wolverton. Military Herbicides and Insecticides. Air Force Armament Laboratory Technical Note AFATL-TN-70-1, Eglin Air Force Base, Florida, January, 1970. 15. Reynolds, H.T., T.R. Fukuto, R.L. Metcalf, and R.B. March. Seed Treatment of Field Crops with Systemic Insecticides. J. Econ. Entomol. 50:527-539, 1957. 16. Metcalf, R.L., R.B. March, T.R. Fukuto, and M.G. Maxon. The Nature and Significance of Systox Residues in Plant Materials. J. Econ. Entomol. 48:364-369, 1955. 17. Fukuto, T.R., R.L. Metcalf, R.B. March, and M.G. Maxon. Chemical Behavior of Systox in Biological Systems. J. Econ. Entomol. 48:347-354, 1955. 18. Cook, J.W. and R. Ottes. Note on the Conversion of Some Organophosphate Pesticides to Less Polar Compounds by Ultraviolet Light. J. Assoc. Offie . Agr. Chemists. 42:211-212, 1959. 19. Mitchell, T.H., J.H. Ruzicka, J. Thomson, and B.B. Wheals. The Chromatographic Determination of Organophosphorus Pesticides. Part III. The Effect of Irradiation on the Parent Compounds. J. Chromatog. 32:17-23, 1968. 20. Ruzicka, J.H., J. Thomson, and B.B. Wheals. The Gas Chromatographic Examination of Organophosphorus Pesticides and Their Oxidation Products. J. Chromatog. 30:92-99, 1967. 21. Metcalf, R.L., R.B. March, T.R. Fukuto, and M.G. Maxon. The Behavior of Systox-isomers in Bean and Citrus Plants. J. Econ. Entomol. 47:1045-1055, 1954. 44 �DISTRIBUTION LIST AFSC (DLSW) (SDWM) (SGP) ARPA (TECH INFO) DDR&E (CHEM TECH) (TECH LIB) SAAMA (SFQT) 2 3 3 1 1 5 5 AIR UNIVERSITY LIB HQ DA OACSFOR (FOR CM SR) OPERATIONS RSCH GRP EDGEWOOD ARSENAL (SMUEA-TD-S) (SMUEA-RPRE (2)) (SMUEA-CC) (SMUEA-QS) (SMUEA-CCCR) (SMUEA-TSTI-L) (SMUEA-D) (SMUEA-TS-CF) 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 (WPNS DEV & ENGR LABS) ENGR R&D LABS (TECH DOC CTR) ABERDEEN PRV GD (TECH LIB) DESERET TEST CENTER (TECH LIB) CBR AGENCY (CSGSB-ST) USA CHEMICAL SCHOOL (AJMCL-A) NAV AIR SYS COMD (AIR-532G) USN WEAPONS LAB 2 2 1 4 1 1 2 2 USN RESEARCH LAB (CODE 6140) 4525 FTR WPN UG (FWOA) 6570TH AMRL (HEF) DDC 12AF (DMEME) DL DLIP SSLT TAWC (DOD) (DIM) SOC (DFS) HQ USAF (AFRDPA) TAC (DOO-S) SOF-DOR 319SOS-DM TAWC-CB USAFETAC USAF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH LAB (Kelly AFB TX) 1 1 1 12 1 1 50 2 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 45 �DISTRIBUTION LIST (Concluded) USAF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH LAB (McClellan AFB CA) 1 USAFEL AFWL (DEE) USAFA (DFLS) DUGWAY PROVING GROUND (TECH LIB) ONR (CODE 440) HQ USACDC (NBC BRANCH) ASD (ENYS) DLOS CDCLNO 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 46 �UNCLASSIFIED Security Classification DOCUMENT CONTROL DATA - R & D (Security classification of title, body of abstract and indexing annotation must be entered when the overall report is ORIGINATING A C T I V I T Y (Corporate author) Flame, Incendiary, and Explosives Division Air Force Armament Laboratory Eqlin Air Force Base, Florida 3 classified) . REPORT SECURITY CLASSIFICATION UNCLASSIFIED 26. GROUP* REPORT TITL.E THE METABOLISM OF HIGH CONCENTRATIONS OF THE ORGANOPHOSPHORUS INSECTICIDE PHORATE APPLIED FOLIARLY TO SELECTED PLANT SPECIES D E S C R I P T I V E NOTES (Type- ot report and inclusive dates) Final Report (May - December 1970) 5 AUTHORCSI (First name, middle initial, Imxt name) George S. Kotchmar, Jr., Capt, USAF3 Billy C. Wolverton, Elizabeth.E. Boothe, Sandra M. Lefstad 6 REPORT D A T E 7«. T O T A L NO. OF PAGES February 1971 8«- C O N T R A C T OR G R A N T NO. &. PROJECT NO. 5066 53 \7t. NO. OF REFS 1 21 9a. ORIGINATOR*^ REPORT NJUMBERfSt AFATL-TR-71-22 9b. OTHER REPORT NO (si (Any other numbers that may oe assigned this report) C. d. 1O. DISTRIBUTION S T A T E M E N T Approved for public release; distribution unlimited. M- S U P P L E M E N T A R Y NOTES Available in DDC 12- SPONSORING M I L I T A R Y A C T I V I T Y Air Force Armament Lauoratory Air Force Systers Command Eglin Air Force Base, Florida 32542 ABSTRACT Gas chromatographic and enzymatic analyses (cholinesterase-inhibition method) were used to monitor the metabolism of the organophosphorus insecticide 0,0diethyl S-[(ethylthio)methyl] phosphorodithioate (phorate) applied foliarly to three economically important plants (Homestead tomato, Wiley sorghum, and Honey sorghum). The resulting data provided guidelines in predicting toxicity and persistence of metabolite residues for high concentrations of insecticides employed by the military. An attempt was also made to relate the metabolism of the insecticide to phytotoxic damage among and within plant species. The data indicated that no plant-variety-dependent distinction exists in the formation of toxic phorate metabolites as shown by in vitro anticholinesterase activity recorded over a four-week period. Further investigation, with the same high concentrations of phorate placed on glass plates located adjacent to treated plants, indicated the formation of toxic phorate metabolites was without the influence of biological substrates within the plants. There were no statistically significant differences with respect to the rate of increase of cholinesterase-inhibition percentage values between the sorghum and glass plates; the rate of formation of anticholinesterase oxidized metabolites was predominantly through chemical oxidation on the leaf surface and not by plant enzyme catalysis, or at least, the oxidation occurred at such a rate as to mask the enzyme catalysis. The large droplet size in the application of phorate resulted in higher toxic residue values, especially on the surface of the plant, than would normally be expected^ DD FORM 1 NOV 65 1473 UNCLASSIFIED Security Classification �UNCLASSIFIED Security Classification 1 14. K EY LINK A LINKS LINK' C WORDS ROLE WT ROLE WT Phorate 0,0-diethyl S-[(ethylthio)methyl] phosphorodithioate Organophosphorus Insecticides Plants Insecticide Residues Insecticide Metabolism UNCLASSIFIED Security Classification ROL E W T � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange Description An account of the resource <p style="margin-top: -1em; line-height: 1.2em;">The Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange comprises 120 linear feet and spans the late 1800s to 2005; however, the bulk of the coverage is from the 1960s to the 1980s and there are many undated items. The collection was donated to Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in 1985 by Dr. Alvin L. Young (1942- ). Dr. Young developed the collection as he conducted extensive research on the military defoliant Agent Orange. The collection is in good condition and includes letters, memoranda, books, reports, press releases, journal and newspaper clippings, field logs and notebooks, newsletters, maps, booklets and pamphlets, photographs, memorabilia, and audiotapes of an interview with Dr. Young.</p> <p>For more about this collection, <a href="/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/alvin-l--young-collection-on-a">view the Agent Orange Exhibit.</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Box The box containing the original item. 016 Folder The folder containing the original item. 0172 Series The series number of the original item. Series II Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Kotchmar, George S., Jr. Billy C. Wolverton Elizabeth E. Boothe Sandra M. Lefstad Description An account of the resource <strong>Corporate Author: </strong>Flame, Incendiary, and Explosives Division, Air Force Armament Laboratory, Eglin AFB, Florida Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1971-02-01 Title A name given to the resource The Metabolism of High Concentrations of the Organophosphorus Insecticide Phorate Applied Foliarly to Selected Plant Species Subject The topic of the resource pesticide testing pesticide toxicology Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange Description An account of the resource <p style="margin-top: -1em; line-height: 1.2em;">The Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange comprises 120 linear feet and spans the late 1800s to 2005; however, the bulk of the coverage is from the 1960s to the 1980s and there are many undated items. The collection was donated to Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in 1985 by Dr. Alvin L. Young (1942- ). Dr. Young developed the collection as he conducted extensive research on the military defoliant Agent Orange. The collection is in good condition and includes letters, memoranda, books, reports, press releases, journal and newspaper clippings, field logs and notebooks, newsletters, maps, booklets and pamphlets, photographs, memorabilia, and audiotapes of an interview with Dr. Young.</p> <p>For more about this collection, <a href="/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/alvin-l--young-collection-on-a">view the Agent Orange Exhibit.</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Box The box containing the original item. 033 Folder The folder containing the original item. 0641 Series The series number of the original item. Series III Subseries I Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Fara, G. M. G. Del Corno F. Bonetti F. Caramaschi L. Dardanoni C. Favaretti S. E. Giambelluca E. Marni P. Mocarelli E. Montesarchio V. Puccinelli C. Volpato Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Chlorinated Dioxins and Related Compounds : Impact on the Environment : Proceedings of a Workshop held at the Instituto superiore di sanita, Rome, Italy, 22-24 October, 1980 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1982 Title A name given to the resource Chloracne After Release of TCDD at Seveso, Italy Subject The topic of the resource ecological impact industrial exposure pesticide toxicology ao_seriesIII Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange Description An account of the resource <p style="margin-top: -1em; line-height: 1.2em;">The Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange comprises 120 linear feet and spans the late 1800s to 2005; however, the bulk of the coverage is from the 1960s to the 1980s and there are many undated items. The collection was donated to Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in 1985 by Dr. Alvin L. Young (1942- ). Dr. Young developed the collection as he conducted extensive research on the military defoliant Agent Orange. The collection is in good condition and includes letters, memoranda, books, reports, press releases, journal and newspaper clippings, field logs and notebooks, newsletters, maps, booklets and pamphlets, photographs, memorabilia, and audiotapes of an interview with Dr. Young.</p> <p>For more about this collection, <a href="/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/alvin-l--young-collection-on-a">view the Agent Orange Exhibit.</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Box The box containing the original item. 036 Folder The folder containing the original item. 0756 Series The series number of the original item. Series III Subseries I Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Hogsted, Christer Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Lakartidningen Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1980 Title A name given to the resource Cohort Study of Causes of Death for Forestry Workers with and without Exposure to Phenoxy Acid Subject The topic of the resource industrial exposure health effects pesticide toxicology herbicide toxicology ao_seriesIII Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange Description An account of the resource <p style="margin-top: -1em; line-height: 1.2em;">The Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange comprises 120 linear feet and spans the late 1800s to 2005; however, the bulk of the coverage is from the 1960s to the 1980s and there are many undated items. The collection was donated to Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in 1985 by Dr. Alvin L. Young (1942- ). Dr. Young developed the collection as he conducted extensive research on the military defoliant Agent Orange. The collection is in good condition and includes letters, memoranda, books, reports, press releases, journal and newspaper clippings, field logs and notebooks, newsletters, maps, booklets and pamphlets, photographs, memorabilia, and audiotapes of an interview with Dr. Young.</p> <p>For more about this collection, <a href="/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/alvin-l--young-collection-on-a">view the Agent Orange Exhibit.</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Box The box containing the original item. 037 Folder The folder containing the original item. 0800 Series The series number of the original item. Series III Subseries I Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Kay, Kingsley Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Environmental Research Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1973 Title A name given to the resource Toxicology of Pesticides: Recent Advances Subject The topic of the resource pesticide toxicology ao_seriesIII Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange Description An account of the resource <p style="margin-top: -1em; line-height: 1.2em;">The Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange comprises 120 linear feet and spans the late 1800s to 2005; however, the bulk of the coverage is from the 1960s to the 1980s and there are many undated items. The collection was donated to Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in 1985 by Dr. Alvin L. Young (1942- ). Dr. Young developed the collection as he conducted extensive research on the military defoliant Agent Orange. The collection is in good condition and includes letters, memoranda, books, reports, press releases, journal and newspaper clippings, field logs and notebooks, newsletters, maps, booklets and pamphlets, photographs, memorabilia, and audiotapes of an interview with Dr. Young.</p> <p>For more about this collection, <a href="/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/alvin-l--young-collection-on-a">view the Agent Orange Exhibit.</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Box The box containing the original item. 037 Folder The folder containing the original item. 0808 Series The series number of the original item. Series III Subseries I Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Kimbrough, Renate D. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Drug Metabolism Reviews Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1982 Title A name given to the resource Disposition and Body Burdens of Halogenated Aromatic Compounds: Possible Association with Health Effects in Humans Subject The topic of the resource CDC health effects pesticide toxicology ao_seriesIII Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange Description An account of the resource <p style="margin-top: -1em; line-height: 1.2em;">The Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange comprises 120 linear feet and spans the late 1800s to 2005; however, the bulk of the coverage is from the 1960s to the 1980s and there are many undated items. The collection was donated to Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in 1985 by Dr. Alvin L. Young (1942- ). Dr. Young developed the collection as he conducted extensive research on the military defoliant Agent Orange. The collection is in good condition and includes letters, memoranda, books, reports, press releases, journal and newspaper clippings, field logs and notebooks, newsletters, maps, booklets and pamphlets, photographs, memorabilia, and audiotapes of an interview with Dr. Young.</p> <p>For more about this collection, <a href="/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/alvin-l--young-collection-on-a">view the Agent Orange Exhibit.</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Box The box containing the original item. 037 Folder The folder containing the original item. 0810 Series The series number of the original item. Series III Subseries I Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Kimbrough, Renate D. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived CRC Critical Reviews in Toxicology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1974-01-01 Title A name given to the resource The Toxicity of Polychlorinated Polycyclic Compounds and Related Chemicals Subject The topic of the resource pesticide toxicology pesticide properties animal testing ao_seriesIII Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange Description An account of the resource <p style="margin-top: -1em; line-height: 1.2em;">The Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange comprises 120 linear feet and spans the late 1800s to 2005; however, the bulk of the coverage is from the 1960s to the 1980s and there are many undated items. The collection was donated to Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in 1985 by Dr. Alvin L. Young (1942- ). Dr. Young developed the collection as he conducted extensive research on the military defoliant Agent Orange. The collection is in good condition and includes letters, memoranda, books, reports, press releases, journal and newspaper clippings, field logs and notebooks, newsletters, maps, booklets and pamphlets, photographs, memorabilia, and audiotapes of an interview with Dr. Young.</p> <p>For more about this collection, <a href="/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/alvin-l--young-collection-on-a">view the Agent Orange Exhibit.</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Box The box containing the original item. 037 Folder The folder containing the original item. 0811 Series The series number of the original item. Series III Subseries I Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Kimbrough, Renate D. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Archives of Environmental Health Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1972-08-01 Title A name given to the resource Toxicity of Chlorinated Hydrocarbons and Related Compounds Subject The topic of the resource pesticide toxicology animal testing chloracne ao_seriesIII Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange Description An account of the resource <p style="margin-top: -1em; line-height: 1.2em;">The Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange comprises 120 linear feet and spans the late 1800s to 2005; however, the bulk of the coverage is from the 1960s to the 1980s and there are many undated items. The collection was donated to Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in 1985 by Dr. Alvin L. Young (1942- ). Dr. Young developed the collection as he conducted extensive research on the military defoliant Agent Orange. The collection is in good condition and includes letters, memoranda, books, reports, press releases, journal and newspaper clippings, field logs and notebooks, newsletters, maps, booklets and pamphlets, photographs, memorabilia, and audiotapes of an interview with Dr. Young.</p> <p>For more about this collection, <a href="/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/alvin-l--young-collection-on-a">view the Agent Orange Exhibit.</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Box The box containing the original item. 038 Folder The folder containing the original item. 0856 Series The series number of the original item. Series III Subseries I Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Lavy, T. L. J. D. Mattice R. R. Flynn Description An account of the resource <strong>Corporate Author: </strong>American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) Committee E-35 on Pesticides Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Pesticide Formulations and Application Systems, Second Conference : A Symposium Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1983 Title A name given to the resource Field Studies Monitoring Worker Exposure to Pesticides Subject The topic of the resource dioxin pesticide toxicology human exposure pesticide application ao_seriesIII Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange Description An account of the resource <p style="margin-top: -1em; line-height: 1.2em;">The Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange comprises 120 linear feet and spans the late 1800s to 2005; however, the bulk of the coverage is from the 1960s to the 1980s and there are many undated items. The collection was donated to Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in 1985 by Dr. Alvin L. Young (1942- ). Dr. Young developed the collection as he conducted extensive research on the military defoliant Agent Orange. The collection is in good condition and includes letters, memoranda, books, reports, press releases, journal and newspaper clippings, field logs and notebooks, newsletters, maps, booklets and pamphlets, photographs, memorabilia, and audiotapes of an interview with Dr. Young.</p> <p>For more about this collection, <a href="/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/alvin-l--young-collection-on-a">view the Agent Orange Exhibit.</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Box The box containing the original item. 040 Folder The folder containing the original item. 0913 Series The series number of the original item. Series III Subseries I Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Moses, Marion Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Environmental and Occupational Medicine Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1983 Title A name given to the resource Pesticides Subject The topic of the resource industrial exposure pesticide properties pesticide toxicology agricultural exposure ao_seriesIII Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange Description An account of the resource <p style="margin-top: -1em; line-height: 1.2em;">The Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange comprises 120 linear feet and spans the late 1800s to 2005; however, the bulk of the coverage is from the 1960s to the 1980s and there are many undated items. The collection was donated to Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in 1985 by Dr. Alvin L. Young (1942- ). Dr. Young developed the collection as he conducted extensive research on the military defoliant Agent Orange. The collection is in good condition and includes letters, memoranda, books, reports, press releases, journal and newspaper clippings, field logs and notebooks, newsletters, maps, booklets and pamphlets, photographs, memorabilia, and audiotapes of an interview with Dr. Young.</p> <p>For more about this collection, <a href="/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/alvin-l--young-collection-on-a">view the Agent Orange Exhibit.</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Box The box containing the original item. 043 Folder The folder containing the original item. 1019 Series The series number of the original item. Series III Subseries I Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Robson, Alan M. J. M. Kissane N. H. Elvick L. Pundavela Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Journal of Pediatrics Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1969-08-01 Title A name given to the resource Pentachlorophenol Poisoning in a Nursery for Newborn Infants: I. Clinical Features and Treatment Subject The topic of the resource pesticide poisoning pesticide toxicology human exposure ao_seriesIII Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange Description An account of the resource <p style="margin-top: -1em; line-height: 1.2em;">The Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange comprises 120 linear feet and spans the late 1800s to 2005; however, the bulk of the coverage is from the 1960s to the 1980s and there are many undated items. The collection was donated to Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in 1985 by Dr. Alvin L. Young (1942- ). Dr. Young developed the collection as he conducted extensive research on the military defoliant Agent Orange. The collection is in good condition and includes letters, memoranda, books, reports, press releases, journal and newspaper clippings, field logs and notebooks, newsletters, maps, booklets and pamphlets, photographs, memorabilia, and audiotapes of an interview with Dr. Young.</p> <p>For more about this collection, <a href="/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/alvin-l--young-collection-on-a">view the Agent Orange Exhibit.</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Box The box containing the original item. 047 Folder The folder containing the original item. 1182 Series The series number of the original item. Series III Subseries I Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Description An account of the resource <strong>Corporate Author: </strong>U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Office of Water Planning and Standards Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource June 1 1976 Title A name given to the resource Criteria Document for DDT (DDD, DDE) Subject The topic of the resource aquatic animals ecological impact health effects pesticide toxicology ao_seriesIII https://www.nal.usda.gov/exhibits/speccoll/files/original/da557ef1a0c67209cce2f37e851d4693.pdf 858beb34bb2d9817a825acc9f1ba1c1f PDF Text Text Item ID Number on 83 Author Anonymous Corporate Author u s RBpOrt/ArtlClO TitlO DD : - - Environmental Protection Agency ^ A Review of Scientific and Economic Aspects of the Decision to Ban Its Use as a Pesticide Journal/Book Tltlo Year Month/Day Ju| Color n Number of Images 311 DeSONpton Notes Alvin L Youn v 9 fi|ecjthis item under the category "DDT/Human Toxicology and Environmental Fate" NTIS Report No. PB-254 029. EPA Report No. EPA540/1-75-022 Wednesday, April 11, 2001 Page 1183 of 1242 ��U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE National Technical Information Service PB-245 029 DDT: A REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF THE DECISION TO BAN ITS USE AS A PESTICIDE ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY JULY 1975 �,«"#'*»''^ 4 »TWi.»-i,x'-Wt?V^iVS*.tLW''lWVfcMf.yrV-'v,nK.'i'.v.-vi;t..v ifV*f,**t--J!v<f\^j^J-!K. m» ••,.«***• 268265 245 029 A REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF THE DECISION TO BAN ITS USE AS A cr U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY Washington, D.C. 20460 JULY 1975 EPA-540/1-75-022 NATIONAL TECHNICAL INFORMATION SERVICE I,..,.. _ , , . . . �rf" BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA SHEET 1. Heport N-> 5. Kcport Date 4. T i t l e anil Subtitle DDT -- A Review of Scientific and Economic Aspects of the ecision to Ban Its Use as a Pesticide 7. Author(s) July 197S 6. 8. Performing Organic uion K e p t . No. 9. Performing Organization Name and AdJiess " Criteria and Evaluation Division, Office of Pesticide Programs, Environmental Protection Agency 401 V. Street, SW. Washington, D.C. 20460 10. Project/'l'ask/Wonc Unit No. 11. ("ontr.-ct/Cirant Nc. 13. Type ol Report Si Period Covered 12. Sponsoring Orgam/ation Name and Address see above 14. is. Supplementary Notes This report has been prepared by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency at. the direction of a committee of Congress and has not been reviewed by other Federal Agcncj.es. 16. Absuacts T^is is a review of tfic 1972 decision cancelling many of the registrations of DDT. It takes into consideration all of the costs and benefits and the importance of protecting the Nation's supply of food and fiber, ft centers on the key findings of the Administrator in his Decision of June 14, 1972., and is devided into the four major areas of 1.) fish and wildlife effects; 2.) human effects; 3.) residues in the environment and man; 4.) economic aspects. 17, Key %'on.is and I)ocument Analysis. 17a. Descriptors DDT fish and wildlife effects human effects residues in man and environment bioaccumulation in aquatic organisms effects on phytoplankton aquatic invertebrates fish toxicity bioacosiuiJation in terrestrial organisms I7b. Identifiets/Opcn-l'.nilcd Terms Birds eggshell thinning reproduct ion carcinogcnicity in mice tumor production in mice carcinogenicity in humans " in mammalian species DDT metabolites persistence drift vaporization soil erosion cotton PRICES SU2JECT TO CHANGE 17c. C'JSATI F i e l d 'Ciroup 18. A v a i l a b i l i t y Statement Available from NTIS / FORM N T I S . 3 - , I H K V 10-7JI insecticide use patterns insect control costs economics of minor uses of DDT military use sweet potatoes sweet peppers onions public health pea leaf weevil history of use on forest pests benefits of control with DDT intraregional impact: interregional impact: |.\|X )|<Slil) HV ANSI A M ) I.'M'.SC 19. S e c u r i t y ( . l a s s (Tbis Kepon) i-iML/uamEj.'. _ 20. S e c u r i t y ( l a s s (This 21. No. of Pages 22. Price 'j'lN'c I.ASSII-TI-:D THIS t-OKM M A Y M l . USCOMM. DC «26!-r»7« �KEEP UP TO DATE Between the time you ordered this report— which is only one of the hundreds of thousands in the NTIS information collection available to you—and the time you are reading this message, several now reports relevant to your interests probably have entered the collection. 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A deposit account with NTIS is required before this service can be initiated. If you have specific questions concerning this service, please call (703) 451-1558, or write NTIS, attention SRIM Product Manager. This information product distributed by US. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE National Technical Information Service 5285 Port Royal Road Springfield, Virginia 22161 �DDT A Review of Scientific and Economic Aspects of the Decision to Ban Its Use as a Pesticide Prepared for: Committee on Appropriations U.S. House of Representatives U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Washington, D.C. July, 1975 20460 �This report has been prepared by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency at the direction of a committee of Congress and lias not been reviewed by other Federal Agencies. Mention of trade names does not constitute endorsement. For sale by National 1ecTwiicaI^7iformaTI^15crvIce,"Springfie"lcl,' Virginia, 22151 �CONTENTS I. II. III. INTRODUCTION A. Reason for Study .................... B. How Undertaken ..................... C. What Report Does and Does Not Do ............ D. DOT Regulatory History: A Brief Survey ......... SUMMARY A. Fish and Wildlife Effects . . ' ............. B. Human Effects ..... ................ C. DDT Residues in the Enviroment and Man ......... D. Economic Aspects .................... DETAILED REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS A. Fish and Wildlife Effects ............... 1. Introduction .................... 2. Bioaccumulation in aquatic organisms ........ 3. Effects on phytoplankton .............. 4. Lethal and sublethal effects on aquatic invertebrates ..................... 5. DDT toxicity in fish ................ 6. DDT effects on fish reproduction ......... . 7. Sublethal effects on fish ............. 8. Nioaccumulation in terrestrial organisms ...... 9. Toxicity of DDT to birds .............. 10. Eggshell thinning and reproduction ........ B. Human Effects ..................... 1. Carcinogenicity of DDT in mice ........... 2. Tumor production in mice as an index of potential carcinogenicity in othc;r species ... ..... 3. Carcinogenicity of DDT in other mammalian species . 4. Carcinogenicity of DDT in humans .......... 5. Carcinogenicity of DDT metabolites ......... 6. Effects of DDT substitutes on humans ........ C. Monitoring of DDT Residues in the Environment and Man ...................... 1. Persistence of DDT in soil ............. 2. Transport of DDT from aerial application sites. . . a.) drift ........... .......... b.) vaporization ................. c.) soil erosion ................. 3. Contamination of the aquatic environment ...... 4. Persistence in aquatic ecosystems ......... 5. Human exposure to DDT residues ........... 6. Human storage and DDT residues ........... D. Review of Economic Aspects .......... ..... 1. Introduction .................... 2. Cotton .............. . ........ a.) overview of the cotton economy ........ b.) trends In cotton acreage, yields, and production in the US and in major producing regions ...... . ........... c.) availability of alternatives to DDT ...... 1 1 2 2 5 10 13 16 24 25 26 35 37 41 43 46 49 56 62 82 83 87 88 90 92 95 105 106 109 109 109 Ill 113 115 117 133 146 147 150 151 158 163 �d.) insecticide use patterns . e.) insect control costs . . . . f.) intraregional and interregional impact associated with cancellation of DDT ... 3. Economics of the minor uses of DDT a.) contested nonessential crop uses b.) sweet potatoes, sweet peppers, and onions. . c.) military use of DDT d.) public health e.) pea leaf weevil 4. Forest uses of DDT. . a.) history of use on forest pests b.) benefits of control c.) federal policy on use of persistent pesticides . , APPENDICES IA. Opinion and Order of the Administrator IB. DDT Regulatory History: A Brief Survey IIIB.l Acute Human Hazard Information on Alternatives to DDT IIIB.2 EPA Report of National Pesticide Episodes for DDT Substitues, 1971-1974. . . . . . . . . . . IIID.l Efficacy and Cost Effectiveness of Alternatives to DDT for Cotton Insect Pests HID.2 The Value of DDT in Cotton Production . . . . . . 177 184 193 198 198 215 218 218 220 225 225 233 237 242 251 257 266 267 290 �T. INTRODUCTION REASON FOR STUDY At the request of the Appropriations Committee, U.S. House of Representatives, the Environmental Protection Agency has undertaken a review of the 1972 decision cancelling many of the registrations of DDT. The specific language of the request is contained in both the 1974 report of the Appropriations Committee and the November 6, 1973 Congressional Record, (H 9619): "The Agency was also directed to initiate a complete and thorough review, based oi. scientific evidence of the decision banning the use of DDT. This review of DDT must take into consideration all of the costs and benefits and the importance of protecting the Nation's supply of food and fiber." To this end, the Agency assembled a team of scientists and economists to review the relevant scientific and economic data. HOW._UN_DERTAKEN This review centered on the key findings of the Administrator in his Decision released June 14, 1972 (Appendix IA). The initial assemblage and evaluation of the Information was under the direction of the Criteria and E"aluation Division, Office of Pesticide Programs. Comments and suggestions for the final report were given by scientists at offices elsewhere in EPA. The review was divided into four major areas for purposes of conducting the review by multidisciplinary teams and for presentation of findings: 1. Fish and wildlife effects 2. Human effects 3. Residues in the environment and man 4. Uconomic aspects The following methodology was used in reviewing various aspects of the Administrator's Decision: 1. Ascertain the Administrator's findings in his 1972 Opinion (Factual Findings Section). -1- �2. Review the information available to the Administrator in support of these findings at the time of his decision. 3. Conduct information searches using relevant data banks for more recently published articles and current research projects in EPA and elsewhere. 4. Evaluate available scientific studies and data on DDT in light of the key findings of the Administrator in his 1972 Opinion to determine which of the following best describes the current data situation: a) no new data since the decision in 1972; b) new data confirm (or deny) 1972 findings. WI1AT THE. IREPORT^DpES, ANDJjOES NOT DrO The aim of this report was to provide a detailed review of the literature and data relating to the findings which supported the 1972 decision, and to impacts it had on social, economic, and environment variables since it became effective January 1, 1973. The review was of the data supporting the various findings of the Administrator rather than of the overall decision itself, which involved weighing of various social, economic and environmental factors. pDTJt.nGUrJVTORY HISTORY; _ A__BRIEF SURREY A brief survey of the regulatory history involving DDT is presented in Appendix IB. The summary covers the period from early actions by USDA to restrict DDT use in the late 1950's to EPA actions since 1972, such as those involving temporary registration for use against the pea leaf weevil (1973) and applications for emergency use of DDT against the tussock moth in forests (1974) and aga.-ast the tobacco budworm on cotton (1975). �II. SUMMARY. A. FISH AND WILDLIFE EFFECTS B. HUMAN EFFECTS C. DDT RESIDUES IN THE ENVIRONMENT AND MAN D. ECONOMIC ASPECTS �SUMMARY This summary consists of an introductory survey and a matrix summarising results in tabular form for each major review area: fish and wildlife effects, human effects, residue monitoring, and economic (benefit) aspects. The matrices summarize results of the review, finding-by-finding in the 1972 order. The detailed analyses that led to ;he results summarized in Part II are presented in Part III, arranged in the same order. -4- �Voluminous literature published in this area since the DDT hearings has allowed a more complete picture of DDT's effects In this area than was available at the time of cancellation. Reproductive, behavioral, lethal, and sublethal effects on fish and wildlife have been reviewed in detail based on the additional literature and data. Also, EPA personnel conducted intensive onsite field interviews with persons involved in research on fish and wildlife effects to obtain most recent data and results, as a supplement to ''"2 nearly 500 articles that have been published in this area and reviewed since che cancellation. New data were available in the case of most findings on fish and wildlife effects and none of the findings of the Administrator could be denied on the basis of new data. Certain behavioral effects on wildlife that were not known in 1972 have been established since that time. -5- �SUMMARY R E V I E W OF DATA ON FINDINGS SUPPORTING AIHINISTKATUR'S ORDER ON DDT Fish and W l l d l l f o E f f o c t u A d m i n i s t r a t o r ' s Findings: Lines of Evidence or N a t u r e of Finding/ Sobflading Current y*ttji_S_ltuat Jjun__ _ New . jj.it a; _ C o n f i r m s l Denies 1972 1972 f FlniHn£ L F i n d i n 1 Re ma rks DIXF _cnn b_a Concent rated_ and JTransf erred JJTI f/e^iwativ^ and^nurlne j»lanktoiij insects, mo I lurtc Sj_ otjier J n v e r t e h r d l e s ^ and t' f sh, [experimentsi evidence' has der.onntrated the propensity ot DDT to hloaccuistilate In a q u a t i c organisms and to be transf e r r e d upward In the food web. Residue data collected In the e n v i r o n mont demonstrate t h a t DDT is u b i q u L toua in a q u a t i c organisms ,it levels e x c o e d l n g those o c c u r r i n g in the physical environment. i l , An nbsorptlon-dt ('fusion uptake mochantsm h.is been proposed for tho m i d g e ; uptake by al^au is a l s o passive. Residue d e t e r m i n a t i o n s on organisms f r o m n a t u r a l h a b i t a t s provide moat. c r e d i b l e evidence. Since the DCT ban, residues have g e n e r a l l y declined. Declines arc especially evident in s a l t w a t e r molluscs and Lake Michigan fish. . _. i li.tJi.t*.jliaturi'L DDT decrc-aw^s pnotosynth«ai« by d i f f e r e n t spo:ies of phyCoplankton. Exposure to DDT has resulted in reduction of oxygon production of near 902;" d i s t o r t i n g of cell orpancllefl also resulted from DLT exposure* DDT can adversely a f f e c t phytoplankton growth r<it«. A b i l i t y to tolerate NaCl was reduced a f t e r exposure to DDT. DOT £111 Have_I,fthal_ and Sub l e t h a l E f f e c t s ojn J^e I u l A<jjiJ.Ht Ic Frt'sh K x p ^ r i m e n t a l laboratory data have uhuwn t h a t DDT i-4 h i g h l y t o x i c to many aquat i c iuvertebrates. E x p e r i m e n t a l data have demons t rated that v«ry low levels can. result in r«.produ<:tl.va f a i l u r e and other aubiethal e f f e c t s . DDT has been found to result In a decrease in fructose diphosphatase a c t i v i t y in quahog damn. I n d i c a t i n g possible i n t e r f e r e n c e w i t h gluconeoftcnesin. It hat) also been shown to result In reduction of sodium and potassium concentrations In shrimp livpatopancrciifl. DDT It.18 r e s u l t e d in acute k i l l s of aquat i c I n v e r t e b r a t e s in the environment. Few new data are a v a i l a b l e , w i t h '-he e x c e p t i o n of p r e l i m i n a r y d.ira from the Tussock Much Spray Program in tl.o P a c i f i c N o r t h w e s t , In one study Htream, the tre.Umr.<nt resulted in nltnoBt t o t a l e l i m i n a t i o n of the aquatic Insect fauna and no signifi c a n t recovery was detectable a month later. DDT has been si own to hif f r e t h i g h e r t r o p h i c . l e v e l w as a result at s t a r v a t i o n f o l l o w i n g k i l l s of pr*y invertebratea. -6- �SUMMARY REVIEW OF DATA ON FINDINGS SUPPORTING ADMINISTRATOR'S ORDER ON DDT Fish and Wildlife E f f e c t s (continued) Administrator's Findings: ! Lines of Evidence or Nature of Finding/ Subflndirig __Currcn_t_Jata . _ _ _ _ j NJW "Qatar" No Confirms I Denies New 1972 1972 __ Pat a j Flndf ng | Finding Remarks DDT is Toxic Experimental laboratory data have shown that DDT will k i l l irost f i s h species at very low levels. Recent acute t o x i c l l y data are sparse, p r i m a r i l y because additional data would he redundant. A chronic s t u d y on fathead minnows «howed that they are p a r t i c u l a r l y susceptible d u r i n g the f i r s t 2-1/2 months of l i f e and d u r i n g the spawning stage. DDT has been responsible for f i s h kills. New reports of fish k i l l s are lacking except for incomplete d'lta obtained from the Tussock Moth Spray Program which showed 643 sculpinti were k i l l e d In one study crock fo Howl tig DDT application. DDT Can A f f e c t the Unproductive Succ_e.iB of~_Ftsh." DDT c.an be nlghly concentrated in fish and stored in llplds, p a r t i c u l a r l y in the eggs* This can result .'n increased fry m o r t a l i t y during the stage uh>tn the fry are utilizing trie yolk. In some cases recent data are more comprehensive. Egg residues have boea correlated w i t h increased f r y m o r t a l i t y , toth experimentally and in the environ- Experimental results have shown that DDT can result In del aye •) maturation of lake trout. DDT Haj a Variety of .Suhlethal Physiological, and Behavioral Effgcta^cji _Ft ah. DDT differentially affects the normal utilization of soire amino acids. DDT inhibits thyroid activity In fish. DDT has been shown to alter the temperature regime selection of fish. Also has bi en shown to a f f e c t the amount of a c t i v i t y at the selected temperature. Cold and warm water temperature shock hau resulted In death a f t e r altered temperature selection resulting from DDT exposure. DDT can affect the Impulse transmission in the lateral l i n e of fishes. DDT can a f f e c t learning processed of fishes. H y p c r s e n s i t l v l t y can result from DDT exposure. DDT has b-'en shown to disrupt cellular energy. Exposure to DDT has resulted In decreased enzyme (ATPases) a c t i v i t y In kidneys and R i l l s , sites I n t i m a t e l y Involved In osmoregulatlon. Exposure to DDT has resulted In abnormal 1 ties In the. Ionic makeup of blood. -7- �SUMMARY KKV1KW OF DATA ON FINDINGS SUPPORTING ADMINISTRATOR'S ORDER ON DDT Fish and W i l d l i f e E f f e c t s (continued) A d m i n i s t r a t o r " t : Findings: Lines of Kvldenco or Na! ure of Finding/ Subfindlng _Curr ~ No New Data __ _ _ | Now_ Dat a ~ ~__ C o n f i r m s ] Denies 1972 . 1972 j Finding. :: K i m U n g J Remarks DDT a l t e r s other "natural" behavior. "X"* Exposure to DDT has resulted :i changes in exploratory Lchavi' r f locomotive display patterns, jnd schooling behavior. DDT can ciuse developmental e f f e c t s . "X"* Exposure to DiiT resulted In increased pectoral ray asyranotry. S. -c-"'i HjJL'JJ.zcJiHHli-Aj'i""!1? 8 ° LJIPT. DDT residues "resent a hazard to birds during stress periods; During migration or food deprivation when fat reserves are u t i l i z e d , DLT residues are relocated through the bloodstream and accumulated in the brain causing death. Residues have been found in areas of l i t t l e or no previous DDT use. DDT residues up to 6.12 ppm have been found in Australian birds in areas far from any pesticide use. Assessment of cause of de.-.th is sometimes d i f f i c u l t because of the many pesticides present '" t h e enlvornroent. DDK residues up to 78 ppm were found In sick and dead eagles along with dicldrin, PCE's and mercury. L ;TC_ i s Concentrated_ In .and^T^rans f ejrejd^ Through T\;rjyst_rlal i_iiyertebra_te_1j jjammala, AniphfbT.ins, DDT Is u b i q u i t o u s at all trophic levels in the t e r r e s t r i a l system. DDT has been fuund in v i r t u a l l y all terrestrial organism). Some species near the top of the t r o p h i c levels are adversely a f f e c t e d by DDT. Osprey, n a p l e , oparrowhawk, peregrine falcon and other piscivorous birds are still a f f e c t e d by DDT In behavior and reporductIvc success but some are now showing pome signs of recovery. Residue body burdens In some .spelces are declining. Migratory songbirds In Florida are displaying a declining mean UUT residues in ppm from 1964 to 1973. Osprey have increased from 4 to 26 fledged young per year off Long I s l a n d , New York, associated w i t h declining residues of DDE. DDE Can Cause T h i n n t n a of i\lrd KggglielIs an G "Hnj s _1 nn_aj^ JU^p r t K! iJc^t_£ '.c Ji u c c e; i s. Museum s h e l l s and collected shells showed marked thickness d e c l i n e a f t e r Introduction In 19We. Shells now show pattern of returning to nearer normal thickness since suspensior of use and reduotlOT ol residues. Correlations between degree of shell t h i n n i n g and amount of residues; in eggs and b l i d s . Numerous confirming studies. *Newly found effects. -8- �SUMMARY REVIEW OF DATA ON FINDINGS SVPl'OKriNtt ADi-CUHSTRATOR1;; ORDER ON DDT Tlah i.iid W t ' d l i f e E f f e c t s (continued) A d m i n i s t r a t o r ' s Findings: Linus of Evidence or Nature of Find .nuf iinb finding Current Data S i t u a t i o n ! Laboratory atudiei: showed ike plienoraenon to reproducible. Confirming studies show that less than 1 ppr DDE diet causes thinning of shells DDE a f f e c t s calclu.it metabolism. Biochemical mechanism found; DDE Inhibits calcium ATI'asc ("the calcium pump") in the avian shell gland. "X"* Breeding behavior and nest attentiveness adversely e f f e c t e d by DDE. Widespread reproductive failures In many avion species in U.S. Fewer reproductive f a i l u r e s since suspension. Some avlan populations r e t u r n i n g to near normal rcpro'l.\.tion. No other chemical found to c.'iusc thu degree of thinning caused by DDE. More cVwlcals tested. Winning like DUE. *Newly found clfecta. -9- N.-Mie cause �HUMAN ..EFFECTS Prior and current literature and data on carcinogenicity of DDT are reviewed. The review indicates that DDT is a carcinogen in mice, and a potential carcinogen in man. Valid epidemiological studies of human effects of DDT are still lacking. Adequate laboratory studies in species other than the mouse are still lacking. NCI studies involving the carcinogenicity of DDT and its metabolites in rats are scheduled to be completed during the next year. The extent of acute human health risk due to use of DDT substitutes was reviewed, indicating no large increase in incidents due to the cancellation. However, data do not permit detailed evaluation of previous DDT use patterns. Acute and chronic health effects of DDT substitutes are being evaluated under EPA's Substitute Chemical Program on a continuing basis. Efforts have been made to protect against acute health effects by user awareness training and worker reentry standards. -10- �XLVIKM OF DATA ON FINDINGS SUPPORTING AHIUISTKATOR'S GliJiiR Oil iXJT UuvtUt liffecu; Administrator's Findings: : : Linos of Evidence or ' Turrcnt Data Situation Nature of Finding/ I NJW l*!li?L_ u_ ; Subfinding :io 6 nfTITO;'"Tillies" N..W Data !.')72 j 1972 Finding I Findim: 'Itio ijuio!iti<il of DDT to pr.xiuco cvincor in rrun lias to d.ito only boon cvalutitcxi on tlw ivsults obtained from ROUSO stixijcs. llx.'ro .'.«re no aclixjuitc liurviii stuli.os wliich ctocuTc:nt I'JJT as t i t •actuii! carcijioijc-Ji in nvin. ti'\l Hunvan_ Carcinogen. Tito ijrodjction of liojAitic tijnors by DOT qivon by (.hi? oral route lias U'on (kmonstratcxl and jonfinrvx'I in :;ovor^l strains of mlco. tB_ demonstrate-that JOT causes tunprs _in Jatoratory ariiimla. Liver cell Lunors luve lnvn prod'.icol in Ijtitli sexes, .ind in Ct' mice wi:rp fnund to Uivo to the lunqs. • There is sotrie_indicat_ion_of irotqisftajrnrqf SiH^LA^trihutoil to px|x>suro of .anJJBiils tx') 1)1/1' in Specific chemicals have bct-n observed to produce twno.-s . in mice as well as in the rat, dog ajKl mjnke1,'. In sijecific casios a chcTnical was observed to produce carcinomas in i>vm <-.s well. - Jtotj»n ^homicals show the_ tunorigenic propert:ies in The mouse for s&>ocific chemicals has born found to server as a reliable iixlicator of tne carcinogenicjty of a chemical in other s[<tcics and nan, althouoh *:ho tar'iet tissue IT.T/ te Different. Therefore, carcincxjer.ic cff<x:ts in mice cvi bo valid wlien dealinq with ttese carcinofjetis; hov.'ever, carcinogenic effects con vary greatly dciierid.Lng on tlio coqiound testu.1. " Tjyre arc no .vly^jte ripgat.ivo tal studies in bthor Studies in rats liavo boon inconsistent as to doso-res|xmse. The groups, were small in nunibnr and the histo;xit)K>]ogy cr^)]!)1/^! was inactajuate to draw definite conclusions. Uic one h.i"Kti'r study cited in this review was inconclusive, as a insitive contix>l wis not incorgiorated. I>irthfr, infoiTv'ition as to c.irci:v>ionicity (e.g., KJ(intancous tijrwr incipience; rusionso to Known carcinoiions) is not extensive with this s;nx;ies. Stuiier; perfonno.l with tiie dcxj aivi iroii>;cy were of too slwrt duration and utilized tro srviU a snnfilc sixo to yield any reliable statistical information. fJCI studies new imdorvuy "n carcinorjenicity of Dl/r .nvl its rnut.il.rjliter, cotild !.« Oi»'|)let<xl <iurtn.| tht! next, year (rats jtvl mice). -11- �SLTMtfY rcvnn or IXYTA ON FINDINTB .SLTPOHTT:*; ADMINISTRATOR'S OKDKK ON Hutu in Effects luonli.tiu«\i) /Jnu:usti\Hor's Piiiliivj Pi I irn-s of UVK'.«ICO or . .t.mo of "inlirvj/ SiU finding Ciiri «a it ait 1 S l t l H t i ' T t l w Hn:i: ,v:> iw i TX'nics Now l»|-\ ;; i^nrurkii F,i!5" - There is fio ••vlixjua lri^KT;! 1 ditj"cr, "the oiiKTity of pJJT, _nor No Allitioivil wll-dnfim«l iiat«i were obtained fran tho coTimiiut stuciies iJtxyiram except r or.; due* (Lit«i< Ttx> cMrly stx*Jios citwi utilismi stall cxijeramontal utoups (35 or less) cwr rulativoly shnit (•cricxls of tinw (1-11 yatrsj as to Uv.it vrtiich is L years) oi' yrciitorf to test a potential carcinwicn of tjio rotciicy of urr in iwm. Mmdical folltv-up in tins c.i^-o ot It contiulh\j (ioso studitd vo limiUxl to 4 yoars with cnly 2 sul-ijcctfj in *vich tk>st- (jniup* In addition, the nujority of studies jtilizirv^ occui>itioruil were ur»- obtained. fli7c» lack of data on aqc of first nxfusurc to WiT (which otujld lx.% critical in cioveloffHf-nt of <i corcirvm) alontj with otj»»r Imitations nvikc such stiA'Iics inxxicla'iivo. Moreover, S1IVCO HUH IB Ubl>JUltrxmr Uioro is no i>ji^-letoly nm control Dofuiitive onnjluflions AS to tlw extent ctf acuto lurvw health i^qoftB of tin1 us*? of M?'1 S'lVistitM'-*"* r-innot. t"1 1 drawn on Uiais of avaiLibk data. [\»w scrips tlo not ivmit .{ikintitative analysis of hvnwi htvilth cffwrtii in uso lottoiTiB jr^wK7ttxl by tl?o 10?2 decision, c.cj., -a>tton. ivi^wvc thoru is inflicitwl 3-r<? wnjU' lu/arU to Inriins inwlvin^j tJio IJUWN EFFUSTS OF IXJT UGO Of W/F SlttjfltitUtr'B, SlKh as tlw op] WA's [JOitticitie or.ifiode rwicw syattfH still 3 i»ts r.utliyl f«r.ithion as o.^ or the mst involving) hiPHn . , ^•«j\«?ntlj not ftlj^* Jt'it'n it's' ii3ft_.<V!.3i^tto ' ^y^Ai^5^a.t?L,43!tl^\f?.li' Trajninj ^rrx^r..tfrei arc use . in averting x X As irvlic.ittxi by nT'A'i* Project Safetfu.irtl, hujhly toxic orq,uv>'(jhosffvitos ouiild bo ijpt»i snfoly with Uomuvj and lojjawinq ir«»o fUr(cti<.ji'.B. '^x^itry st-trnlirUs alaf, offt-r S-T*.; jritrrntial to ,)rot.-x:L itf;ain::L pntHturo i-nlr.in>>» tnU> f.Ttvitwl .IKMS. Such Ht.w'anln wore pnjmul<|.it(,'^ l>y F.I'A in 1074. mticr nutifititutt •ire UKftl an v-vll in n*'-H» C.KJOS. 'KPA [ i will rt toxac 1 �DliT RESIDUES IN THE ENVIRONMENT_AND^MAN DDT is ubiquitous in the environment due to its past use and chemical and physical characteristics. Soil residues will continue to decline slowly. Residues in food commodities and in man have declined in recent years. Future declines will be at a slower rate. -13- �SW-MMW REVIEW OF DATA ON FDBINGS SUTOOOTING ADMINISTRATOR'S ORDER ON DOT DOT Residues in the Environment and Man Administrator's Findings: Ijra's of Gvider.ce or Nature of Finding/ ;3ubfinding DOT Can Persist in Soil for Years and tjycn SJCJtlqsi Degradation of DDT in the soil envirorarwnt is highly variable but typically is very slow. "Half-life" values of 10 years or more are cannon ly fourii. Current Data_Sit-lation_ t*->J"Data": No New Data Rerr.irks (Xjr.rTriVsT'DafiTes" 1972 l</72 1 The use of DOT for agricultural and forestry [xuriosos lias contaminatod a substantial portion of our nation's productive Isrid. Total soil residues of DOT and its metabolites will only decline very slowly ami substantial portions will still lie firesent after extended |*riods of tijTK. Drift of DOT his coasod to be a problem since cancellation c.r all uses in 1972, except jjossibly in tlio uso of Kfi: arjiinst Uffi tussock iiBth. The significance of -/a]»rization of DOT res idea from soil, osiJCciaily tho raoro volatile DOR 0011^x11 icnt, is otill poorly dofinaJ. Of special in^jortarea; is the relative role that, volatilization imy play in causing low level residues in dorostio aninvil foods grown on DOT contaminated f aim! and. - DDT can l)eattachedt _sm _a_ ffmtami.nant of jYcsh Wjtprs, rji S. 9?'™-!-^ ?i*!- ik i tcT'revont" D t Y r [DT residues are ubiquitous in tlie acpjatic onvirprjiiont, tMiwcially in aquatic sites fed by agricultural watershetJs. Conti»ninatiou of estuarine areas by way of nujor river Kystona has occurred and coastal are-ia are ije,v?raUy follulal ( with low levels of UJf. Hie o[x.vn ocxjans COH .<MII considerably leas IX/r, but minute levels am be found worldwide, wen in the (ular i.X/r aixJ its nuMlwUtctf IX)E and DDD arc comunnly found in water, mxlinont <irei atjuatic life. A dynamic orailibrlitn exists with the main storage reservoir being tlw button) !iodiiw>nt. I/3SS of DOT from terrestrial to aijuatic aiv.cs duo to soil erosion will continue to occur for nuny years into the future. A gr^tual decline in residue levels of aijuatic orgoniana can be ex])ectod as tho bioavail.ibility of DOT is docroisod due to ttio combined factors of dispersion/ degradation, aixl . sedimentation. Hxcopsive residue levels, as noted in fish from the Gre.it. Ijakes in ttie 1960 's are no longer froijuont occurrences. With tho exception of data on fish fron the Great UiXes, most avjiilaWe residue data are not apjilicable to predict ion of long term trends with regard to tin- cliviiivint ion of [XiT in aijuatic Ki-sidues of IW nr*l its ^ c.\n bo exjioctdd to |orsist for an extended jx'riod of Urn 1 , n ioav.1 liability , iiov-cver, c.~u> bo cxnx:tod to decrease as a result of dispersion dcxjriidation aiU c<.il U!*?ntaK ion es|x.-ciaUy in areas where lottom sodinx^nts aro not mibjoct to continued difniiption. (irni "Iviscline" data fr<m which futv.re trends can bo coiUJiirrtl .uvl/or: pnxlictul are not yet ,ivailiil)le for nnny tjivs of. (v|uatic areas. �REVIEW OF DATA ON FINDINGS '-•UPPOKTITX; AVli'SIiS'iKATOR'S ORDER ON DOT DOT Ii?sidues in the EriviroiswiiH ,jr»J Mm (continued) Administrator's Findings: : : Linos of Evid<3vce oc Mit'ue of: Finding/ Sul'firvling Current Data Situation New Data: Confirms j Denies 19/2 1972 Finding ' Finding Henurks fto New Data inLthe..Pond chainLand^ flradual dec! jjies of toraf. Wf residues in certaiji nujor fcoi] cantiodities began as oai'ly ss 1965, but declined rapiilly only after 1970. POT rv.;.»- .jxvri poultry, these declines hud stabilized by Ft 1973. I«\'els of the metatnlite DDL' Iwve increased rcliitive to UDf over the last several years indicating that nuch of Oie current DOT residual is> coming from pesticide treatments atTiiod prior to DDT's cancellation in 1972. Due to the persistence of these compounds, icsidues will continue to occur for nany years, even after cessation of COT use. KcBidue_s__Rcs_i_;lt8 _ DDT and its metabolites DDE .incl DOTJ an> cxmonly found in huran foods, especially noat, fish and dairy Store 1X)T . DDT residues in hunon adijose tissue haAS tended to decline in recent years (1971-1973), while the percent of DDT stored as DDE has moved up only slightly. During this earo period, significant declines in residues in human food were noted. However, since FY 1973, levels of DOT ard its mntvihol i t«»s in food have leveled off so UW-. no precipitous chance in human tissue levels can be ex|>ectod in tlie near future. DOT and its mataljolites DOS and MX) are fouivJ to store in humn ad.ipose tissue. DOT residues are found in hinun f»!Julations world-wide with higher residues usually associated with DDT use in uncierdeveloiffld countries. Mr.an serum levels of DDT in samples from otreu[<itionally ox{Dso(,! individuals showed a pronounccrj ijomward trencJ between 1971 and 1973 suggesting decrijasod exposure durutj the period. -15- �ECONOM r.c. ASPECTS Cotton was the major u&* of DDT prior to the cancellation, accounting for more than 80 percent of dome.-;tic DDT use. DDT was used on about onesixth of U.S. cotton acreage in 1971 and 1972 (one-fourth of cotton farms). InsectiiJdos are an important input to cotton production, contributing to improved yields, although they account for only about four percent, of total production costs for the average cotton grower. Insecticides range to near J5 percent of costs in some regions. Alternative insect controls, chemical and non-chemical, are available although there are pest resistance problems in some areas for certain pests, and, at times, market scarcities of supplies. Coats of growing cotton were affected in the Southeastern United States whern DDT was used prior to the cancellation. Costs were increased by about $7.73 million per year on the average in 1973 and 1974. Nationally this impact amounted to an increase in costs of slightly over $1.00 per acre treated with insecticides (all types), equalling an increase in cotton production costs per m re of about 0.5 percent. This cost impact was within the r«nge of estimates in tne. hearing record (cost impacts up to $54 million per year). This coit impact was quite significant in the most affected region as production coots were Increased by more than $600 per farm on th« overage for about 10,000 farms. Insecticide costs in this region were increased by about $6.00 per treated acre, over the 1971/72 average of about $15.50 pt-r acre in 1971/72. Farms in this southeastern U.S. region that une insecticides average about 70 acres treated per farm. Effects on costs elsewhere were much less significant. The cost impact of $7.75 million translates into a nominal impact on the consumer of cotton, i.e. 2.2 cents per capita per year. The cost impacts of the cancellation are not expected to generate large regional or national impacts on cropping patterns for cotton and other major agricultural cropr>, based on a recent analysis. Studies are in progress in EPA to evaluate possible cotton yield effects of DDT and other cotton insect pest management options a<; well as cost impacts which were the prime focus of studies reported in this review due to data limitations. Minor use DDT cancellations have resulted in increased Insect control costs of more than $£00,000 per year (estimate for 1973), a nominal impact nationally. Production and yields of minor use crops have not been seriously affected. Temporary uses of DDT have been permitted in certain emergency or special cases such as the tussock moth and the pea leaf weevil. Stuiies are underway to better evaluate benefits of DDT and alternative controls in forest uses under an EPA/USDA interagency agreement. -16- �SUNK/unr I3.VK-N Or DATA CXJ FINDINGS SUPPOmNC, ADT-'.INICTItf.WS VaUt O:J !>mAspects: Administrator's Fi:Kliix|: Lines of Kvjdonco or Nature- or Finding/ Subfinding Ootton Curt ont Data situation No New Data T»)ntTiTit;1 DpnfoT"* 1972 j 1972 l'ini!incj_J_ F.'nding liainrks Cotton was tlie rvijor iXiT u:io account intj for noro tlian 80 [xTcont of Uanrjstic usu. DOT w.is usorj on ,ilr)at 17 jx-rci-nt of cotton fanre in thi- U.S. prior t.o U« cxmrr'lldtiori (18,700) ..inJ nlJOut 2r> [ifix'ont of tt« cotton Jcrvano (1971-7." ,!VOI-;KICS) . Ml? w,is na«J onJy in ttio S.I.-. U.S. U'linxiu'itcly prior to t ho CiUicolliitKxi (S. /<t J antic Iftxjion • Ml.. Del., V.il., K. Vs., N.C., S.C. , Gi. .wJ Fl.l.; a-itl Hw Hist S. Central Hi-Mion - Ky., n . , Al.i., Miss., Ai'k. i M . ) . OOVJTU G.wral ooonor.iie context: of IA)T cotton care-ellation sinco 1972 Dixr MIS ua.<d on m>ro Uian h»lt : of tlio cotton f.nrai iU»J cotton .icrivvjc in t!»-> S. Atlantic Ha I ion in l f <71/7;', but )csa tlnn ono fourtli of tin.' cotton f.intc iir^l acrcaiio in (Jx^ tViist ;i, Ci-ntral l'j>jion. Insecticides arc an injxirtajit injjut in Uio cotUJn industry, l>it lf>ss t h i n r> wroont of t-'io cost of (irnwirvi cottnn in the U.S. In thi- S.F.. U.S. whore ixrr was usod, exists of. insocticiiJos raixKal up to 14 jjnrcent of Hx' txxiiot for qrowino cotton .»s of 1971/72. w.'11-lwinq of the U.S. cotton ''(rower is rtich moro -J function of other factors than eiurvjos in f«:;t icitlo nxjulatory [xilicy. T1»» cotton farmer, I fan yi^ir to year, is haul hit by such factors as boil weatlicr, I ite planti;via lo.vi]nq to [A'St infest.ition fitxjblixns are.) dccliniiv) (irtcps which lutt^rod tr.> iiKl;i.';try in 1'174. 'Iliis CHit^im^ folk*.t\l a lnnniT year in I'i71, wif/ii prici'S wt'ro tln> ' hinliost in hiKtor,' anti thr; 15 nrnt to qrcv.'rs was in effect. Ilio unfa\vrabli; tvixxnic oiit<-tjm for ocjtton nrnwci'3 in 197J has lend to qnvjtly rcOuc.-ed cotton plantimis in l')7'>. Tlio ctitton imliistry twin I'iblo to rxi-t 'inrb^t ticxxln BITICC 197,1, os[jecially in l'»74 as prices ik<clin:«l stviiiily whon Ihir croji c-.int- to r.irkot. -17- �UI.VUH or rv.TA CM nN»i.*s pi.vroi'riNd AUKisrifrivvrou's <>w>u< ON wr j Administrator's Kiixliivj: : Linos of fVii.i-.'.'iw or N.UUIO of I'ln-lini/ • ^Ui'JlL^M.'A A'_* Jil'-iHL ' ""'1..1.. ••"^i'i;017,.,~'"~ . M:> ' Ocnfin.iii" Uiiios" Itfir.irks A'.'MLAiJILITV »' AL1YJWAT1VTS TC fX.T OLT js^_ust^_ful for tJjo mnt-rol «tl<>lit.i_).'\ X In t!v> !>:7r H-NUUH .Vtninrnan Ns. 2 ctn; tTuJA o^nsick-rtxl IW i's;icr.li-il to i.T>r.Lrol UK? Ijol! w.HA'il, njtton lnliv*j:Ti, L '.lS, . . .. . CV^ttori |^-iyt,'» 'irt? Lsvxxufx^ t'oriiflt^uit to OiYT. . X t h i l l s , 4lTKl OUtWt.)ITCi. iki^v.'-T, UK; 11T1 AnniLll t'oi'.frjr•XIVA.' J*t'in.jr't. on chiton Ir^^x**: ivm-.irc'h ,iul Co:;t.rcl only rt.vr.!;irn:'.al IXXT for UK- l»liv/>rm, Ixxlvor-, .iivl outwritn. 'Hn.* 107J A:\n'.v»l. Confi'i't'iit"1!? ;^i'|ir>rt mi Cotton Inw.vt ('t'.rw.irch aivl Oontio! (I'jSiA) sUtoci taviy cot.tor. (vats .iro ro:»is;.,\nt. to nil'. /'.!:».', IXMI i:x| tostimjiiy Htiitn! I)i/r w.:is not I ' f f i v t IVP foi' tin' control of (.!«.• U.ill V*V.Vll . U * l t i n t tMttll 1 . ( X M l t S , ir'.olu.ltii'i tho Inllwnm, an| f i i t i . i l l y or to'.-illy rosi&t.vit to !)(>!'. "Ilx? t.<-<::il in uao of l/L/T woe Jk.*^.tw^urU cnux> l^Ct, pn-iRj'vujly tl'j-.' in [«irt. to Methyl i*lrf}thir'OJ«'y-L?tiKfLi'riJlV12LilosL'?V^S ^ chraicifs aro offtcti'lw for_l!k£p.>Htjroi_pr cx>ttcn ;x>sts, Altoni.\tivc post iciiios .in1 r<*]intoro! |jy n'.\ r«>; tcx-oi!ri"i!"U hy t!*1 st.ui's for till cotton jn:».vt 'tuvs i« li.i'itt\I to of rost r<v:ist..uns! duo to :x'.r,7 oi o5M:si:Ui'1!it. use of olxmiCiils in Us' :>•.';(•. or oytroro |vst iiiiost.it ion tMdriM "In; i 0 7 5 Annul 1 CtonfcrtTitv l!f-;crt on Oitton Insix't ii':»\irc'i Oon'.rol (U>HA) ri.v.irr«.'r»iix! 13'A u>nstoi\i'. ir..'v>ii.-( i','i.lv3 for t!«> o.»itrol of I'. txi ;«";*.s. Inu.»ir,itixl Jit (TOT.U.H .inmiiimi/'Jw) tix> ti^tu'*. of tln« ;.!«' '•visinii by i«\n. .•• .ii;tii>i .«>! ir-iiirovocl UMI'? of 1'X; 'ItoiT.it ivi.-s, -18- �SUMMARY REVIEW OF DATA ON FINDINGS SUPPORTING ADMINISTRATOR': ORDER ON DDT Economic Aspects: Administrator's Findings: Lines of Evidence or ( Nature of Finding/ ' Sjbfindtng Cotton (continual) Current Data SUuatjorr ' liewTFata 'No ("Confirms {"Denies" New | 1972 1972 r Data i Finding [Finding B/J5 li!£,MeJittf I Parathionjjr Other Mean"s~pTTeTt 'Control... Cot ton Plrod'ucers 'Can"6e'n'r a !'!/"' d uctTsTfl^fac jo ry e P~ro Remarks Impacts of DDT Decision on Cotton InsecTJcide'"C'osts - Comparison' of TgTTKTjT and T9T3/74 'pre and"post-cancejTatTon pe'rTbd's The comparison of two year averages for the periods immeJiately prior to and following the 1972 decision provides the basis for making judgements of impacts on costs of growing cotton. Data on the individual years are not available. Insecticide expenditures nationally increased from $64.6 million nor year in 1971/72 to $102.9 1n 1973//4 (from $10.07 $13.65 per acre treated with an Insecticide, or by $3.58} Of this $38.3 million Increase In insecticide costs, an estimated $6.1 million was due to the DDT cancellation (about one sixth). In addition, the cancellation led to an estimated increase in application costs of $1.6 million for an overall total of $7.75 million. This amounts to an average increase of about $1.04 per acre for all cotton acres IrcoUJ in tiiu U.i., i::73/74 average (7.563 million acres). This impact translates into a rather nominal impact on the consumer, i.e., about 2.2 cents per capita/ year for 1973/74. These cost impacts are well within the estimates in the record at the DOT hearings (up to $55 million per year). Impacts in the two affected regions are much more significant. In the South Atlantic, Increased insecticide and application costs, for a total of $6.0 million. This equalled about $630 per farm, based on the estimated number of farms that would have been treated with DDT in 1973/74 if it were available (about 10,000 farms). This is a significant increase in costs, and is at a difficult time for cotton growers because of economic conditions of the Industry and the economy generally. The Increase 1n the East South Central was much less significant (about $1.0 million for insecticides plus $0.75 million for application costs for a total of $1.75 million). This would be less than $200 per fer.n on 9,000 farms. Supplies of some DDT alternatlvei were not plentiful in 1973/74, as costs increased sharply, particularly in the South East U.S. cotton area. -19- �SUMMARY REVIEW OF DATA ON FINDINGS SUPPORTING ADMINISTRATOR'S ORDCR ON DDT Economic Aspects: Cotton (continued) Administrator's Findings Line1; o f Evidence or i Cufrern Data Sir..'- n_ Nature of Finding/ ] . '".l^Jfew" EftV _ Subfinding j No I Conf'iniS" fat cs" • ; flew 1972 197£ _____ _____ __ ____ Pita__ Fnuiimj Finding __ Remarks __ __ _______ Eva_luatHW_ oj^jmpacjls pjF.JLhc DDT/ Cot ton " An analysis has bee" -.ade of Inpacts of the DDT/cotton carcellation on U.S. agriculture for the year 1975, utilizing EPA's linear programming nx/ael for U.S. agriculture. This analysis evaluates impacts of changes 1n costs ot production upon acreages, total production anj prices of cotton and other major agricultural crops for the year 1975, as a typical year during the post-cancellation period. The analysis indicated that the DDT cotton cancellation had minor impacts on acreage production, costs, and returns for cotton and other major crops. -20- �SUMMAOT REVIEW OF DATA ON FINDINGS SUPPORrii*; ADMINISTRATOR'S 01U)ER ON DDT Economic Aspects: Administrator's Finding: DDT is iispf uj. for con . . Lines of Evidence or Naturo of finding/ SiibCindiiig inMctsthat: ~ _ _ ep ,_jjcanuts, cjbbagg caul_iflawpr,_ aixj brussels sprouts,' tcnvitocs, tresh imrkot corn, Jjwet peppers, pj|i«itos j_onipn5 ,_jarl ic , and 'riio urie Minor Uses __ Cur rentIX»tn _ _ ' i " New Dafrif _ ~ No | OoiiTi i Trej" TxSiTos New 1972 1972 Data j Finding [Finding Remarks A review was made of the yield and cost impacts of the raiiior uses contested at the hearings, which included tYftse crops. No review was made of the conmercial greenhouse use. DOT was :»t widely used for ttiese crops at the tinx? of cancellation (2.4 percent of U.S. acreaqe in 1971). Ttmutoes and caUjage hati the largest percontage uses (9 and 16 |x:rcent of U.S. acreage respectively in 1971) . Yield/acre and total production in US for ttoso craps nave been maintained since t!io cancellation. The only crop with 1973/74 yield/acre notcably below tic 1968/72 average was cauliflower for which there vns no reported DDT use in 1971. [' Insecticide costs for contested minor crops wore ostinwtod to increase nominally (by about $460,000) dii" to OY> ID"1 cancellation Uised on Uie year 1973. This would translate into a rather small inpact on the consumer. Costs to growers in some local areas could have been affected significantly Iwt no such effects are reported, aside from problems with the poa leaf weevil, discusstxi below. Meqxuto substitute chaiuoals, methyl [arjtTuon _SKT other or for tliejiost paft—^xist'Tfor..'.crops except swe«3t^ potatoia Hi storage,~Tieavy infestations o'f "oSrinjoua:, JttacK'ing""swcbt ivspors_ grown on ffioT5oT"Hirya fiinrnsuTa, aJi<Tbni.bns These uses have been cancelled ( but since tho hearing substitutes have bet'ii registered for swoat potatoes (stored) a;Kl sweet peppers. Cost impacts from use of alternatives to DDT for sweet peppers were esti'.iuted at 576,000 over the Del i>torva area, or about $19.00 per acre (4,000 acres). In 1972, 'OT tost to farmers was $6.51 per acre on 1,100 acres. Thr: onion uso was limited to a fow acres in California, and substituca are available. of alternative controls for the pea leaf weevil had led EPA to autliorize temporary registration of t:OT ayainst this pest in Washington and IdalvD. Testing of altonwtivo controls in connection uito 'Jicso rwjistraMons haa Icxl to rtxiistr.ition of alternative controls tor 1975. �SUMMARY REVIEW OF DATA CN FINDINGS SUPPORTING ADMINISTRATOR'S ORDER ON Economic Aspects: Minor Uses (continual) and Forest Use Administrator's Finding: Linos of Evidence or Nature of Finding/ Subfinding : Current Data Situation I KW Data: 1 No Confirms "Denies ! New 1972 i 1972 1 DaU. Finding ; Finding : Remarks COT is Usecl for Ext.crmindti.ng Pats and Mice by tho Military. n'Majuigation and" NonChciiucal fethods can puard Against JBa't Infestations. b) ^rjarjn~jLs Effective for Exterminating House Mice. Data requested from the Armod Forces Pest Control Board have not yet been received and evaluated, but probably not a great economic impact. DPT is Cbnsiderod Useful to Have Jin Reserve for l^iM_i£jjeaith_P^iil»S2S in dispaso Vector Control. A very minor use of DDT in this country; it was not cancelled; substitutes are available. The Administrator found thut potential benefits outwcighud possible hazards. FOREST USKS 1. The forest use of DDT was not contested in the DDT hearings, but since 1972 has been the subject of energency use requests. 2. OUT had been used ex jnsive.y against forest insect pests through the mid 196C's when its use was phased out as a nutter of policy by USDA and USD! because of environwntal concerns. 3. An onergoncy rwjuest by USDA to use DOT against the Tussock Math in 1973 waj toiioJ by >A, out a bJ4iu.iAr was granted in 1974. Evaluation of the impacts of that action are in process. Sane environmental e occurroJ to fi&.i, wilulife emu uonts-ic SCUCK, according to preliminary data. Benefit evaluations of past forest pert control efforts have b?en luritad by data and mettiodology. The Forest Service is presently engaged in a major research effort on the biology and control of the gypsy iind tussock moths. EPA has recently entered into an interaqency acnrefment with the Porost cp^.t«i *r> ~*c!-.vii3 'ue enviranrental and econoru'c consequences o" tha cancellation o* DTT1 *or control o* these posts. :. This will be a major study with $250,000 from EPA an;i $70,000, IVJrest Service, and should considerably enhance our abiJ ity to eaturate forest t»st losses and the benefits of various control strategies, with and without DOT. • -22- �Ill DETAILED REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS �Ill A. FISH AND WILDLIFE EFFECTS �INTRODUCTION In drafting the Fish and Wildlife Effects Section, we have located, obtained, and reviewed nearly 500 scientific publications. Also, we contacted approximately sixty individual scientists by telephone and visited more than twenty key scientists with unpublished current information. We reviewed their data, verified their protocols, and obtained written and unwritten "personal communications" and clearance for quotation in this report. In this manner, we feel that the review is quite comprehensive and current as of January 1975. Many articles collected and reviewed are not cited in this report because: 1) the sample size of the experiment was too small to allow valid conclusions; 2) the data were for foreign species; 3) the data were confused with high residues of other pollutants; 4) the data were not pertinent because they were for nonwildlifc species; 5) the data were obsolete or represented excessive duplication of quoted experiments; 6) they were negative data about noneffccts, i.e., lack of effects where positive findings would not be expected, in view of other studies; 7) they were old data and had been discussed in the DDT Hearings previously. Residue and concentration values are cited as reported by the original authors, although available analytical techniques may not always be as precise as indicated. -25- �8IOACCUMULATION IN AQUATIC ORGANISMS AJministrator's Finding: DDT san be sor.ecntmited and rred in freshwater and nayine plankton, insects, Sy other invevt-nbrates <>nd fish. This issue is concerned- with the evidence that DDT is concentrated and incorporated into body tissues of aquatic organisms at levels much greater than those occurring in the physical environment and that these high levels nay be transferred upward through the food web, with the highest level consumers receiving the greatest pesticide load. Arguments used to support this issue are: 1. Experimental evidence has demonstrated the propensity of DDT to bioaccumulate in aquatic organisms and to be transferred upward in the food web. 2-. Because of the persistence and nobility of DDT in the environment and its lipophilic properties, DDT is widely available to and biologically concentrated by aquatic organisms. Residue data collected in the environment demonstrate that DDT Is almost ubiquitous in aquatic organisms in levels exceeding ;ho?2 occurring in the plvysical environment. Experimental data presented at the hearing showed that DDT can be biologically concentrated by a variety of aquatic organisms at all trophic levels. Phytoplankton, tlu» dominant oceanic vagetation and primary food source for marine animala, concentrates DDT from seawater into its cell membranes . Waterfleas (Daphnia) , a food source for many freshwater fish species, accumulated 9.0 ppm in tissues after three days exposure to 80 potr. This represents a bioconcenirat Ion factor of 112,500 times the exposure level. Rainbow trout exposed to 1.0 ppm DDT (wet weight) in food and 10 pptr in water for 84 days contained 2.3 ppra as whole body residues. Exposure to food alone resulted in residues of 1.8 ppm (a concentration factor of 1.8 X) and exposure to water aloiif yielded residues of 0.72 ppm (a concentration factor of 72,000 X). In fish fed 1 rag/kg DDT/day, 73"' of the DDT residues were present 90 days after the fish were transferred to clean food. The ability of DDD (TDK), a metabolite of DDT, to concentrate and be transferred un the food web is demonstrated by studies at Clear Lake, California. DDD was applied directly to the lake between 1949 and 1957 to control a gnat at levels calculated to be 0.143 ppm in the water. During the 1950's, many western grebes were found dead; body fat residues were about 1600 ppm. Residues in fish from the lake ranged fro.n 40 ppm in carp to 2,500 ppm In visceral fat cf brown bullheads. Since fish are the primary diet of grebes, -26- �It is obvious that DDD levels in fish were transferred upward to the grebes. As of 1969, residues in grebe body fat were about 350 ppm. Egg lipid residues were about 124 ppm in 1969 and 305 ppm in 1970. In addition to causing mortality among the grebe population, reproduction was very seriously impaired and resulted in drastic population declines. Similar environmental concentration and transfer, where the source was agricultural runoff from onion fields, was found at Tule Lake, California. The western grebe, a stationary marsh resident that preys on the Tule chub, exhibited monthly fluctuations in residues ranging from 1.2 to 3.7 ppm in the organs and from 2.3 to 142.8 ppm in adipose tissue. DDT residues in the low parts per trillion were found in all of the Great Lakes. Lake Michigan had the highest concentrations. Whole body residues found in some Michigan fish are: bloater-chub, 8.61 ppm; lake herring, 6.71 ppm; Kiyi chuo, 13.28 ppm; yellow perch, 3.2 ppm; lake trout, 6.96 ppm (lake trout eggs, 4.44 ppm); white-eye chub, 7.50 ppm; coho salmon, 3 - 4 ppm in the summer of their second year, rapidly increasing to 12 ppm in late summer as they increased feeding. Whole body residues found in fishes in southern waters were: Mississippi —snail-mouth buffalo, 8,43 ppm, and carp, 13.02 ppm; Texas — gizzard shad (a plankton feeder), 4.17 ppm, channel cntfish, 7.27 ppm, and blue catfish, 3.98 ppm; Alabama— carp, 3.40 ppm, and large-mouth bass, 2.44-5.15 ppm, mullet, 1.56-2.16 ppm Arkansao— carp, 2.03-2.09 ppm, small-mouth buffalo, 3.10-7.20 ppm, flathead catfish, 3.26 ppm, and channel catfish, 2.31 ppm; Florida— channel catfish, 57.0 ppra. DDT also has been found to concentrate in marine organisms, including marine mammals such as seals and whales. DDT residue data generally showed lower levels in organisms in the lower trophic levels and higher levels in organisms higher in the food web. DataJjtnce 1972 Data collected and published since the hearing fully substantiate that DDT is virtually ubiquitous in aquatic ecosystems and that most aquatic organisms (plant and animal) concentrate it from the physical environment and transfer it through the food web. Residue determinations on wild organisms provide the most credible evidence, while laboratory studies supply additional relevant data and give some insight as to mechanisms. Concentration of DDT by bacteria (Aerobactev aerogeneo and Bacillus subtilis) has been documented by Johnson and Kennedy (1973) . The bioconcentration factor did not change significantly with an increase in the water concentration of DDT ( . - . ppb) , but was dependent upon the concentration of bacteria in the water. 0550 Uptake was rapid, with 30-90% of the residue being concentrated within the first 30 minutes of the 24-hour test period. With a water concentration of 0.64 ug/1 and a bacterial concentration of 200 MR/1, A. aerogenes concentrated DDT about 1800 times. At a similar water concentration and a bacterial concentration of 174 ug/1, B. Bubtilid had a concentration factor of about 3,200 times. No evidence was found that DDT was degraded during the tests. Patil, Matsumura, and Boush ( 9 2 , in a study of the transformation process of DDT in marine systems, 17) took samples of scawater, ocean and estuarine bottom sediments, surface films, algae and plankton, treated them with radiolabeled DDT at the collection site, and incubated them for 30 days in the laboratory. The authors believed that the -27- �most significant observation was that DDT is not metabolized In plain seawater. Host of the strong degradation activity was found to be associated witii the metabolism of DDT by aJg.no, plankton., organisms assoc: latud wi ill surface' films, and microorganisms. In general, DDD (Tllli) was tin- principle nutaboJf to. The removal of dissolved DDT and DDK from water by plivtoplankton has been documented by several authors using a number of species?. Rice and Slkka (1973) found that Xkc'lctowia act--tntiw removed 93% of the compound from the water; Cijolotella Yiw.u-TyZ,\ /{•c7;?/:ii;/is:'o i;xl!>ar:a-57Z; Olifu'iujdir-wui 'int.euss-W/,\ Afn^ i-Wifi'i-445!; and "S.'kr-.-ii'.iilrr'fi eliui.i removed 332 of the available DDT wlicn these organisms were exposed to concentrations of I ppb in the medium. Sodcrgren (1971) determined that when 'Jilowlta r^i-cw'ihna was exposed to near saturation levels of DDK, the cells assimilated 8.?.% of the DDK. No difference in uptake was found between living and dead cells, indicating that uptake is a passive process. An inverse relationship between r.ell dc'istty and bioaccumula'tion factors was noted by these authors. Very rapid initial uptake of DDT by i-'utilena (ip'iaiiis followed by neither excretion-nor. degradation after 5 days has been documented by de Koning and Mortimer (1971). Sli'sht metabolism of DDT to DDL was recorded for diatoit* f.Vtt.w/it'rt fip.J by Miyazalfi and Thorstolnson (1972) and conversion of up to 12% was found for several species of pliytoplankton bv Rice and Slkka (1973). P.irrlsh (1974) studied. accumuJ.it ion and loss of DDT by American oysters (CrciPAOtitrCK y 'fji>::'..'a) which were exposed continuously to a concentration of 0.01 ppb DDT for 56 weeks. Maximum residue concentrations, based on body weight, (Mg/g) occurred after 8 weeks of exposure, but absolute amounts of toxicant accumulated (i.ig) occurred after 56 weeks of exposure. After 8 weeks, whole body residue concentration:) (wet wight) avo.raged 0,46 i'g/g (ppm), a concentration factor of .'(6,000 times the exposure level. Total body residues averaged 1.0 wg. After 56 weeks, average resuitu: concentration was 0.37 ug/g and the total residue average was 7.0 ).« per oyster. Rfslduos based on body weight decreased between l\y/> and 01%. during early July am' late October, apparently as a result of spawning, and increased following these 'perlody. Neither growth nor mortality of exposed oysters waf; significantly different from that of control oystr-r.s at the 0.01 confidence level. Bedford-'and Zablk (1973) exposedfreshwater mussels (Anodonta :j r IK J •'.,;} to concentrations .of O.K-0.62 ppb DDT and found that they concentrate it about 2400 fold in lake water. Residue concentrations were highest in the digestive and retmiductIve tissue and lowest In the muscle;, mantle, and gill tissues. Sodergren and Sv,-?nsson (1973) tested mayfly nymphs (i-'phenem Janiaa) in a flow-through system at a concentration of 761 pptr (parts per trillion) for a period of 9 days and found accumulation factors (concentration In organisms/ water concentration) ranged from 440 to 8250. p,p'-DDT added to the system was rapidly metabolized, the'principle metabolite being p,p'-DDK. Accumulation appeared to follow a kinetic equation of the first order. In experiments with the nidge (Wronww tf-.r.ii'\f,) Derr and Xabik (1972) found that exposure of 0.07-2.2 ppb through the llf<» cycle from egg to adult resulted In accumulation of residues in excess of 20.f|J-0 times the water concentration. Accumulation was dose dependent with DDF, residues- Increasing exponentially with Increased concentration at a given exposure time. At any given water concentration, accumulation increased with exposure time. The process of egg deposition eliminated 11..6-30.92 of the adult female DDC residues. In a subsequent paper utilizing the same. -28- �organisms,' Dorr and Zabik (1974) found no difference in the amount of DUE accumulated by live and dead fourth instar larvae. However, the amount of DDK concentrated by the larvae was increased by manipulation of water hardness. The authors proposed an adsorption-diffusion mechanism to account for the mode of uptake and biological concentration capabilities of the midge. Reinert, Stone, and Bergman (1974, unpublished) studied accumulation from water and food by lake trout (.MiLiV!!nun n,u>:tr'itni',!i) In the laboratory to determine how fish from Lake Michigan accumulate high concentrations from the environment where water concentrations are generally less than 0.01 ppb. Gtvups. of yearling trout were exposed to concentrations of p,p'-01)T ranging from O.C06 to 0.01 ppb in the water and from 1700 to 2300 ppb in the food. After 90 days, the fisli exposed only through the water had accumulated body residues of 422 p,'b DDT, fish exposed only through the food contained 464 ppb DDT, and those fish exposed through both food and water contained 798 ppb DDT. Maximum DDT uptake from the food only was noted after 120 days and was 712 ppb. After exposure to DDT stopped, elimination of DDT was monitored. li! imiirit ion proceeded very slowly and after 125 days, the residues of DDT had not .significantly declined. This rapid uptake and slow elimination clearly illustrate why high body residues of DDT are maintained by sorat: fishes. .larvinc'ii, Hoffman, and Thorslund (1974 unpublished) subjected fathead minnows to nominal concentrations of P»05 and 2,0 ppb DDT in water, with some groups being exposed to 50 ug/g DDT ( *C labelec) in the diet. The study lasted 266 days, through a complete life cycle. in general, residues peaked by 5h days for fish exposed to the low DDT ; . ter concentration and fed clean food and for controls witli DDT contaminated food, and by 112 diys for the rest of the, exposed fish. Residue levels rapidly decreased during the spawning period (112-224 days) and rose again after termination of spawning activity. After 266 days, fish exposed to control water, but with DDT contaminated food, had a body burden 2.4 times those exposed to low DDT water concentration but fed clean food. Fish exposed to the low water DDT concentration plus DDT contaminated food had residues 3 times those exposed to the same DDT concentrations but fed clean food. Residues from fish exposed to the high DDT water concentration and fed DDT contaminated food were'about 2 limes greater than in fish exposed to the same DDT water concentration but fed clean food. The percentage of total tissue residues attributable to the DDT food source remained relatively constant after 28 days exposure at about 35% for fish exposed to 2.0 ppb DDT in w,-.ter plus DDT food, and 607' for fish exposed to O.r) ;-pb DDT in water plus food. Illoconcentration factors were 1.2 times from the diet and over 100,000 times from the water. Total DDT residues were separated into DDT, DDK, and TDI1. DDK was the p r i n c i p a l metabolite found after 14 days exposure, indicating that DDT was rapidly metabolized. In the elImination portion of the study, there was v i r t u a l l y no DDT e l i m i n a t i o n for the O.!i ppb DDT water exposed fish up to 56 days, but Msli exposed to t h i s water cotu-entr.it ion phis contaminated food had a rapid elinination w i t h i n the first 28 day.-; f «1 lowi-d by slower e l i m i n a t i o n . At ")6 days, more than 50/. of the total tissue residues were losr. and the body burden was tMjnal to tliat of the fish fed clean food. • Several studies applying DDT to either Miiiall natural ecosystems or laboratory model ecosystems have been performed. Vaalakor|»I and S.ilonen (197}) applied DDT to a small pond in order to deternine the fate'of this compound In the aifuatic -29- �system. They noted that the maximum residues In the living organisms were attained after the water residues started to decline. Fifty-nine days after DDT introduction, the water concentration was <0.01 ppm while concentrations in perch, carp, and ptke were over 1 ppm. Mesentary adipose tissue taken from the perch showed the highest DDT concentration at 23.8 .'• 6.60 ppm. Using a laboratory model ecosystem, Mctcalt (1C'72) found that DDT was accumulated by the mosquitoflsh ( (iambus ia af finis) to a level 84,500 times that found in the environment. Residue studies on wild organisms have shown that DDT is virtually ubiquitous in marine organisms, from plants and invertebrates up through the tertiary carnivores such as marine mammals. Levels of the pesticide burden in body tissues offer ample proof that DDT is concentrated and transferred up the food web (Bjerk, 1973). DDT residues have been found in plankton from widely separated regions of the oceans. Residues up to 34 ppb have been reported in plankton from the Gulf of Mexico and the northern Caribbean (Giam et al, 1973). Williams and Holden (1973) reported total DDT residues of 107 npb in plankton taken fron waters north of Scotland. This same study indicated that residue concentrations declined seaward, implying a connection between runoff and onen oc'an DDT levels. Bjerk (1973) analyzed liver and muscle tissue from cod (Guluo ii taken from Norwegian fjords. DDT residues in the liver ranged from 3.5 to 95.6 ppm on a wet weight basis (means ranged from 11.7 to 25.2 ppm) . Residues in the muscle tissue ranged from 0.005 to 0.023 ppm. Deichmann et al (1972) found that DDT residues in the abdominal fat of the great barracuda (Sfhyvaeaa barracuda) in Florida waters ranged from 0.03 to 107.7 ppm in young adult fish (1.14-4.99 kg) and from 3.48 to 28.77 ppm in older fishes (12.5-18.35 kg). Ripe gonads contained DDT concentrations of 0.02-4.73 ppm, with lean fo males containing the most. About 75% of the DDT was eliminated during the height of the spawning period, along with most of the abdominal fat. Castle and Woods (1972) analyzed white croakers (Genycnemua lineatns) taken from the Los AngelesLong Beach Harbor area during the fall of 1971. DDT residues ranged from 6.36 to 18.56 ppm in fillets without • skin and from 9.44 to 30.64 r?v in fillets with skin attached. Means were 10.82 and 18.23 ppm, respectively. During 1971-1972, Giam et al (1974) collected groupers of the genera ftrinsptialmn and "^ctcropera from six sites in the Caribbean and the Grand Bah.imas. Total residue values in the muscle tissue ranged from very low levels (1-6 ppb) In the Grand Bahamas up to 139 ppb in 'tyateropera interstiti-alis from off the Texas coast. Kelso and Frank (1974) analyzed whole body residues of three species of fish collet ted from Lake Trie during 1972. Total DDT residue averages ranged from 0.01 to 0.11 ppm in vellow perch (Tcrsa flavetiffciw), 0.02 to 0.27 ppm In white bass (.'forme ahrynopa), and 0.01 to 0.26 ppm in small-mouth bass ('licroptcrus Jclonicid). Plankton and trout samples '.ollected in the Atlantic Ocean by Harvey, FJowcn, Backus, and Grlce (1972) contained DDT residues at every level of the marine food chain examined. Host zooplarikters had residues of less than 1 ppb. Mesopelagic fish and invertebrates had concentrations ranging from 3 to 1.2 ppb. The white tip shark (Cardiarinuo lon(iiri<mus ) a top carnivore, had liver residues of 100 ppb. Sargassum (a brown algae), the onlv representative of the primary -30- �producer level, had residues of about 0.5 ppb. In the Gulf of Maine, Zitko, Hutzingor, and Choi (1972) found residues of DDT in sea raven muscle tissue of 0.24 ppra; liver tissue of the white shark (Cawharodon t'tnvhanaa) liad 63 ppm. Numerous species of marine fislj contained low concentrations (0.01-0.48 ppm) of DDE. Residue analyses of invertebrates and fishes taken from Guatemalan estuaries, where pesticide u= ;e has been heavy, showed DDT levels as high as 45 ppm (Keiser, Ainado, and Murlllo, 1973). The molly (P-iccilia aphcnopr,), an important food fish, had the highest levels. The mullet '(,'futjil spj had residues as. high as 36.56 ppm. Offshore fishes and shrimp had residues much lower than the estuarinc fishes. Shaw (1972) analyzed eight marine fishes in California and found that liver residues for five species approached or surpassed the FDA residue action levels. Edible tissue residues were highest in the sablefish (Anoplom finbna) at 6.3 ppm. In Hawaii, Bcvenuo ct al (1972) studied residues in various aquatic systems. They found that residues in canal water were about 0.03 ppb and residues in the sediments (dry weight basis) were 600 ppb. Residues in the biota of the Ala Wai. Canal (wet weight basis) were: algae, 85 ppb; small fish, 460 ppb; plankton and detrital feeding fish, 606 ppb; and carnivorous fish, 864 ppb. Katios of residues in these organises to water concentration were: algae, 2833; plankton and detrital feeders, 20,200; and carnivores, 28,800. Smith et al (1974) monitored DDT levels in Utah fish. DDT w:is detected in 857, and DDi: in 95% of tlu? fish muscle tissue analyzed. Levels ranged from 0.011 to 0.175 ppm DDT and 0.007 to 0.112 ppm DDE. In Iowa rivers, Johnson and Morris (1974) found that total DDT levels in fish eggs ranged from 103 to 715 ppb. Fairly complete and consistent monitoring records have been kept in some areas. From these, some trends can be determined. Butler (1973) analyzed molluscs in fifteen coastal states between 1965 and 1972. In many areas where the continuity of sample collections was adequate, DDT apparently reached maximum levels in 1968-1969. A pronounced decline has been evident both in size and incidence of DDT residues in molluscs since that tine. The percentage of samples containing negligible residues (0.011 ppm) during the last year of monitoring compared to earlier years increased 85% in 12 of the 15 states monitored. In California, New York, and Virginia, the incidence of DDT residues increased but the number of sanples containing more than 0.1 ppm declined by about 46%. The data demonstrated that the decline in DDT residues in molluscs has been nearly universal on the Atlantic, Gulf of Mexico, and Pacific coasts. In Maine, levels) of DDT residues in Sebago Lake salmon have dropped from 17.2 ppm (wet weight) in 1964 to 1.42 ppm in 1973 (DeRochc, 1973). MacGrcgor (1974) analyzed monitoring data for marine organisms in th« ocean off southern California. He found that between 1949 and 1970, total DDT residues increased in the biota. The major source was apparently wastes discharged into the Los Angeles sewer system by a major manufacturer of DDT. As measured In myctophid fish, p,p'-DDT and p,p'~DDK increased for several years until metabolism, excretion, and dispersion equalled Input, at which point the levels stabilized. Tho more persistent, less easily metabolized p,p'-DDK continued to increase throughout the period studied. The amount of DDK decreased with distance from the sewer outfall. Total accumulated residues of DDT dropped steadily from 4.56 ppm to 4.14 ppm between 1970 and 1973, a percentage decrease of almost 10%. Data obtained from Dr. Virginia Stout (personal communication, 1975), National Marino Kishorios Service, Seattle, indicated several trends. Residues -31- �of DDT ami metabolites In edible portions of commercially important offshore Pacific coastal fish show.a north-south gradient, with the higher residues generally occurring in California waters as compared to waters of the State of Washington. No time-trend conclusion can bo made as the residues' appeared to be relatively stable within broad limits durinj; 1970-1973. Non-fish samples were limited, but showed relatively low residues. It should be noted that many fish had residues in excess of those which laboratory studies have shown to cause shell-thinning' in certain birds, and In some cases approach the 1-10 ppm DDF! residues found In anchovies eaten by brown pelicans during their extreme reproductive failures in the late 1960's off the California coast. Off Long Island, along with increasing reproductive success of fish eating birds and dropping DDT residues, upward trends in populations are evident in the blue crab fCaili>::\'ii.ii iiartJa.i) fov which concentrations of a few parts ,J<T billion are toxic to the larvae. This species almost vanished fro.. *.ong Island's Great South Bay from the late fifties *:o the early seventies. However, it began to reappear and in 1974, was once again a plentiful and important food resource (Puleston, 1975), Dr. Robert Relneri, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife. Ann Arbor, Michigan, lias monitored DDT residues in Lake Michigan since the late 1960's. Re inert (personal communication, 1975) found that nlgiily contaminated fish in Lake Michigan are currently showing a downward trend uh.'^h !>egan in tl>e mid-1960's, corresponding to the beginning of reduced DDT use. The trend becam- more evident when DDT tj.5r.-s were cancelled in Michigan. Since the nationwide ban on DDT In 1972, the downward trend has continued through 197't. Concent rat ions of DDT in whole fish for years 1969-1974 are presenU-d in Table I l I A . i . Residues in bloaters { V-*. •,:.••>:.•<.•! !!•;<!'.) dropped from 9.94 ppm in 1969 tol.J4 t >prn in 19/4. Lake trout (.";':v 'i> ': >;.•",,•_•••<.;/;) level:; dropped from l'i.93 ppm in 1970 . to 9.96 ppm in 197'J. Colio salmon (''.:>••*-•'.•_•>•.•'::</ *'.',:•/::.,•'';) dropped from 11.82 ppm in 1968 to 4.48 ppm in 197.1. Numerous reports of DDT residues found In marine mammals iiave been puMiuhed in the last few yt/ars. Harbor seals (:'hon'.i v'tul-n-t .»•',?!:TI>..-'•':') from off the West Coaut of the United States were examined by Anas (1974) for DDT residues in t;;e blubber. Off San .''iguei Island, blubber residues ranged fron .'380.7 pp;a'to 2,350.0 ppn wit.i a geometric mean of 610.7 ppm. The lowest residues wer;1 In seals captured off Alaska with blubber concentrations ranging from 6.8 ppm to 2V.8 ppm DDT. Harbor seals from eastern Canadian waters wore found to contain total DDT residues of 0.38-13°.15 ppm In the blubber, from a trace to 2.77 ppm In' the muscle, and up to 0.47 ppm in the cerebrum (Gaskin el al, 1973). Harp seals (••rioih'l.w 'i!V,::>:L-;ri llo'.ij) fron these sane waters were found to have blubbi r residues up to 50.0 ppm DDT. In European waters, ICoeman et al (l(/'72) reported residues in the common dolphin f?< . <*•' '<> '»;:<." :'<'?-V;*,), In the blubber, D')T ranged from 1.8 to 38 ppn, P!)Ii values were 1.3 to 117 ppn, and !>D:> from 0.07 to 22 ppm. Total DOT residues found in British grey seal !"/,'/:',/;,>,•;':<,• .?>•.• :<••) blubber ranged fror.i 5.59 i 3.57 ppn to 10.71 i 3.21 pnn. In nine seals',rae.-inDDT residues and their standard deviations were reported for different tissues including: liver, 1.42 ± l.3« r>pm; heart, 0.32 t 0.25 ppm; brain, 0.19 i O.JZ ppm; and blubber, 12.55 t 6.23 ppm (lleppleston, 1973). -32- �Table IIIA.l DDT Residues in Lake Michigan Fish Data given as whole body residues (wet weigh:) with 95% confidence intervals in p.~,.er.thesfis Nuraber of Fish Average length - '• - • ;' -(am) '• ' : . ' " ' Total DDT (ppin) Year Species 1969 Bloaters Lake trout Coho salmon 120 270 — 11 — 621 — 11.82 (2.69) Bloaters Lake trout Coho salmon 28 18 13 263 651 9.87 (1.44) 19.19 (3.27) 14.03 (1.29) Bloaters Lake trout Coho salmon 60^ 20 15 264 579 674 6.24 (1.13) 13.00 (1.76) 9.85 (1.41) Bloaters Lake trout Coho salmon 120^ 255 648 693 4.33 (0.48) 11.31 (3.26) 7.17 (1.09) 30 29 250 602 620 2.09 (0.26) 9.96 (1.36) 4.48 (0.34) 130^ 253 1.34 (0.052) 1970 1971 . ( ^ 1972 1973 . 1974 Bloaters Lake trout Coho salmon Bloaters sj Composite samples, 5 fish/sample 'of Composite samples, 10 fish/sample 9 . 10 160b/ 61.3 Source: 9.94 (0.33). Reinert, personal communication, Great Lakes Fishery Laboratory US Fish and Wildlife Service,' Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1975. �Female California sea lions giving premature birth were found to contain DDT mean residues in the blubber 8 times higher (924 ppm) than those females which carried pups to full term (103 ppm). Similarly, mean PCB residues in the blubber were 6.5 times greater (112 ppm as opposed to 17 ppm) in thcso females giving premature birth. Dieldrin residues, when detected, were low. High mortality among premature pups was observed (DeLong et al., 1973). Pearce et al (1973) provided data on chlorinated hydrocarbon levels in blubber and liver of three species of seals from the Gulf of St. Lawrence, Canada. Up to 6.33 ppm DDE was found in blubber of the harp seal, 3.5 ppm in the hooded seal, and 24.6 ppm in the gray seal. Harbor seals from the Bay of Fundy contained 24.6 ppm DDE; those from the Gulf of Maine contained 33.6 ppm DDE. Marine phytoplankton represent, the primary stage in the pelagic food web (0.007-1.09 ppra) and several species of fish such as herring and mackerel (0.09-0.67 ppm) form a secondary stage which in turn are consumed by seals. Conclusion The evidence supporting the finding that DDT can be concentrated in aquatic organisms and transferred upward through the food web is irrefutable. Experimental data have shown that most aquatic organisms will concentrate residues of DDT in their tissues far in excess of levels occurring in the surrounding medium and that residues can be transferred upward to predator organisms. Monitoring data of DDT residues in wild populations demonstrate overwhelmingly that they are ubiquitous in aquatic organisms and occur in tissues at levels much higher than levels present in the physical environment. Monitoring data are al;,o beginning to show downward trends in tissue residues of DDT as a result of the ban on its use in this country. -34- �EFFECTS ON PHYTOPLANKTON Administrator's finding: DDT affeats phytoplankton speaies composition and the natural balance in aquatic ecosysterns. This issue is concerned with two main, interrelated, facts: 1) DDT decreases photosynthesis by different species of phytoplankton; 2) DDT can adversely affect phytoplankton growth rate. Data as of 1972 It has been shown that DDT can, in vitro, decrease the incorporation of carbon by phytoplankton, thus decreasing the amount of oxygen evolved by these same plants. An example of this photosynthetic reduction lias been illustrated by the effect of DDT upon Cyalotella sp., a diatom. Reduction of phytoplankton growth rate has been shown for the diatoms Skeletonema sp. and Cyelutella sp. Actual reduction in the number of living cells has been observed After'exposure of Saenedes"KA8 quadnaauda to 0.1 ppb and 1.0 ppb of DDT. After 8 days, the numbers of cells were reduced by 25% and 51% respectively. Data Exposure of the freshwater algae Foc.nedesmus quadriaauda. to 5 ppm DDT for 95 minutes resulted in the reduction of oxygen production by about 90% compared to the contro/. culture. Exposure to 10 ppm DDT for this same period caused nearly a 98% drop in oxygen evolution compared to the controls (Pritchard and Dines, 1972). Work by these same scientists has shown that if these algae aro exposed to 5 ppm or 10 ppm DDT in the dark, then placed in a lighted situation, photosynthesis will proceed for only 30 minutes before complete cessation. MacFarlane et al (1972) have demonstrated that exposure of the marine diatom Nitzsahia delicatissima to as low as 9.4 ppb DDT resulted in a significant reduction in photosynthetic efficiency and a reduction in the amount of chlorophyll "a" in the cells. Exposure to 220 ppb DDT reduced photosynthesis by as much as 82#. Chloroplast size was reduced and the shape distorted after exposure to 9.4 ppb DDT. In studying the green algae Chlorella pyrcno-'dona. Cole and I'lnpp (1974) reported at a cell concentration of 1 mg algae/ml anJ a DDT concentration of 1 ppm, photosynthesis had been inhibited 69.4% after 7 days. While studying the effect of DDT on community structure, Mosser et al (1972) found that a concentration of 10 ppb DDT resulted in a marked change in the ratio of the diatom ThalfissioRira. pscudonwia to the green algae Dunaliella tertioleata. This altered ratio of the two hpocies within the same system could change the relative abundance of foods for grazing zooplankton. -35- �Another factor affecting phytcplankton production Is phytoplankton's ability to withstand environmental changes. The bluegrcon algae, Anacystic nidulcms, is, under normal conditions, able to withstand waters of relatively low salinity without showing adverse effects. When exposed to 0.3 ppm DDT, this species lost the ability to toievate even a 1% (by weight) solution of NaCl. This effect may result from che interference by DDT with Na+ and K* ATPases, compounds intimately involved in sodium transport (Batterton at al, 1972). This loss of ability to tolerate low salinity conditions could be of major importance in estuarine regions where rivers wash into marine areas. Cone lu?_ tori Information presented during the Administrative Hearings process and made available since the end of those hearings has clearly demonstrated that DDT can have severe detrimental effects on several types of phytoplankton: both marine and freshwater species. These effects can have a significant impact upon microscopic aquatic plants, which are a major source of the world's oxygen. -36- �LETHAL AM) SUBLETHAL EFFECTS ON AQUATIC INVERTEBRATES trp's Finding: DDT can have lethal- and sublethal effects on useful aquatic invertebrates, including arthropods and w This Issue is concerned with the fact that DDT can result in both acutely lethal and chronic sublcthal effects on aquatic invertebrates. These effects include direct mortality, reproductive failure, altered ecosystem species composition, and effects on higher trophic species. Arguments used to support this issue include: 1. Experimental evidence demonstrates that DDT Is highly toxic to many aquatic invertebrates. 2. Experimental data have demonstrated that very low levels can result in reproductive failure and other sublethal effects. 3. DDT has resulted in acute kills of aquatic invertebrates in the environment. A. DDT has been shown to affect higher trophic levels as a result of starvation following kills of prey invertebrates. The evidence presented in tho DDT hearings contains considerable data which demonstrate that DDT is extremely toxic to aquatic invertebrates and that very low levels can have adverse sublethal effects. Experimental data, based on both static, arid flow-through tests, show that aquatic arthropods are extremely sensitive to DDT at levels below about 5 ppb. Examples of 48-hour median lethal concentrations to freshwater arthropods are: Daphnia pulex, 0.36 ppb; D. nagna, 4. 4 ppb; scud, 2.1 ppb; caddisfly (one species), 3.4 ppb; and mayfly (one species), 0.3 ppb. Similar examples for marine species (96-hour exposure) arc: sand shrimp, 0.6 ppb; grass shrimp, 2.0 ppb; and hermit crabs, 6.0 ppb. Additional data en grass snrlrap showed that no shrimp exposed to 2.0 ppb wero killed at 10°C, but that over 75% were killed at 30°C. Temperature also affects toxlclty of DDT to other Invertebrates. It is seven times more toxic to the scud at 5°C than at 21°C, anci twice as toxic to Daphnia at 5°C ttian at 21°C. Adult hard clams C'ewcnaria ncr^enaitia) and .snails tend to be less susceptible to DDT. However, shell growth rate in the oyster was reduced by 50% at concentrations of 7 ppb. Exposure at sublcthal levels may result in additional effects, such as immobilization and reproductive Impairment:. Exposure for 21 days at sublethal -37- �levels has been shown to result in immobilization of aquatic insect larvae. Mayfly and stonefly larvae exposes to sublcthal amounts of DDT in one experiment failed to emerge as adults. In another study, Daphnia held at a 1.0 pptr concentration of DDT In a .Clow-through system for 10 days resulted in a 40% decrease in reproduction when compared with controls. This tyne of effect could reduce species numbers and affect higher trophic levels. DDT use has been shown to be responsible for kills of aquatic invertebrates in field situations, with additional effects on higher trophic levels. When applied at 1 Ib/acre to Connecticut forests for control of gypsy moth, a variety of forest stream insects were killed in great numbers. Exposure of the stream invertebrates was a result of drift, inadvcrtant aerial application over streams, and runoff water containing soil, leaves, and other organic matter to which DDT was adsorbed. This type of organic matter also servos as a food source for aquatic invertebrates. Two to 4 years may be required subsequent to a kill for complete recovery of the populations. It was noted that less desirable species were first to repopulate. Similar results were found after spraying DDT at the rate of 0.75 Ibs/acre for spruce budworm control in Canada. Studies in Maine and Canada found that losses of insucts in this manner caused significant trout and salmon mortality as a result of starvation. Data since 1 . 2 97 i Experimental data developed since the hearing on acute effects are in agreement with those presented in the hearing. Sanders (1972) using intermittant flow bioassays, found that the scud (' Gcomnai'us factaiatuo) had a 96-hour LCso of 0.80 ppb and that the glass shrimp (Palaamonc.tes kadiakenais) had a 96-hour LC;;o of 3.5 ppb. At 120 hours, the values were. 0.60 ppb and 1.3 ppb, respectively. Sanders also studied various life stages of the crayfish (Orconccies nais) and found that 96-hour LCso values were 0.30 ppb for 1-day-old crayfish, 0.18 ppb for those 1-week-rid, 30 ppb for those 10-wecks-old, and 100 ppb for mature crayfish. Calabrcsc (1972), using static tests in which water was totally replaced every two days, found that DDT at a concentration of 50 ppb caused over 90% mortality of oyster larvae and almost completely prevented growth. Muirhead-Thomson (1973) found a marked differential effect in predator invertebrates such as dragonfly naiads (agrionid and Itbelluid) and Nepa as compared to prey organism.? such as mayfly naiads (Bactia sp.) and Simtlium larvae. Many dragonfly naiads could survive an exposure to 20 ppm DDT for 1 hour, and live long enough to produce adults, while concentrations as low as 50 ppb for 1 hour could proudce near 100% mortality in Baeli-G naiads and Stmuliuri larvae. Exposure to concentrations of 20 ppb for 1 hour resulted in 82% and 80% mortality for Bu.^i.o naiads and Simultwn larvae, respectively. This author also observed that, when DDT was used as an emulsifiablc concentrate formulation, concentrations produced a progressive immobilizing effect on the naiads during the 1-hour exposure. This effect continued weJl into the holding period in clean water but a high proportion of the naiads eventually recovered. The effect was not noted when the wettable power formulation was used. New data on reproductive effects also substantiate previous data. Schoettger exposed Daphnia to 10, 30, and 100 pptr of p,p'-DDT in a flow-through system and found significantly reduced population numbers (HSDI, 1973). Reproduction was -38- �inhibited 10% and 40% by 10 and 100 pptr, respectively. Derr and Zabik (1972) studied the effects of p,p'-DDE residues on the egg viability of the aquatic midge, Chironomus teutons. Egg masses were held in a 30 ppb concentration of DDE and in control water for about 1 month until the adults emerged. The adults were allowed to mate and egg masses from exposed and control females were subjected to 4 treatments: 1) DDE contaminated eggs placed in clean water; 2) DDE contaminated eggs placed in 20 ppb DDE contaminated water; 3) uncontaminated eggs placed in 20 ppb DDE contaminated water; and 4) uncontaminated eggs placed in clean water. There was significant reduction in the number of adults emerging from aquaria containing DDE contaminated egg masses, but the presence of 20 ppb DDE in water with uncontaminated eggs did not result in a significant reduction. Neither did the combination of DDE treated water and DDE contaminated eggs show significant differences from DDE contaminated eggs in clean water. Egg masses obtained from DDE exposed females were of a less gelatinous consistency and had a shriveled appearance compared to control eggs. It was also found that about 30-342 of an adult female burden of DDE residue was lost to the extruded egg mass, indicating that a significantly high amount of residue in the adult was transferred to the eggs. Other sublethal chronic effects of DDT have been demonstrated experimentally. Engel, Neat, and Hillman (1972) maintained quahog clams (Mcrcenaria mcrcenaria) in concentrations of 2 ppb in flowing sea water for 30 weeks. DDT was found to reduce the glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase content of gill tissue to negligible levels and to cause a consistent decrease in fructose diphosphatase activity, which indicate that this chemical may interfere with gluconeogenesis. Nimmo and Blackraan (1972) determined that concentrations of ocdiura and potassium were lowered in the heptopancreas of shrimp (Penaeus azteaus and P. duorarum), exposed to concentrations of 0.05 and 0.10 ppb of DDT for a period of 30 days. For shrimp held at 0.1 ppb, significant differences (P£ 0.01) occurred in sodium in all samples while significant differences (P^ 0.05) did not occur in potassium levels until the 20th day. Significant differences in both of the cations were found in shrimp exposed to 0.05 ppb DDT only on the 20th day of exposure. By the 30th day, differences were no longer significantly different. The authors noted that the experimental levels were equivalent to amounts of DDT which had been shown to enter the Gulf of Mexico. The only recent field information pertaining to effects of DDT on aquatic invertebrates is contained in an interim report by the Interagency Monitoring Committee and unpublished data submitted by Steven G. Herman, The Evergreen Skate College, Olympia, Washington. This information was generated through monitoring of environmental effects resulting from the use of DDT in the forests of the northwestern United States for tussock moth control during 1974. Herman (personal communication, 1975) monitored three streams, two within the spray boundaries and a control in a non-spray area. In the control stream, numbers of riffle-dwelling insects in all major taxa increased steadily throughout the study period. One stream in the spray area received a very light DDT deposit (equivalent to 0.0-0.023 ib/acre). Insects in this stream were little affected, with the exception of blackfly larvae (Divtcra, Simuliidne) which suffered drastic reduction, but recovery began in 2-3 weeks post-spray. The other stream in the spray area received the equivalent of 0.0-0.6 Ib/acre DDT. The treatment resulted in almost total elimination of the aquatic insect fauna and no -39- �significant recovery was detected a month later. Information contained in the interim report by the Interagency Monitoring Committee consists of "casual field observations" by environmental monitoring personnel in the field. No hard data are contained .therein. However, the qualitative observations are in agreement with Herman that adverse effects on the aquatic invertebrates were substantial. Conclusion Data presented in the hearing record and obtained subsequently are in substantial agreement that DDT can produce lethal and sublethal effects on freshwater and marine invertebrates. Experimental data and data derived from monitoring the effects of DDT use in the field demonstrate that many aquatic Invertebrates are killed, with subsequent recovery of populations being a slow process; that reproductive impairment and other sublethal effects may have serious adverse effects on populations; and that higher^trophic levels can be seriously affected as a result of starvation. -40- �-ained In the - "casual field No hard data in agreement .:•_ substantial. v arc in .recta on :crlvcd from ,:ny aquatic Deing a slow may have vels can be �DDT TOXICITY IN FISH Finding: Dff.r is toxic to fish. This issue is concerned with the fact that DOT can be acutely toxic to fish. This may occur immediately or sometime after initial exposure. Two central arguments; support this finding: 1) Experimental laboratory data show that DDT will kill mo-st fish species at very low levels; 2) DDT has resulted In numerous fish kills. The evidence presented in the DDT Hearings is> replete with experimental data demonstrating acute toxicity to both freshwater and marine fish. DDT levels which produced statistically calculated 50% mortality were normally below about 30 ppb, with the more sensitive species being killed at less than 1 ppb. Examples of 96-hour median lethal concentrations to freshwater fish are: fathead minnows, 32 p,ib; bluegills, 16 ppb; goldfish, 27 ,ipb; Juvenile striped mullet, 0.9 ppb; larger mullet, 3.0 ppb; Atlantic sllversideo, 0.4 ppb; killifish, 1.0 ppb; and bluehcad, 7.0 ppb. Experiments with brook trout have shown that DDT can significantly increase mortality during the spawning period caused by natural stress factors (i.e., starvation, cold, and physiological changes). DDT also has been shown to cause delayt/d mortality occurring when residues are mobilized during periods of stress. For example, when rainbow trout fed at the rate of 1 ppra wet weight and held in a war.er concentration of 10 pp^ for 140 days, were Liter fasted and subjected to 28 days of forced swimming to simulate their spawning run, DDT v;as mobilized into the brain at the: rate of 0.1 ppm/day. At the end of 28 days, 80?. cf the treated fish had died. Fish kills resulting from DDT use have been documented on numerous occasions. Tor example, dead and dying fish have been observed when heavy rainfalls followed applications of DDT to Mississippi cotton fields. Top predator fish are absent from this otherwise favorable habitat. Attempts to restock Wolfe Lake in Mississippi with large-mouth basrj were unsuccessful. In addition, carefully monitored DDT programs for the spruce budworm in Canada have resulted in almost total kills of some year classes of salmon, with severe economic losses to- the commercial fisheries. Dat a_ __s tjncc>_ .1972! Acute- toxlclty data di.-voloped since the hearings in 1972 are sparse, primarily because additional data would be redundant. Korn and Earnest (197<«) tested small (14-83 mm standard length) striped bass Waronc paxitilie) in interml tier l ly flowing sea water with a mean salinity of about 28 parts per thousand. The Oft-hour I.C50 value was (>.r>j |ip,/l (ppb). These authors noted that DDT levels in bay water in Tibiiron, California, an Important striped bass li.iblt.it, wt.ro found -41- �to vary from 3-21 gg/1. Earnest and Benvllle (1972) determined acute toxicity values to the. shiner perch (Cumatotjaater aggregata) and the dwarf perch mLnimtst held unc'.er both static and intermittent conditions. The 96-hour median lethal concentration for the shiner perch was 7.6 ppb in the static system and 2.6 ppb in the intermittent flow system. Similar values for the dwarf perch were 4.6 ppb and 0.26 ppb, respectively. It should be noted that the static values are less reliable than those from the intermittent flow system because of the small sample size and test conditions. Gardner (1973) approximated 24-hour LCso values for small brook trout (Solve linus fontinalis) at about 30 ppb for p,p'-DDT and about 45 ppb for p,p'-l)DE in a flow-through system. These values were approximate due to small sample size. Jarvinen, Hoffman, and Thorslund (1974, unpublished) studied chronic effects of DDT on fathead minnows (Pivephales promelae) during a period of 266 days, including the reproductive phase of their life cycle. They found that two separate mortality periods occurred, Indicating increased susceptibility to DDT at both the fry stage up to 73 days of age and at the spawning stage when highly colored males were most susceptible. Fish that died during the spawning period were in relatively poor condition and were not observed to feed. The authors suggest that these fish probably utilized their fat reserves, which resulted in a release of stored DDT into the blood where it could become toxic. This agrees with results showing that the fish that died had predominately lower lipid values than live fish at the same time. It was also observed that fish fed DDT contaminated food had a ' greater mortality rate, which lasted longer before reaching a plateau, than did fish exposed at a corresponding DDT water concentration but fed clean food. Reports of fish kills resulting from DDT use since 1972 are presently lacking except very incomplete data obtained from the Tussock Moth Spray Program in 1974. Hernan (personal communication, 1975) noted that 643 sculpin fry were found dead in one stream within 72 hours after DDT drift reached the stream. The interim report by the Interagency Monitoring Committee stated that fish populations in index areas "did not appear" to be adversely affected by the spray project. It was also noted, however, that fish in one of the streams were observed gorging themselves on large numbers of dead and dying insect larvae . Data presented in the hearing record and developed subsequent to the hearing demonstrate that DDT is highly toxic to fish on an acute basis and that use of DDT has resulted in fish mortality in the field. -42- �DDT EFFliCTS ON FISH REPRODUCTION >'3 t'in^i>:rt: DD'l' .••;:< ^vju? of f-ioh. This issue is concerned with the fact that concentrations of DDT which may show no adverse1 effects on parent fish may significantly increase the mortality of the eggs or Fry and thus result 'in reproductive impairment. Because DDT is highly lipophilic, residues are concentrated in the yolk cf the eggs, eventually utilized by the fry, and cnn result in their death. DDT has also resulted In delayed maturation of lake trout. Arguments supporting this issue can he delineated as follows: 1. DDT can be highly concentrate'l in fish and stored In lipids, which results in greater concentrations bo Ing stored in ' h .e eggs. This can result in increased fry mortality during the stage when the fry are utilizing the yolk, which is high In llpid content where DDT is stored. 2. Egg residues have been correlated with increased fry mortality, both experimentally and from the field. 3. Experinental results have shown that DDT can result in delaj'-.'d maturation of lake trout. Evidence presented fn the hearings indicated that DDT was responsible for the death of hike trout fry hatched from eggs taken iron Lake George, a tributary of Lake Champlaln. it has also been implicated In excessive mortality of Lake Michigan coho salmon fry, and salmon eggs from a Maine lake exhibited lowered hatchability when DDT levels reached 3 ppm in the eggs. In 1969, residues of DDT in sea trout in the Laguna Mndre (Texas) were correlated with residues in menhaden, a major fo>J of the trout. Reproductive Impairment had been observed since 1964 as evidenced by a decline from 30 to 0.2 juvenile trout per acre. After residues in menhaden declined, the son trout populations returned to 1964 1 eve 1 3 . Kxperlment.il results- have shown that DDT at 2.95 ppn in the eggs of lake trout induced fry mortality and that brook trout fry reacted similarly. Brown trout were somewhat less sensitive. In addition, Ot)T fed to fish can result In delayed maturation. In one study, 1-year-old lake trout failed to spawn after being fed DDT. Additional evidence lias been published wince the hearings supporting the argument that DDT can inpair fish reproduction. Nacre and Scott (1971) reported that an unusually high mortality (44.6/0 occurred In rainbow trout (:'al"!O ijin'n'i -4J- �eggs and fry obtained from Lake Taupo in New Zealand, Total DDT residues In the fry were 4.63 ppra. This level is above that which previous studies haveshown result in fry mortality in other species. Smith and Cole (1973) subjected male and female winter flounder ( racudoplcuranec'tes CBICPiacmufi) to five test treatments: 1 pph DDT + 1 ppb dieldrln; 2 ppb DDT; 2 ppb dieldrin: an acetone control equal in amount to the highest concentration administered with an insecticide treatment; and an unaltered seawater control. Length of exposure was variable, but was based upon previous experimentation and was generally sufficient to duplicate gonad levels found in a previous field study. In three spawnings the percentage of fertilization differed markedly from that of the control matings (mean » 97.8%). Eggs containing A.60 ppm DDT and 0.01 ppm dieldrin had 40% fertilization, while 12% fertilization occurred in eggs containing 0.17 ppm DDT and 1.74 ppm dieldrin. There was no fertilization in eggs with no detectable DDT but with 1.74 ppm dieldrin. However, in two other spawnings, eggs which contained 3.70 and 2.39 ppm DDT, hut no dieldrin residues, had 99 and 80% fertilization, respectively. Similarly, eggs which had 0.61 ppra dieldrin and a small amount of DDT (0.39 ppn) had over 99" fertilization. The relations between DDT concentration in the eggs and mortality by the end of the 4th .lay of development indicated dose-dependent effects. Mortality in eggs with DDT concentrations of 1.62 ppm or greater was frequently associated either witli failure to gastrulatc or with abnormal gastrulation where the blastulae, Instead cf undergoing involution as In normal gastrulation, cxogastrulated and development ceased. At hatching, there was a much higher incidence of severe vertebral deformities in the Inrvao treated with DDT than in those from the untreated adults. The mean incidence of deformed larvae was 39% with a ra.:ge of 2 to 77"^. No abnormal gastrulation occurred in the controls and incidence of vertebral deformities was less than 17, in both the control larvae and the larvae from adults treated only with dieldrin. Bone erosion and hemorrhaging at the vertebral junctures were often observed in conjunction with the vertebral deformities when DDT in the eggs equalled or exceeded 2.39 ppm. Jarvincn, Hoffman, and Thorslund (1974, unpublished) exposed fathead minnows (Hn^vhales proiielaa) to two DDT concentrations in the water, one in the diet, and combinations of water and diet for 266 days through a reproductive period of their life cycle. Fish were held in aquaria at nominal concentrations of 0.5 and 2.0 ppb DDT, while clams used as food received water containing a nominal concentration of 2.0 ppb DDT. Water was supplied by a proportional diluter, with flow rates adjusted to maintain dissolved oxygen levels at greater than 65% saturation. The DDT concentration contained in clam tissue fed to fish was 50 pg/g. Presence of DDT in tin* food did not significantly alter embryo hatchabllity, but hatchability was significantly reduced (P»O.Q5) in the 2.0 ppb concentration. In addition, there was no survival of fry beyond 5 days in the 2.0 ppb DDT concentrations, with or without DDT contaminated food. When groups of fry snawned from adults under these conditions were transferred Immediately to clean water, the fry from adults exposed to DDT In both food and water experienced about 2 times greater mortality than those from adults exposed in water only. These data agree with egg residue which show almost 2 times greater residue levels in fry from adults in the former group. Fry survival was not significantly different from controls at the 0.5 ppb concentrations. -44- �Conclusioii Data presented in the hearing record and developed subsequent to the hearing are in substantial agreement that DDT has the potential to adversely affect the reproductive success of a number of fish species and that it has, in fact, contributed to reproductive impairment for some species in the wild. -45- �SUBLETHAL EFFECTS ON FISH 's Finding: DDT liass a variety of sublcthil phjaiologioal cold beliavioval effeots on fish. This issue addresses all sublethal physiological and behavioral effects on fish including: 1. DDT differentially affects the normal utilization of some amino acids. 2. DDT inhibits thyroid activity in fish. 3. DDT lias been shown to alter the temperature regime selection of fish. 4. DDT can affect the impulse transmission in the lateral line of fish. 5. DDT can affect learning processes of fish. 6. Some fishes can avoid DDT containing waters. 7. DDT has been shown *r disrupt cellular energy utilization. Data as of 1972 Information presented during the DDT Hearings addressed this issue as a series of sub-issues, or topics. After laboratory exposure to DDT, rainbow trout were exercised, leading to abnormal utilization of 14 of 19 amino acids. DDT stimulated at low levels, and at near lethal doses suppressed, normal operation of the thyroid gland in some fishes. This gland regulates metabolic rate and other important body functions. Exposure of some fishes Co DDT has led to their selecting temperature regimes which proved lethal to the selecting fish. This temperature selection has been related to fish kills in nature. DDT can, under some conditions, affect the impulse transmission in the lateral line of ishes. The lateral line is one of the primary sensory systems in most fishes. The ability to learn required responses and to demonstrate "natural" behavior can be inhibited by DDT. The ability of some fishes to avoid waters containing DDT has been denonatrated. In the case of the sheopshead minnow (.fyprinodcn vair'-vgatus) this avoidance of DDT can lead to deflection from spawning areas. -46- �The action of ATP and its enzymes are affected by DDT. This ATPase activity is one of the main driving forces of cellular synthesis, and, in fish, NaKMg ATPase is deeply involved in osmoregulation. .93 ta_sl_nce_ _1972_ « Information published recently has further documented the effect of DDT upon temperature selection in fishes. Javaid (1972a, 1972b) has determined that exposure to DDT can alter both temperature selection and the absolute amount of fish activity at the resulting selected temperature. He found thaf when exposed to DDT, Atlantic salmon (Salnio oalar) selected lower than acclimation temperatures (0-10 ppb DDT), and higher than acclimation temperatures (10-1CO ppb DDT). Cold temperature shoe!; was noted for Atlantic salmon and brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis). DDT exposed Atlantic salmon displayed decreased activity when compared to control fish. Rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) showed selection only for higher than acclimation temperatures, and exhibited symptoms of warm temperature shock which were followed by death. The mechanism affecting changed temperature selection was postulated to be altered metabolic rate. These effects on fish by DDT also have been noted b. Peterson (1973) and Gardner (1973), but the mechanism postulated by Peterson vas destabilization of the nervous system by action on neuron membrane function. Several behavioral alterations have been tied to exposure to DDT. Hansen (1972) found that when mosquitofish (Gconbusia affinis) had been exposed to 5, 10, or 20 ppb DDT they selected waters of significantly greater (P=0.05) salinity than did the. control fishes. DDT avoid.-ince by mosquitof ish (ilantsen et al, 1972) was found to occur only when the fish could choose between uncontaminatcd and contaminated waters, and then only when the DDT concentration was above the 24-hr LC^fj. When presented with a choice between two contaminated waters, the fish either did not discriminate or they chos? the water with the higher DDT level. Exposure to DDT at near the 96-hr LC,JQ for 24 hours caused Atlantic salmon parr (Sal»:o a alar) to become hypersensitive to external stimuli and temporarily improved their ability to learn a conditioned response (Hatfield and Johansen, 1972a|. Exposure to this level of DDT for 24 hours did not seem to affect the ability of Atlantic salmon parr to escape predation by brook trout (Calvclinus fontinnliu) (Hatfield and Johansen, 1972b). The effect of DDT upon "natural" behavior of fishes has also been documented. Exposure of goldfish (Oaf:iC!^'.ua auratus) to 10 ppb of p,p'DDT for 4 days has resulted In the disruption of normal, nonrandom exploratory behavior (Davy et al, 197.)) and the alteration of normal spontaneous locomotive display patterns (Davy et al, 1972). The changes in the p.ittorn of locomotive display may be due to DDT's effect on shortterm memory. -47- �After a 7-day exposure to 1 ppb DDT and subsequent placement into clean water for 3 days, the normal swimming and schooling behavior of goldfish was significantly affected (Weis and Wei.s, 1974). The treated goldfish swam faster (P<0.00i), turned more often (1X0.005), and occupied a greater area (P<0.02) than did control fish. When disturbed, the goldfish schools scattered further and regrouped more slowly than did control schools. This change in schooling lessens the protective advantage of schools. Investigations into the disruptions by DDT of processes involved in cellular energy utilization and transfer have provided more than ample evidence that DDT is capable of interfering with adenosine triphosphate phosphohydrolases (ATPases). Concentrations of 10~5M DDT have resulted in 23% inhibition of NaKMg ATPase, 15% reduction of NaK ATPase, and 34% reduction of Mg ATPase in rainbow trout gill microsomes. Further inhibition was reported for 10~''H DDT. Inhibition of NaKMg and Mg ATPases was higher when ODD was used instead of DDT (Davis et al, 1972). The effect of DDT on mucosal ATPases (Na+, K+, and Mg?-+) has been investigated by Janicki and Kinter (1971a, 1971b). Inhibition of these ATPases, which are involved in sodium transport, suggests that DDT may interfere with the osraoregulatory ability of fishes. More recent work by Weisbart and Feiner (1974), although it does not prove a connection between DDT and osmoregulation, did find abnormalities in the ionic makeup of blood plasma from goldfish exposed to 0.035 ppm DDT. Not specifically addressed by the Administrator is the finding that p,p'-DDT can cause developmental defects in fish. Fry of grunion (Leurnathas tcnuis), after boing exposed to p,p'-DDT at a concentration of less than 1 ppb, showed evidence of significant pectoral ray asymmetry. When eggs taken from relatively polluted waters off California (a region of relatively high past DDT input) were not exposed to further DDT, their fry showed significantly greater pectoral fin ray asymmetry than did fry from a nonpollutcd area (Valentine and Soule, 1973). Conclusion The Administrator's findings concerning the sublethal physiological and behavioral effects of DDT on fish have been supported by investigations published since those findings, although data on avoidance suggests that this phenomenon nay not occur at environmental levels. Additional behavioral and developmental affects of DDT have been illuminated which further reinforce the conclusion that DDT can cause changes in fishes that are less immediately noticeable than death, but may lead to an inability of those affected fish to successfully compete in the aquatic environment, thus having the same ultimate effect. -48- �BIOACCUMULATION IN TERRESTRIAL ORGANISMS Administrator's Finding: DDT a an be concentrated and transferred through terrestrial invertebrates, w.vynalii , ariphibians , reptiles, and bii-ds. The 1972 opinion of the Administrator, EPA, listed among the findings a major heading, Ac_tiX^__*£._^9A_QL^lliA^ Basic findings indicated that DDT is concentrated in organisms and transferred through £ood webs, and more precisely, that DDT can be concentrated in and transferred through terrestrial invertebrates, mammals, amphibians, reptiles, and birdp These statements infer that most wild vertebrates are exposed to DDT and metabolites in their diet and these contaminants are bioaccumulated in the tissues. Kinetics, or movement and change, describes the action and metabolism of chemicals entering the animal body. In the body, chemicals can make changes or be changed, accumulate In tissues, and ultimately leave through excretion, lactation, deposition in eggs, or placental transfer to unborn young. The pattern of events may be somewhat variable, depending upon whether exposure is at sublethal levels or sufficient to cause death of the organism. A vast body of information on DDT residue accumulation was presented In exhibit and transcript form during chree years of intensive administrative inquiry into the uses of DDT. Kxperimental studies as early as 1947 shoved that poultry fed diets containing DDT accumulated DDT in their eggd and tissues, particularly in fat. A similar residue accumulation in wild birds was first demonstrated in 1958 when death of birds followed DDT applications. The early literature on food web relationships on land involved contaminated soil and leaves •+• earthworms •+• robins trophic level movement. Fish-eating birds, (such as ospreys and pelicans) and flesh -eat Ing avian predators (hawks, owls, eagles), absorbed concentrations which affected reproduction, behavior, and sometimes resulted in death. Very minute residues, some in the parts-pertrillion range, may be lethal to the larvae of marine organisms. Wild mammals accumulated DDT residues from food and were affected variously depending upon their ability to metabolize or excrete the parent material and metabolites. Residues in a wide variety of organisms confirmed the world-wide distribution of DDT and metabolites through contamination of soil, air, and fresh and marine waters. Data published since cancellation of most DDT uses have corroborated and provided a more substantial data base to confirm earlier findings. Recent data can be summarized as follows: 1. DDT and metabolite residues continue to bo found world-wide in all trophic levels of the terrestrial ecosystem. �2. Certain species (fish-eating birds and raptors) at the top of the food web are still affected adversely as evidenced by behavioral chanp.es or reproductive failure. 3. Widespread agricultural and forestry uses of DDT in North America and northern Europe have declined markedly since the mid-j.960's. Concurrent with reduced application, there has been a gradual decline of residue body burdens in certain nontarget species, e.g., songbirds and ospreys. Slight, but encouraging, recovery of some nearly decimated local nesting populations has been observed. 4. Means of transport for this persistent pesticide point towards ultimate deposition in the ocean environment. Residues in ocean waters may already have peaked. B jjj_accumu la t_i on jln Inye r t eb r a t o.s _an.^ Lower Ver_tebra_tcs The effects of organochlorine insecticides on earthworms have been reviewed (Davey, 1963). Results reported vary, but establish that worms are more tolerant of DDT than arthropods, with little risk of causing worm popuIfltion reductions. However, consumption of DDT-residue laden worms by birds or insectivorous mammals is of concern. In the case of robins, die-effs have resulted from this route of exposure. DDT concentrations in worms increased from 0.15 ppra when soil residues were 1 ppm to about 45 ppm where soil levels were 64 ppm (Davis, 1971). Worms in soils containing 1 ppm DDT accumulated the maximum amount of DDT residues from the soil (from 1-4 ppm DDT) after about 1 month followed by a slight loss, and then readied an equilibrium at 3-4 ppm DDT plus DDE in 5 or 6 months (Edwards and Jeffs, 1974). Almost all micro- and macroarthropod forest litter taxa analyzed by Klec et al (1973) metabolized the two major isomera of DDT (o, p'-DDT and p,p'-DDT) into p,p'-DDF, after introduction into the food chain via resistant carrier CollemboLa, Manlny (1971) pointed out that p,p'-DDK accumulates very little in microarthropods compared with macroarthropod predators. The effects of pesticides on soil inicroflora have been studied extensively, but those on soil protozoa have been neglected. Predatory protozoa play an important role In ecosystems such as soil, water, rumen fluid, and sewage by regulating bacterial populations (Alexander, 1969). Any effect a pesticide has upon these protozoa may be reflected in the bacterial population of the particular ecosystem. Eucjlma and I'aranccium concentrated DDT in their cells 964 times when exposed to 1 ppm aqueous mixture of the insecticide without obvious adverse effects. Applications of p, p'-DDT to a garden soil at r.itcs of 5 and 50 ppm inhibited soil protozoa (MacRae and Vinckx, 1973). -50- �Dlndal and Wurzinger (1971) showed that the terrestrial snail, Capaea horteneie, accumulated high whole body levels of DDT wet weight residue after 3 hours exposure (24 ppm) but were reduced and stabilized after 1 day at 11 ppm. This invertebrate serves as a food source of concentrated pesticide to vertebrate predators. Snails and slugs as nontarget organisms accumulated DDT residues at concentrations equal to or considerably higher than the surrounding environment. The concentration factor varied from 0.14 to 17.93 times that of the surrounding terrestrial ecosystem. Gish (1970) reported that snails in two agricultural areas of the United States averaged 3.5 ppm total DDT residues. Slugs in the oame sites contained up to 200 ppm, and earthworms up to 50 ppm. Earthworms in other sites sometimes contained 500 ppra. Thus snails in some agricultural areas, particularly in the United States, are likely to have suffered reduced shell growth as evidenced by Roman snails (Helix pomatia) treated with various amounts of p.p'-DDT from 2 weeks of age to hibernation (Cooke and Pollard, 1973). Relatively low doses of DDT significantly reduced shell and operculum weight whereas higher doses of DDT did not cause this response. Residues varied from 7.2 to 160 ppm, depending on the rate of exposure. Snakes collected near Texas land treated with DDT and in untreated areas were analyzed for residues. All snakes contained some residues from a trace to over 1000 ppm DDE. The mean total residues from the pesticide use area were 14 to 386 times greater than in the nonuse area. Insecticide residues were higher in semlaquatlc snakes than In terrestrial species. In a female cottonmouth, total residues In brain (1.4 ppm) and muscle (0.4 ppm) were 308 and 1080 times less, respectively, than those in fat. Residues (396 ppm) in the fat of embryos from this snake were similar to the maternal fat,but whole yolk residues were only 28.5, Indicating placental transfer (Fleet et al, 1972). Crocodile eggs from Rhodesia were found with residues of 1.75 ppm total DDT (Billing and Phelps, 1972). BloBCCunylatipn In Blrda Because of Its persistence In the environment, widespread application, and dissemination through food and water, DDT is found virtually all over the world in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. By 1958, there were Indications that DDT and its metabolites might be associated with declines in avian populations at the top of food chains. Even small migratory songbirds, not at the highest trophic level, carry body burdens of DDT and metaboliteu. Such migrants are conspicuously obese, especially in the autumn, when subcutaneous and abdominal fat depots comprise 30% or more of body weight. Analyses of 10 species of migratory songbirds killed when they flew into television towers in Florida showed a progressive decline of contaminants in their fat from 1964 to 1973. In 1969, the mean for 5 species was 17.8 ppra but in 1973 the mean was only 2.06 ppm. This decline ia apparently associated with the decreased usage of DDT in the United States during the same time (Johnston, 1974a). -51- �Osprey, or fish hawk, population size has been carefully monitored for many years. A significant decrease in bird numbers In many East Coast nesting colonies had been noted for more than 20 years. .Now an Important reproductive increase has been documented on Gardiners Island off Long Island, New York. The number of fledged young dropped from about 6CO in 1948 to a lov-' of only 4 each in 1965 and 1966. This increased to 18 in 1973 and 26 in 197i. Eggs (unhatched and overdue) collected in the mid-1960's contained 11.3-13.8 ppm total DDT. One such egg collected in 1974 contained only 3.59 ppm total DDT and a dead 3-day-old chick, 1.34 ppm (Puleston, 1975). Six osprcy and two eagle eggs were collected and analyzed from the Gulf of Bothnia near Finland. Eagle eggs contained about 175 ppm and osprey eggs about 15 ppm DDE. Tne higher amounts in eagle eggs were suspected from 1) the longer life-span of the eagle and 2) its higher position on the food chain (Koivusaari, 1972). In 1971 only one-fifth of 113 hen sparrowhawks In a 500 km^ area in Scotland hatched all their eggs successfully, two-fifths had at least one egg disappear, in one-fifth all eggs vanlsned, and another fifth failed to nest. Some causes of failure were thin eggshells, egg breakage, and embryonic death. These factors contributed to a reduced potential young output of 61 percent. Significant organochlorine residues were found in ail ten eggs taken from the area. DDE varied from 48-441 ppm, dieldrin from 10.0110.6 ppm, and 1'CB from 32-159 ppm. The proportion of occupied sparrowhawk sites increased between 1967 and 1971, but the proportion of pairs producing young and the mean brood size in successful n.'sts remained consistently low (Newton, 1973). There were some 160 peregrine falcon eyries in Ireland in 1955. Tiiose which successfully f.lcdgod young decreased from 36 in 1.967 to 14 in 1970 (Chambers and Norris, 1971). Changes in land use, afforestation, and ro«d building may be partially responsible. Residues (wet weight'* in tissue samples (48 birds of 13 species) were p,p'-DDE (0-1.85 ppm) and dieldrin (0-0.71 ppm). In 1970, peregrine falcon eggs contained 9.8 ppm p,p'-DDE. A preliminary note on organochlorine residues in eggs of fish-eating birds on the Florida west coast showed that the ot>gs contained DDE ranging from 2.46 for .1 brown pelican to 20.9 ppm (oven dry weight) for a snowy egret. Other species showed DDE egg residues in ppm as follows: black skimmer - 4.5: least tern - 3.17; laughing gull - 11.7; white ibis - 8.74; great egret 10.36; and great blue heron - 20.0 ppm (Lincer and Salkind, 1973). Residues of p,p'~DDK in double crested cormorants ranged from 8.63-29.4 ppm (wet weight), in herring gulls from 2.83-5.67 ppm, and black ducks averaged 1.50 ppm. Sampling sites were from the Bay of Fundy, Canada (Zitko and Choi, 1972). Cormorants in The Netherlands increased from 800 hreeding pairs in 1962 to 1500 in 1971. Spoonbills declined from 500 pairs in 1950 to 150-200 pairs -52- �in 1971. Purple heron increased to 900 In 1971. Heron declined from 8500 in 1935 to 3750 in 1964. Sandwich corns reached a low of 650 pairs in 1965 and than increased to 2900 pairs by 1971. Chlorinated hydrocarbons were believed responsible. Early in the 1960's, the common tern population greatly declined from approximately 10,000 pairs to a few thousand. Little tern declined until the last nests were unsuccessfuly reared in 1957. There was no breeding in 1972. Kingfishers declined 802 in the last 25 years from 250-500 to 50-100 pairs in 1970. Persistent pesticides may have a lethal effect, on such piscivorous birds as those referred to above at the top of a food chain. Population declines, in most cases, are of a local or temporary nature (Rooth and Jonkers, 1972). The use of organochlorine insecticides has been restricted almost exclusively to terrestrial areas. Nevertheless, several recent investigations have revealed substantial concentrations of residues in vertebrates in marine environments. Herring gull eggs from Norway varied from 0.2-5.A ppm DDK and common gull eggs from 0.2-3.5 ppm. DDT occurred from 0.1-0.3 ppm in only herring gull eggs. There were only slight differences evident in oggshcll thickness (Bjerk and Holt, 1971). Swan and pochard eggs from two locations in Denmark were collected and examined. Swan eggs from one site contained mean values of 0.151, 0.333, and 1.02 ppm of DDT, DDK, and PCB, respectively. The DDT was believed to come from the Baltic Sea. Swan eggs from the second site contained 0.335 ppm DDE and 3.34 pnm PCB; pochard eggs contained 2.015 ppm DDM and 40.7 ppm PCB. This high I'CB content may be attributed to the pollution from an adjacent town. Pochards are higher on the food chain and contain more residues than swans (Bloch and Kratil, 1972). Levels of chlorinated hydrocarbon pesf icides were determined in Rhodesian animals. Pesticide residues were widespread, the highest levels being from agricultural regions. Residues ranged from none found to 43.41 ppm total DDT in a black flycatcher liver (Billing and Phelps, 1972). Quail from Alabama soybean fields with a previous history of insecticide application had DDT residues averaging l/.O ppm In their meat, while quai' from soybean fields with little or no previous insecticide application averaged 1.68 ppm in their meat (Causey ct al, 1972). Laying Japanese quail were given 9 rag/kg/day of p.p'-DD'f. Egg production, egg weight, and eggshell thickness wore not altered. The moan total residue level in control birds never exceeded 1 ppm. The p,p'-DDT metabolite reside in treated birds ranged from 27 ppm in the liver to 444 ppm In fat. The DDK residues ranged from 8 ppm in the liver to 82 ppm in fat. ODD war. highest in the liver at 15 ppm. DDT and metabolites In eggs and fat roached a peak at 6 weeks (McBlain et al, 1974). DDT and its metabolites were studied In a diverse Arizona ecosystem downwind from an area of insecticide application. Soil residues ranged from 3.6 to 6700 ppb and samples of Harlequin and Gambol's quail livers ranged from 500 to 2800 ppb (Laubscher et al, 1971). -53- �_ _ _ In Mamma 19 The ubiquitous nature of DDT and metabolite bioaicumulation in mammalian tissues is illustrated by the following examples: DDT was analyzed in the brain tissues of shrews, voles, and mice from DDT contaminated Canadian forest areas. Residues occurred in low, but detectable,amounts in brain tissue. The average, concentrations for shrews, voles, arid mice were 0.039, 0.024, and 0.027 ppm, respectively. Shrews, which are at: a higher trophic level, accumulated higher residues than voles or mice (Sundarara, 1972). Residues of DDT and its metabolites ranged from fc-929 ppb in white-footed mice and up to 2770 ppb in cotton rats from the Tucson-Nogales area of Arizona (Laubscher et al, 1971). Deer fat samples ranged up to 107 ppb, rabbits to 235 ppb, and packrats to 2.9 ppb from the same region. Two species of shrew, Blarina bsavtaauda and .'Joftix ainct>ena, were studied in a 4.05 hectare old-field ecosystem treated with 0.')2 kg/ha ^CL-rlng~ labeled DDT in 1969. The mean radioactive DDT levels in Hlwina liver (10 ppm), muscle (10 ppm), brain (4 ppm), and fat (135 ppm) were the same in 19701971. Consumption of slugs may have caused DDT peaks in fat of 243 ppm in 1970 and 236 ppra in 1971. Sorest unlike Rlarina, had increasing DDT from 1969 to 1971. Mean levels of DDT residue in muscle (4 ppm) and viscera (3 ppm) were not influenced by sex, but by breeding condition (Forsyth and Peterle, 1973), Five short-tailed shrews, Blarina brevieaiiJla, were fed earthworms containing about 16.55 ppm DDT for 3 weeks, and five wero fed DDT-free earthworms. After 4 weeks, the DD'f-expoaed shrews had a mean DDT level of 7.59 ppm in liver and 14.70 ppm DDT in fat. No DDT was found in control shrews (Braham and Ncal, 1974). Samples of rabbit and deer meat from Alabama soybean fields subjected to varying degrees of Insecticide use were analyzed. DDT and Its metabolites were the only insecticides occurring consistently, averaging 3.00 and 2.47 ppm, respectively, for deer and rabbits from treated fields. Fields with little or no history of insecticide use averaged 0.10 and 0.05 ppm DDT, respectively, for deer and rabbits (Causey et al, 1972). Residues of DDT and its metabolites from Mississippi deer collected in 1970 ranged up to 1.29 ppm (Baetckc et al, 1972). DDT was sprayed in 1964 at 1 lb/ac:rc on a 525,000 acre area In Idaho with the periphery of 41,000 acres receiving 0.5 Ib/acrc (Benson and Smith, 1972). Deer were analyzed In 1964 and 1969. In 1%4, total adipose tissue DDT wan <0.1 ppm ir. control animals, but deer from the sprayed area had a mean of 19.36 ppm. The mean level of p,p'-DDE in exposed doer was 17 times higher than controls and 350 times higher than controls for p,p'-DDT. Adipose pesticide residues in deer from an unpprayed area in 1969 differed little from -54- �those In 1964 (mean of 0.08 versus 0.05). Thti mean total DDT of animals in 1969 from the sprayed region was only 0.18 ppm compared to 19.36 ppra in 1964. Chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticide residues were measured in wild mink by Franson et al (1974). Total residues of DDT and related compounds in the adipose tissue ranged from 0.27-9.51 pprc. Of the total, p,p'-DUE comprised 23-80%, p.p'-DDT 4-50%, p,p'-DDD 6-41%, and p,p'-DDT 2-34%. Total DOT in fish fed to mink ranged from 0.12 to 18.23 ppm. No clinical signs were observed on wink with this diet although reproduction waa lessened. Two months of feeding 10 ppm PCB's plus 10 pprn DDT produced a highly significant reduction in growth and, after 4 months, loss of weight (Aulerich et al, 1973). Badgers in the Netherlands contained up to 0.50 ppm DDE, 0.13 ppm ODD, and 0.13 ppm DDT. The badgers were not threatened by this degree of pesticide contamination (Kelj and Kruizinga, 1972). Black bear were analyzed for pesticides in Idaho. The highest p,p'-DDE level found in any bear was 2.055 ppb; total DDT was only 2.89 ppb. The lowest amount was 0.320 ppb total DDT. Bear meat had little or no significant pesticide residues to endanger the health of people (Benson et al, 1974). Analysis of 30 British bats from 1963 to 1970 showed 100% contained DDE in the liver (0.30-53.7 ppm), and 82% contained DDT (1.3-28.6 ppm). The mean levels of these materials in the liver were 10.68 and 4.62 ppm, respectively. Pipistrelles were vory sensitive, and when fed DDT, none died at less than 45 mg/kg, half died between 45-90 mg/kg, and all died when fed more than 90 mg/kg. Mortality began when liver and whole body residues of DDT plus DDE reached 43 and 45 ppm, respectively (Jeffries, 1972). Five samples of adult Australian bats (88 animals) had a mean of 15.9 Ug total DDT in their bodies while two samples of juvenile bats (28 animals) contained only 8.8 pg total DDT/bat. One wild bat contained 56 ng total DDT. The DDT levels in these bats are a cause for concern particularly since this was not an area of extensive DDT use (Dunsmore et al, 1974). Livers from Rhodesian herbivores were analyzed for DDT and its metabolites. Elephants and impalas showed traces of ODD, DDE, and DDT; total DDT in waterbuck liver reached a high mean of 0.24 ppm (Billing and Phelps, 1972). -55- �TOXICITY OF DDT TO BIRDS Filling: Birds can mobilize Initial amounts of DD Some wild birds have been affected adversely by mobilized DDT and its metabolites. The residues are absorbed from their diet and bioaccumulated into tissues. The identification of lethal and sublethal toxic residue limits has been well documented under controlled conditions. Of particular importance is the movement or mobilization of residues through the body. Sex, age, and stress conditions (migration, cold weather, starvation, etc.) are proven contributing factors affecting both residue limits and species tolerance. While it is difficult to assess the impact in field populations, the identification of abnormal toxicant levels (consistent with those established under laboratory conditions) justifies the assertion that DDT and Its metabolites are responsible for increased nvian mortality and, at sublethal levels, may cause mutagenicity. Birds can contain concentrations in amounts sufficient to prevent carrying out normal functions; death can be caused if conditions favor mobilization of stored residues to sites of action or target areas such as the brain. Only the presence or toxic residues, consistent with levels known by controlled study to be associated with lethality, can justify the conclusion that a certain chemical agent is responsible for mortality. Data as of 1972 Birds are endangered when DDT and ODD residue levels reach 30 or raore ppm in the brain. Birds store !!T in their fat. Under stress, )) body fan is utilized, DDT enters the bloodstream, and hence, finds its way to the brain. The brain does not tend to lose its fats and accumulates DDT from other body parts. Death from mobilization can occur more than 4 months after DDT intake has ceased. DDT and DDD body residues as low as 10.10 ppm can concentrate to 41.27 ppm in the brain. Heavy application of DDT in forests (up to 5 Ibs/acre) have eliminated or reduced local bird populations in Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Texas. Many birds died when elms were treated for Dutch Elm disease in urban areas. DDT has proven lethal to ducks, pheasant, and black birds exposed to treated rice; songbirds feeding in treated vegetable plots; and thrushes in apple orchards. DDT residues are hazardous to birds during stress periods. DDT stored in fat deposits can be metabolized and eliminated very slowly without apparent ill effects as long as the organism does not utilize fat reserves for energy. Deprivation of food was used to simulate the stress situation encountered on long migratory flights. Prior to their semiannual migrations, birds build up large fat reserves to be used as energy sources for their -56- �long flight. Robins wintering in colder .Teas are often exposed to conditions requiring mobilization of fat reserves (Sodergren and Ulfstrand, 1972). Fat metabolism proceeds at an accelerated rate and residues are relocated via the bloodstream. When the carcass loses some fat, levels of organochlortne residues, in terms of fresh weight, decrease. Consequently, due to the remaining low fat content, residue levels, in terms of fat weight on a ppm lipid basis, increase. Although the fat content decreases in the breast muscles, the residue levels, in terms of both fresh and fat weight, increase. Van Velzen et al (1972) evaluated in cowbirds the lethal mobilization of DDT and the effects of food deprivation on the distribution and loss of DDT, DDD, and DDK. Cowbirds were fed 100 ppm DDT for 13 days, followed by a full ration of untreated food for 2 days. The following 4 days, the ration was reduced to 6 grams food/bird/day and then for 1.0 days untreated food was presented. During the 4 days of food restriction, 7 of 20 birds died. No birds died when fed 1.00 ppm DDT or when the ration was reducej, indicating that neither weight loys nor dosage alone was sufficient to cause mortality. Also, 2 male kestrels die.) after 14 and 16 months on a diet containing 2.8 ppm DDK (Porter and Wiemcyer, 1972). The kestrels died during the season weight loss and depletion of fat reserves caused by the stress associated with reproduction and molting. When fat reserves are'utilized, there is an Increased concentration of DDT and its metabolites In the fat tissues, as wo 1.1 as a corresponding Increase In other tissues because DDT Is generally llpophilic and found In llpid-rlch organs ami tissues. Bobwhites fed 100 ppm DDT for 10 weeks had a much higher quantity of liver liplds than birds not fed DDT (15.4 versus 12.9 percentage dry weight) (Ilayncs, 1972). This increase in liver llplds is enhanced by an accelerated mobilisation of llpids from the adipose tissue during food deprivation. Mobilization Is known to be affected both by .substances toxic to hepatic cells and hormonal. Influences. Bobwhites, deprived of food after DDT administration, had liver lipids of 34.4 percentage dry weight for DDT-fed birds compared to only 20.6 percentage dry weight for birds not given DDT. This increase In liver weight, liver residues, and percentages of llpld in tne liver was also noted by Dieter (1974) for coturnix and Jefferies and Fronc.li (1972) for pigeons. During stress periods resulting in weight loss, toxicants stored in fat are released as lipids, are discharged into the blood, and are redeposited at other sites. When sufficient quantities of toxicants arc present in the brain, death results. The brains of the 2 dead kestrels contained DDE residues of 21^ and 301 ppm (wet weight) compared to 14.9 ppm for 11 adult males not dead after 16 months (Porter and Wiemcyer, 1972). Weight loss for birds on a DDT diet was much greater than for birds not given DDT, DDTdosed cowbirds on full ration lost 0.2% body weight while untreated birds on full ration gained 27, (Van Velzen et al, 1972). Cowbirds, that died during weight Joss, exhibited a rapid increase in the brain residues when compared to birds sacrificed immediately before food restriction (61 versus 5 ppm total DDT). -r>7- �To better establish the role of DDT as the cause of illness and death in wild birds, the effacts of various dietary levels of DDT on several species were studied by Hill et al (1971). Weight losses in farm-reared bobwhite quail were significant when concentrations of DDT reached 400 ppm in the diet (about 32). The average wet weight of DDD + DDT residue levels in brain associated with death were: house sparrow, 43.2 ppm (with 32.6 ppm giving an indication of DDT poisoning); wild bobwhite, 31.3 ppit,; farm-reured bobwhite, 28.4 ppm; cardinal, 26.7 ppm; and bluejay, 23.0 ppm. With the latter species, only 20-25 ppm appeared to implicate DDT aa the lethal agent. Comparison of stressed versus unstressed birds ascertained that stress was associated with increased brain and liver residues, but decreased carcass residues. Penned cormorants were fed daily 2, 5, and 10 mg of DDT, DDD, and DDE, respectively (Greichus and Hannon, 1973). At 9 weeks, food was cut in half for some birds, creating a stress situation. A marked increase in the proportion of DDE and a decrease in DDD and DDT was found in the brains of stressed birds compared to controls. Brain:carcass residue ratios were higher in stressed than nonstressed groups. Average brain concentrations of DDD ranged from 24-85 ppm wet weight in cormorants which died from the toxic effects of DDT, DDD, and DDE and from 0.4-29 ppm in survivors. Apparently, 30 ppm was diagnostic of lethality. DDT residues, in carcasses of cowbirds dying during weight loss, decreased from 119 to 97 ppm wet weight (Van Velzen et al, 1972). Cowbirds, sacrificed prior to food restriction, showed no such reduction in DDT residues. In contrast, DDD and DDE residues Increased from 19 to 41 ppm and 8 to 18 ppm, respectively; birds sacrificed prior to food restriction showed no increase in residues. Stress caused a mobilization and redistribution of DDT residues from the carcass to the brain. Sex and age also influence the quantity of DDT-related residues present in the system of birds. DDE residues were more variable and attained higher levels in male mallard and black ducks than in females Of the same species (Heath and Hill, 1974). This way be due, in part, to the female's ability to eliminate some pesticide residue through eggs. Crocki and Johnston (1974) found that adult cuckoos had higher total DDT levels than first-year birds (1.55 versus 0.9S ppm lipid weight total DDT); an adult would have more time to accumulate pesticides than an immature bird. An accurate assessment of tht> cause of wild bird abnormalities or death is extremely difficult because many pesticides are present in the environment. Body residues in these birds may not be ur.consnonly high and even less than the normal range of toxiclty. DDE residues ranging from 0.16-78 ppm wet weight were detected in 39 bald eagles found sick or dead in 1969-1970 (Belisle et al, 1972). All 37 bald eagles found sick or dead In 1971-1972 contained DDE (Cromartie ct al, 1975). Dieldrin, PCB's, mercury, and other foreign substances also were present emphasizing the difficulty in identifying cause of death. Belisle et nl (1972) found one eagle containing a possible lethal level in the brain of 385 ppm DDE. A warbling vireo, found dying in tremors nearly four weeks after a field -58- �was sprayed with up to 0.75 Ib/acre of DDT, had 459 ppm total DDT wet weight in the brain (Herman, 1975). DDK residues in the brains of 7 white-faced ibis found de"d or dying in Texas in 1970 ranged from 0.1-0.7 ppm (FlickInge r and Meeker, 1972). A significant relationship between liver and whole body residues of DDE in dead guillemots occurred as 40% of their body weight was lost and depot fat mobilized in their livers contained 18.8 percent DDE (Parslow and Jefferies, 197J). The incidence of abnormal chicks (feither loss, and eye, bill, and foot deformities) in 2,000 common and 800 roseate terns in Long Island Increased from O.I to 1.3% from 1969 to 1970 (Hays and Risebrough, 1972). Median concentrations of DDK and PCB in the breast muscles of young terns were 2.1 and 25 ppm wet weight, respectively. The search for the causes of wild bird abnormalities is made difficult by the nature of the relationship between environmental teratoaens and the incidence of observed eff<cfs. Exposure of a large population of organisms to comparable concentrations of a toratogen could be expected to produce abnormal itios in only a few individuals. Concentrations of the chemical responsible could be as high In apparently normal birds as in those with obvious abnormalities. Increasing the love! of exposure, however, would increase the probability and, therefore, the incidence of the effects. Within a given ecosystem, such as the marine ecosystem supporting the terns on Long Island, it may not be possible to relatv the abnormalities to concentrations of any one or a combination of pollutants In the birds. Biologists are constantly alert to new situations concerning pesticidewildlife relationships. Of particular importance. Is ili-> continu.il monitoring on a yearly basis of wildlife species. This i;; an Important action because when birds are subjected to heavy pesticide 1 v nncont rat ions, their resultant death frequently ;;oes unnoticed. Ducks collected in leva in 19691970 had higher total DDT residues in the fat than other tissues, ranging from 67-662 ppb wet weight (Johnson et al, 1971). The breast muscle contained from 6-97 ppb and tiie liver residues) ranged fron 8-247 ppb. Analyses of 5,200 mallard and black duck wings in 1%9-1970 revealed DDK as the predominant organochlorine residue, ranging from 0.06-5.27 ppm (Heath and Hill, 1974). These concentrations alone, however, would not be hazardous to duck populations, but coupled with stress conditions could contribute to slckncsr, or death. Although almost all <:hukar, pheasant, and waterfowl samples taken In Utah from 1970 through 1^71 contained pesticides, no pheasant or chukar breast muscle tissues exceeded the 5.0 ppm tolerance guideline for DDT + DDK residues established by the Food and Drug Ai'minist rat ion for edible portions of fish (Smith et al, 1974b). Mourning dove breast muscles, collected in 1970-1971 in the Eastern I'nited States, wore found to contain DDT + DDE + ODD in ail 145 samples tested. The average residue level was 0.068 ppra wet weight (Kreitzer, 1974). The amounts identified are not considered hazardous to higher order carnivores. -59- �Birds sampled in areas of high pesticide use, as expected, contained higher residues than those from uonuse areas. Bobwhito quails collected In Alabama In 1968-1969 (Mclntyr.e and Causey, 1971) from untreated fields contained an average of 1.68 ppm DDK fat basis (range of 0.55-3.10 ppni) while quail from rioarby treated fls»lds (DDT, Toxaphcne, or methyl parathion) averaged 17.08 ppm DDT fat basis (range of 2.07-46.40 ppm). This concentration exceeds the'7 ppm tolerance guideline established by the Food and Drug Administration for commercial poultry. The snme results were obtained from bobwhite in South Carolina In 1969-197C (Perclvai et al, 1973) and from ring-necked pheasants in Idaho in 1969 (Messick, 1972). When residues are detected in areas where there has been little or no pesticide use, it can be concluded that taey were transported from other areas. A survey was made during 1970 and 5971 of organochlorinc pesticide residue in the fatty tissues of two bird species (about 47 Individuals) In Australia (Best, 1973). In areas far from human 'griculrural activity, total DDT was found in birds ranging from <0.01-4.12 ppm fat basis. It has been suggested that DDT levels above 2 or 3 ppm in the rissues rosy cause serious damage to bird populations. Grelchus ct al (1V73) examined cormorants and pelicans for pesticide residue concentration. The p,p'-DDE was the most prevalent contaminant, reaching 154.50 ppm wet weight in pelican fat and 107^4 ppm in cormorant fat. Penned cormorants approaching toxicosis had 20 i;g/« of 1M->D in t.ic brain. Stress conditions for cormorants (migration or disease) may cause a decrease in body llpid stores and it is quite possible that 20 ug/g of ODD could occur in the brains. Analyses of ten wild cornorants from South Dakota showed average concentrations of Q.56 ppm DDK in the brain, 9.12 ppm in the carcass, and 2.70 ppm wet weight In the.I Ivor (Groichus and Harmon, 1973). Carcass levels in those cormorants wero 20 times greater than In penned birds, although brain concentrations differed little. This evidence suggested storage of residues in body fat as a means of adjusting to residue Intake and maintaining low brain levols. Low brain residue levels indicated the wild birds were in no immediate danger. Most species continually monitored exhibited a gradual decline in amounts of pesticide residues associated with dec:eased DDT use. When 319 migratory songbirds wore aanpled in Florida, all contained DDT in their fat deposits (Johnston, 1974a). There was a decline in DDT from 17.80 ppm in 1969 to 2.06 ppm llpid weight in 1973. The same result was evident In son&bird species which contained 15.48 ppra in 1969 compared to 1.66 ppm in 1973 (Johnston, 1974b). Samples of Louistjna woodcock In 1971 had lower mean DDK residues (6.88 ppro) in the carcass than did the 1965 sample (17.90 ppm) (Clark and McLane, 1974). Starlings also showed a decline from residue levels of 1.9 ppm In 19^7-1968 t,> 1970 values of 1.0 ppm (Martin and Nlckerion, 1972). The decline in DDT residues In starlings In 1<>72 was not as great as that shown in tho 1970 values but generally s t i l l decreasing (Nickerson, 1972). Theso declines are attributed to decreased usagj of DDT in r;he United States. -60- �Exposure to organochlorLne post icicles remained relatively constant from 1965 to 1970 for golden eagles in the United States (Reidinger and Crabtree, 1974) . DDE was the most prevalent residue ranging up to 84 ppm in the fat. Exposure was apparently through diet and not sufficient to warrant concern for direct nonsynergistic acute toxic effects. Sublethal effects are not precluded, however. DDT residues present: an intensified hazard to birds during stress periods including migration and partial food deprivation even with normally sublethal concentrations. Mortality occurred when birds were fed DDT simultaneously with food restriction. However, there was no mortality when the same DDT dosage or the same food reslciction was applied separately indicating that neither weight loss nor dosage alone was sufficient to cause mortality. Under stress, body fat is utilized: DDT is mobilized and may be translocated via the bloodstream to the brain in sufficient amounts to cause death. Death from mobilization of stored DDT residues can occur long after the dosage has been eliminated. An accurate, assessment of cause of death in the field is extremely difficult because many pesticides are present in the environment. Birds carrying DDT residues may have traveled long distances from DDT contact points making it difficult, if not impossible, to relate the cause of death to one pollutant. The conclusion reached from the new data agrees with tho Administrator's prior decision: DDT is toxic to birds and can be mobilized from tissues in lethal amounts. -61- �EGGSHELL THINNING Al.'O REPRODUCTION t-op's Finding: DDK aan aausc thinning of bird egersh&tls anc thus impair reproductive isnoatisa, Certain wild birds, in their natural breeding areas, are affected by DDT-related residues in the diet and bioaccumulatcd into tissues in such a way as to produce reproductive impa.innent. This impairment is associated with the production of eggs with shells thinner than the historical norms and results in such deleterious phenomena as cracking, crushing, egg-eating 1/y the parents, and nest abandonment. -These phenomena result in reduced reproductive success among natural copulations, and in some cases, failure of large breeding colonies to reprodv.ee the young needed to sustain the population. These effects can result ultimately in partial or complete loss of whole species. The statement that !)DT-related residues produce this eggshell thinning is based upon at least three lines of evidence: 1) museum eggshells of the affected species show that a marked decline in average thickness occurred during the late 1940' s corresponding to the time DDT jame in^o prominent use; 2) affected species have a negative correlation between the concentration of DDT-related residues in the egg, bird, or colorv and the thickness of eggshells. These kinds of residue correlations along with shell thickness, population status, and reproductive failures aie field research evidence; 3) controlled studies on this chemical effect or1, shell thickness have shown the phenomenon to be repentable in the laborat ;ry. Testimony presented during the hearings included pro and con information regarding each of the three lines of evidence. Museum studies were presented by Dr. Joseph Mickey and others describing the decline in shell thickness of certain species in the US. Testimony was also presented showing a lack of change in certain other species. Testimony was presented showing a negative correlation between shell thickness and egg residues for some species and no correlation for others. Earlier laboratory studies, such as those of the University of Wisconsin and the Patuxent and Denver Wildlife Research Centers of the USDI, were presented which showed that dietary or single oral dosages of the DDT complex, particularly DDE, could cause shell thinning in some species but not in others. While several witnesses expressed the opinion that DDEimpaired calcium metabolism was responsible, no definitive biochemical nechanism was demonstrated, though several possible mechanisms were proposed. (Pi;: 1 i : Hearings on DDT, 1971-1972) Data _si_ncer_197i2_ Since the Administrative Hearings, more information has become available. An excellent, In-depth review of shell thinning in avian eggs 'is been written -62- �(Cooke, 1973). Aiiy serious student or the phenomenon should read this wellret'erenced 68-page review for a thorough grasp of the subject 'a history and an analysis of research to that tine. Other recommended background reading is the raofit comprehensive American study of eggshell thickness ever conducted (Anderson and Hick«y, 1972). These reports document the decreased shell thickness certain American species have displayed sin'.:e the late 1940"s. Species of wild birds studied in North America not demonstrating any significant shell thinning included the golden eagle, great horned owl, gyrfalcon, rough-legged hawk, whooping crane, and iaourning dove. Species in North America showing recent decreases in shell thickness include the peregrine falcon, bald eagle, prairie falcon, osprey, redtailed hawk, merlin, white pelican, brown pelican, double-crested cormorant, common egret, great blue heron, guillemot, herring gull, and ashy petrel. The species showing thinning arc generally rmong those at the top of food chains, such as fish-eaters, bird-eaters, and other fl^&h-eating birds. Herbivorous species such as pheasants, quail, and certain waterfowl have not displayed this shell thinning. Numerous authors present graphs of shell thickness plotted against time. The decreases first appeared to have happened IP the period 1946-1952, typically in 1947, continuing in m^ny cases to the piesent. In certain cases, thickness increases toward historical norms have occurred vory recently (Anderson and Mickey, 1972). The degree of shell thinning in affected wild colony populations has varied from over 34% (with eggs collapsing as a result) for the California brown pelican (Keith, Woods, and Hunt, 19"0) to none for many species. Within a given species there are geographical differences in average degrees of shell thinking. There arc many research papers giving negative correlation coefficients between the degree of shell thinning and the concentration of DDT-rclated residues for affected species (Blus et al, 1974; Faber and Hickey, 1973; Cade et al, 1971). Blus et al (1972) have developed the mathematics for the relationship between DDE residu r and shell thinninp, for several species. The relationship between the logarithm of the dose and the response is well known in toxicological theory. Blus et al extend this to the association between residue and resi>:,:>se. His calculations show a concentration-ef fe.ct relationship involving the logarithm of DDK (wet weight basis) in eggs and the thickness of the shells for affected species. The resulting regression is linear and similar for different species. However, tie notes that this relationship operates on a different level for different species. For example, in the brown pelican, which seems to bo extromely susceptible, a 15% -63- �thinning is associated with DDE residues of 4-5 ppm. In contrast, the herring gull shows no thinning at 4-5 ppm and only 11% thinning at 80 ppm. In certain cases, this shell thinning-DDE residue correlation led to population studies and on-site reproduction assessments. One sot of studies concerned the brown pelican off the coast of California and Baja, California. A report, prior to 1972 (Risebrough et al, 197.1), showed this population experiencing extremely low reproduction in association with thin shelled-egg production and abnormally high DDE residues. The residues resulted from the brown pelicans' diet of northern anchovies and other fish carrying high DDE residues. • Dr. Daniel Anderson (personal communication, 1974) is studying this population. His data demonstrate that a change has occurred sinco the 1960's for the islands of Anacapa and Coronados off the southern California coast. A significant drop in the average levels of DDE, DDT, and TDE in the anchovies began in 1971.i.' A significant improvement in the reproductive success of the brown pelicans has occurred since 1971. For 1969, it was reported (Risebrough et al, 1971) that the colony was littor^d with eggs that had collapsed under the weight of the incubating adults. Shells of these oggs averaged 53% thinner than those collected before 1943. In 1969, a maximum of five young hatched frora 1,272 nrsting attempts. In 1970 and 1971, there was little Improvement. More improvement occurred <n 1972 and 1973. For 1974, Anderson has data showing that approximately 1,200 young were successfully hatched from the Island of Anacapa. This reproductive improvement was associated with a significant improvement in shrill condition, as well as increased survival of eggs and reduced DDK residues. This reproductive success is attributed both to improved rate of reproduction and an increased number of breeding adults by 1974. The increase in number of breeding adults is thought to "»e brought about by possible recruitment of first breeders from more southerly populations as a response to an increased food supply (fish). This increased reproductive success is not enough to be called "normal for these pelicans. Anderson states it as a "chronic lower level of adverse effects" as opposed to die acute, problem of almost total reproductive failure which had just previously occurred. The numerical data supporting this history have been evaluated and are to be published. James 0. Keith, of the Denver Wildli^ Research Center, has also been involved in the on-site study of West Coast brown pelicans for many years. \J Montrose Chemical Company, DDT manufacturer, Installed a separate treatment system and no longer used the Los Angeles sewer ':;ystt>m in 1971: this accounts for some of the lower DDT rel&ted residues thereafter. -64- �He states (personal communication, 1.975) that "the average productivity of brown pelicans In the Gulf of California during the last five years appears to be r '.adequate to maintain their population." Whereas existing data on mortal ty rates for the species suggest that a recruitment standard of from 1.2 to 1.5 young per adult pair is necessary (lienny, 1972) to maintain the population, production has averaged less than 1.0 young per pair in the Gulf. Average productivity was reduced primarily by two kinds of inadequate performance on Jie part of adult pelicans. In two of the [last] five years, only about one-half and one-third of the adults came to the colonies to breed; the remaining proportion of the adults did not produce young during those years. In addition, during every year a proportion of the adults (10 to 95%) deserted eggs or young sometime during production. Keith notes that, in addition to DDF. residues carried by the adult pelicans, food availability was possibly related to this inadequate performance.^/ Keith's research on food deprivation and its effect on birds carrying DDE residues is reviewed elsewhere in this report. Like Gress (1970), Keith noted erratic behavior in the field such as a tendency of breeding adults to leave normal nosts unattended. He also noted that a tendency toward less intense courtc-hlp behavior than normal was correlated with higher DDE residues than occurred in "normal" pairs. Experimental evidence has substantiated this phenomena under controlled conditions and is presented elsewhere in this report. Schreiber and Riscbrough (1972) described the historical status of brown pelicans throughout the United States and its relationship to DDK residues. Risebrough (personal communication, 1974) was concerned about the biochemical mechanism by which DDK could cause t'.iln shells. Bins et al (1974) studied egg effects from 13 or more colonies of brown pelicans from South Carolina, Florida, and California In 1969 and 1970. They observed a 177 eggshell thinning in South Carolina which was associated with subnormal reproductive success. Sines the DDT cancellation, thorc has been a significant decline In residues of DDE, DDD, and DDT in uggs (brown pelicans in Sosith Carolina); at As same time, reproductive success of the pelicans returned to near normal for the first time In many years (Tllus, personal communication, 1975). This is consistent with other findings for brown pelicans off the California coast (Anderson, personal communication, 1974) and ospreys in the Eastern US (Stickel, personal communication, 1974). Control".ed laboratory studies, both before and after the. cancellation, have demonstrated the shell-thinning phenomenon to be reproducible. Chickens and related wild gallinaceous birds have shown little or no thinning upon exposure to DDT or DDK in the diet (Davlson and Sell, 1972). On the other I/ Restricted food Intake can lead to mobilization of DDK residues from bodv fat. -65- �hand, watcrfowltsuch as the mallard ('V.vison ami Sells, 1974) or black duck (Longcore et al, 1971; l.ongcore and Samson, 1973), ring doves (llaegele and Hudson, 1973), and sparrow hawks (Pcakall e.t al, 1973) have shown significant shell thinning of a degree impairing reproduction oven v;tu>n the eggs arc artificially incubated. Studies have not been performed in tlic laboratory with the sane species showing reproduction problems in the wild, with the exception of the prairie falcon and sparrow hawk. The reason For this is the other species are not amenable to laboratory rearing practices. To determine if nercury or lead compounds caused significant shell thinning or synergized the thinning caused by DDE, llaegolo. et al (197-'*) fed them singly and in combination v i t h DDK, to mallard ducks. DDK alone caused 15% reduction in shell thickness: but neither mercury nor lead caused significant th.inr.lng or additive thinning, either alone or In combination w i t h DDE. Furthermore, Haegele and Tucker (1974) orally administered fifteen coniffion environmental pollutants to both coturnix and mallards to determine if pollutants, other than DDK, caused shell thinning. The chemicals tested included Aroclor 1254, 2,4-D, dieldrin, ho.ptachl.or, chlordane, parathion, sodium arsonitc, Toxapheno, and tetraethyl lead. Results showed that several chemicals and pesticides caused temporary production (2-5 days) of thinshelled eggs in association with treatment levels producing severe, signs of intoxication. When the overt intoxication remitted, the. next eggs subsequently returned to normal thickness, except for the DDK-treated groups where thinning persisted throughout the 18-day study, in the absence of signs of intoxication. These authors studied DDK-produced shell thinning in mallard* which persisted in excess of a year after the birds were returned to normal, ur.contaminated diets (Haegele, personal communication, 1974). Peakal1 et al (1975a) studied the prolonged nature of this thinning using the white 1'ekln duck. They concluded that recovery of shell thickness following cessation of exposure to DDE was less than half-way to normal in 27 weeks and that DDK residues in egg yolks produced at that time had decreased 40Z. The authors noted that recovery would be slower in the wild for affected species since they lay far fewer eggs. Eggs are a major route by which female birds rid their bodies of DDK residues. Some significance of shell thinning is shown by l.ongcore and Sampson (1973) who fed black ducks just 3 ppm wet weight p,p'-DDF.. The ducks produced ev;gs with shells 227, thinner than normal. When the hens were allowed to inculiatf these eggs, the increase in total percentage of eggs with cracked shells was statistically highly significant (57.72), four times the percentage of cracked control eg?,s (12/0. Only 18.77 of the eggs laid by DDE treated ducks hatched, compared to 86"' of control eggs. Most oilier studies utilized artificial incubation techniques and thus, in part, missed the cracking effect. These authors in nrior years conducted the same study but artificially Incubated tlic eggs and found th.it of the control eggs,. 2.22 cracl.c'd and of the DDK group eggs, an unimpressive b i t statistically significant 11.0"; cracked. One major thrust of current laboratory shell-reproduction research has been to elucidate the biochemical mechanism by which DDK could cause thinning. -66- �Previously, a number of mechanisms, all related to calcium metabolism, had been proposed. One by one, each proposed mechanism has been either dismissed as further experimental evidence became available, or been relegated to a minor role. Such mechanisms proposed and studied include carbonic anhydrase inhibition, thyroid destruction via liver enzyme induction, premature oviposition, parathorraone dysfunction hydroxylation of the steroid vitamin D causing poor calcium absorption from the gastrointestinal trace, hormonal changes, and numerous other theories. These were thoroughly discussed by Cooke (1973) and, more recently, by Mueller and Leach (1974) . In the last few months some very important breakthroughs have been made. The moat popular theory of the early 1970's, carbonic anhydrase inhibition by DDT, has now been rather successfully refuted by Karen et al (1974). Carbonic anhydrase inhibition in the shell gland by DDE had been presumably demonstrated by previous authors and should have been responsible for reduced laying down of calcite (CaCO^) , the major constituent of eggshells. Previously, Pocker et al (1971) showed In assays that a false inhibition resulted from coprecipitation with insoluble DDT, thus occluding carbonic anhydrase from solution. Maren et al (1974), using DMF with ultrasonication to keep any carbonic anhydrase and DDT in suspension, demonstrated a lack of inhibition of anhydrase activity by DDE and DDT. Peakall et al (1975b) have now shown that DDE does not reduce blood calcium levels in either the Pekln duck or the ring dove, both of which are susceptible to shell thinning. Thus, the mechanism had to involve the function of the shell gland in laying down calcite rather than decreased calcium eupply to the gland. Finally, Miller et al (1975) reported that calcium ATPase present in the shell glano may act as a calcium pump to produce the active transport of calcium ions across the avian shell gland from the blood to the developing shell. Their experiments demonstrated that calcium ATPase in the shell gland of Pckin ducks is strongly inhibited by DDE both in vivo and in vitro. As little as 0.2 ppm DDE in the shell gland produced inhibition in the susceptible duck species. If this biochemical explanation is valid, one should oxpect little or no calcium ATPase inhibition in the shell gland of a DDE-treated chicken. In fact, this has been verified in recent weeks (Kinter, personal communication, 1975), thus finally explaining the difference between susceptible species and the nonsusceptible chicken. Based upon previous data available to the Administrator and additional material which has since become available, we conclude: 1. Because there is a macs of information showing that the shellthinning phenomenon was not a problem prior to the Introduction of DDT into the environment, and because there is a corresponding rcir.'ssion in severe shell thinning in many affected species taking place across the nation since the cancellation, -67- �we feel a clear-cut time relationship exists between thinshell production, conroroitant reproductive failures, and DDT use in North America. 2. There is a spatial relationship showir , that the areas, colonies, and birds of susceptible species most exposed and carrying the highest residues have been the most affected. 3. Time and time again, negative correlations between the DDE content of eggs and parents versus thickness of shells produced have been shown. The only exceptions, to our knowledge, were the lack of correlation found by one mosquito abatement district manager on a few eggs .ind one graduate student who found yet another negative correlation coefficient, albeit a nonstatistically significant on.-> (Sw'tzer et al, 1971). 4. Controlled studies have shown repeatedly that many species are susceptible under laboratory conditions of exposure to environmental levels of DDE. However, chickens and related gallinaceous birds are generally refractory both in laboratory studies and their natural, habitat. A plausible explanation for how thinning occurs in susceptible species but not in chickens or other nonsusceptible species is the biochemical mechanism (calcium ATPaso inhibition in the shell gland) prc-viously discussed. 5. No other chemical has been shown to produce the degree and duration of shell thinning produced by DDK. For al). thcsa reasons, we conclude, as did the Adminiytrator, that DDE can cause thinvlng of bird eggshells, thus impairing reproductive success. This phenomenon has been so general and widespread as to, In our opinion, present serious environmental risk to the many avlan spoci«s involved. -68- �REFERENCES Alexander, M. Mlcroblal degradation and biological affects of pesticides in soil. In: Soil Biology, Review of Research, Vol. 9, pp. 209-240. Now York, UNESCO", T 9 " " %""" Anas, R.E. DDT plus I'CD's in blubber of harbor seals. 8(1):J.? -14, 1974. Pestle. Monit._J. Anderson, D.W. Personal communication, 1974. Anderson, D.W., and J.J. Uickey. Eggshell changes in certain North American birds. In: Proceed fjigs of_tlu* JLSth International Ornithological Cp'Tgresst Pf) ' 514-540, 1972. Aulerich, R.J., R.K. Ringer, and S, Iwamoto, Reproductive failure and mortality in mind fed on Great Lakes fish. J_^ Jtejvrod .__Fojrt.jJL . (Suppl.) 19:365-376, 1973. Baetcke, K.P., J.D. Cain, and W.E. Poe. Mlrex and DDT residues in wildlife and miscellaneous samples In Mississippi - 1970. 1'estic. >lpnit._J. 6(l):14-?2, 1972. ..... Batterton, J.C., G.M. Boush, and F. Matsumura. DOT: Inhibition of sodium chloride tolerance by the; blue-green alga Ar.a^'istis nidulan^ . Science_ 176: 1141-1143, 1972. Bedford, J.W., and M.J. Zabik. Bioactive compounds in the ae)uatlc environment: Uptake and loss of DDT and dieldrin by fresh water mussels. Arch. _Environ_._ _. l(2):97-lli, 1973. " * ...... Belisle, A. A., W.L. Reichel, L.N. Locke, T.G. I.amont, B.M. Mulhern, R.M. Prouty, R.B. DeWolf, and E. Croraartie. Residues of organochlorlnc pes'-lciJes, polychlorinated biplienyls, and mercury and autopsy <Jata for bald eagles, 1969 and 1970. VestJ^._Hanit_._±. 6(3)':133-138, 1.972. Benson, W.W. , J. Gabica, and J. 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Metabolic transformation of DDT, dieldrin, aldrin, and cndrin by marine microorganisms. Environ^ Set. Technol. 6(7) :629-632 , 1972. Pcakall, D.B., J.L. Lincer, R.W. Riscbrough, J.B. Prltchard, aic; W.n. Kinter. DDE-induced eggshell thinning: Structural and physiological effects in three species. ^mp.^en^J^h^rmaco^l. 4(15) :305-313, 1973. Peakall, D . B . , D.S. M i l l e r , and W . B . K i n t e r . Prolonged eggshell thinning caused by DDE in the cluck. Nature (In press, 1975a). Peakall, D . B . , D.S. M i l l e r , and W . B . Kinter Blood calcium levels and the mechanism of DDE-induced eggshell t h l n n l n . . Environ- P o l l u t . (In press, 1975b) ..... " ..... Pearce, P . A . , I.M. Gruchy, and J.A. :.eith. Toxic chemicals in l i v i n g things in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Pjy?,1 JPj_c_sontt-d .at -'p,int_ /'SWFJljCSj^^mposJjiim on Renewable Resource Management £.'-_t.hc Guj-l 9jL St . LawrcncOj JJ^73.' ^8 pp. Percival, H . F . , L.G. Webb, and J . K . Reec: . Concentrations of selected chlorinated .tydrocarbon insecticides in b o b v i l t e q u a i l in South Carolina. Tn: Proceedings of the Twenty -Sixth ^.nniJ3l_jJonfer<?nce Soutlioastejrn .Ass.o,?J»alJ.°Jl ? ^ PP« 108-1] 7. I9V3. .. -78- �Peterson, R.U. Temperature selection of Atlantic salmon (Salmo sala?) and brook trout (Salyolinus fontinalis) as influenced by various chlorinated h; drocarbons. J._ J.i.sAr_J?.?S.:.. A°JaJL<LJi.'?.l?.t 30:1091-1097, 1973. Pocker, Y., W.H. Beug, and V.R. Ainardi. Carbonic anhydrase interaction with DDT, DDE, and dielJrin. Science 174:1336-1339/1971. Porter, R.D., and S.N. Wiemeyer. DDE at low dietary levels kills captive American kestrels. ^in^.KnyJ^rj3ji^^£i^tajn^Toxi_c£l. 8(4) :193-199, 1972. Pritchard, H.N., and D.M. Dines. DDT effects on oxygen evolution during photosynthesis. Pror Pa_. Acad._J5ci_. 46:25-26, 1972. Puleston, D. Return of the osprey. Nat._ History 84(2):52-59, 1975. Reidinger, R.F., Jr., and D.G. Crabtree. Organochlorine residues in golden eagles, United States - March 1964-July 1971. Pest_ic. Monit_.__J. 8(1): 37-43, 1974. Roinert, R.E., L.J. Stone, and H.L. Bergman. Dieldrin and p-p'-DDT: Accumulated from water and food by lake trout in the laboratory. (In press) Reinert, R.K. Personal communication, 1975. Rice, C.P., and H.C. Sikka. Upt-ikc and metabolism of DDT by six species of marine algae. ,h_ A^HjL>_^ood_CJiom. 21(2) :14«-152, 1973. Risebrough, R.W. Persori.il communication, 1974. Rlsebrough, R.U., F.C. Siblcy, and M.N. Kirven. Reproduction failure of the brown pelican on Anacepa in 1969. Am. Birds 25:8-9, 1971. Rooth, J., and D.A. Jonkers. Tito status of some piscivorous birds In the Netherlands. Side-effects of persistent pesticides and other chemicals .>n birds and mammals in the Netherlands. TNO-n_iejjivj 27:551-555, 1972. Sanders, li.O. T_oxlcity o_f Some Insecticides to Fo_ur^ Species of M.ilacost/a^ccan Crustaceans. US Departnent of Interior, 1972. 19 P.IROS. "tBSKW Technical PapeVijio". 66] Schrciber, R.W., and R.W. Risebrough. Studies of the brown pelican. Wilson Bu_l_l. 84(2)T:119-133, 1972. Shaw, S.B. DDT residues in eight California marine fishes. Calif^Fish Game 58(l):22-26, 197:>. Smith, R.M., and C.F, Cole. Effects of egg concentrations of DDT a;ul dleldrin on development la .inrer flounder Pr.cu-inp'lfiur-jnf'.ctfir, (t'lcrfc<viit»*. J. Fish. Board. Cnn. 30- 13V.-1898, 1973. �Smith, F.A., P.. P. Sharma, R.I. Lynn, and J.B, Low. Mercury and selected pesticide levels in fish and wildlife of Utah. I. Levels of mercury, DDT, DDK, dieldrln, and PCB in fish. Bull. Kay iron. Contam. Toxicol. 12(2) .-218-223, 1974a. ....... Smith, F.A., R.P. Sharma, R.I. Lynn, and J.B. Low. Mercury and selected pesticide levels in fish and wildlife of Utah. II. Levels of mercury, DDT, DDK, dicldrin and PCB in chukars, pheasants and waterfowl. "UH_:.- 12(2):I53-157, 1974b. Sodergren, A. Accumulation and distribution of chlorinated hydrocarbons in cultures of f'hnr*'l 1 ;i pin', •>:<•>;' l^sas. (Chlorophyccac) . Oikos 22:215220, 1971. Sodergren, A., and S. Ulfstranc!. DDT and PCB relocate when caged robins use fat reserves. Airbjio 1(1) ; 36-40, 1972. Sodertjre.n, A., and B. Svonsson. Uptake and accumulation of DDT and PCB by /•';>!• '•"..•*>.; ./.-,"•:,''<. '7 (Kphemeroptera) in contiguous-flow systems. Bu_) 1 . . }*.' 9 ( ) 3/4 5-350, 1973. 6: StJckel, W.H. 1974. Personal communication, Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, Stout , 'V.F. Personal communication, Pacific Utilization Research Center, NOAA, Seattle, Waslragton, 1975. Sundarun, K.M.S. A Study oj DDT _R_esidues_ _in _ih_ Wild M>irv.ial_s. Ottawa, Canada, Chemical Contro ~l<)fi;~ '3f "pages. [Internal Report CC-16] Research Institute, Switzer, B., V, l.cwin, and K.A. Wolfe. Sliel] tliicknesr., i:DK levels in eggs and reproductive success in common terns in Alh'.-rta. Can. J. Zo_ol. 49(l):69-73, 1971. " Tr Pub H_c.Hear fn_g__on DDT, Transcript, Office of the Hearing Clerk, Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C., 1971-1972. US Department of the Interior, Toxicity of aquatic contaminants to freshwater invertebrates. In: Progress inJJport JFiahcry Research, 1971, pp. 3--'». Washington, D.C., US Governmenf: Printinf? Office, 1973. (Resource Publication 121] Vaa.lakorpl , .11. A. , and L. Salone.n. Dioaccumul.it ion and transfer of ''''C-DDT in «i snail pond ocosys'jem. Ann. Zoo I. Fennici pp. 53si-54'i, 1973. Valentine, D.W., and M. Soule. Effects "f p,p'-D'vr on c!evel"pment.'.l st.ib l l l t y of ncctoral fin rays In t.'ie grunion, l.wra't.i'.i-x '''>;^.';'. iMsh. Bull.' 7 1(4): 92 1-926, 1973. -80- �Van Vclzt'n, A.C., W.B. Stiles, and L.F. Stickel. Let ha 1 mobilization of DDT by cowbirds. ^ . ^ L l . l i S 0 - 36(3) :733-739, 1972. . J L l i J ^ a .. We.is, P., and J.S. We is. DDT causes changes in activity, a schooling behavior in goldfish. Jinvi_ron_._ Res. 7:68-74, 1974. Wcisbart, Hi, and D. Fein^r. Subiothal effect of DDT or. osmotic and ionic regulation by the goldfish Caraeeiue axratua. Can. .)_. Z ool . 52:739-744, 1974. Williams, R. , and A.V. Hol.-jcn. Orgauochlorine residues from plankton. Mar. Pon_ut._Bul_l. 4(7):109~11(, 1973. Zitko, V., and P.M.K. Choi. PCB and p.p'-DDE in eggs of cormorants, gulls, and ducks from the Day of Fundy, Canada. IHil.1. ElYjron. Contain. Toxicol. 7(l):63-64, 1972. 7,itko, V., 0. Hutzinger, and P.M.K. Choi. Contamination of the Bay of Fundy Gulf of Maine area w?.th potychlorlnated biplu-nyls, polychlofiiiate terohcny's, clilorinat'.'d dibenzodioxtn.s, and dihen^ofuran. Knviron. Ijoalth Perspect_. pp. 47-50, 1972. "" ' " -HI- �Ill B. iiUMAN EFFECTS �CARCINOGENICITY OF DDT IN MICK Administrator's Findings: 1) Experiments demonstrate that DDT causes tumors in laboratory animals, ") There is sane indication of mctajiaais of tumors attributed to exposure of animals to DDT in the Laboratory. Data as of 1972 In a published preliminary note, 18 male and 18 female (C57BL/6 x C3H/ Anf) Fl mice and a similar number of (C57BL/6 :t AFR) Fl mice were given single doses of 46.4 mg/'kij bw p,p'-I>DT by stomach tube at 7 days of age. The same absolute amount was given daily until the animals were 28 days of age; they were then transferred to a diet containing 140 ppm p,p'-Dl)T. Mice were killed at 81 weeks. In both strains, about 30% of the females died during treatment. Hepatomas (liver cell tumors) were found in 11/18 male and 4/18 female (C57BL/6 x C3H/Anf) mice compared with 8/79 male and 0/87 female controls, and in 7/18 male and 1/18 female (C57BI./6 x AFR) Fl mice compared with 5/90 male and 1/82 female controls. In addition, 6/18 (C57BL/6 x AFR) Fl females died with malignant lymphomas, compared to 4/82 controls (Innes et al, 1969). A 5-generation experiment, originally devised to Investigate the effects of DDT on behavior, provided animals for a carcfnogenlcity study. One test and one control group of BALB/c mice were taken from each of the 5 generations and their tumor incidence studied. A total of 683 received a diet containing 3 ppm p,p'-L)DT and 406 a control diet. Lung carcinomas were observed in 16.9% of the treated mice and 1.2% of the controls (the incidence of lung adea>mas is not reported, although the authors note an average incidence of Y/, Iti their colony of mice). The incidence of ]ymphoma-3 was 4.8% in treated and 1.02 in control mice; leukemia* 12.4% and 2.*>/;, and other tumors 5.3% and 1.0^, respectively (Tarjan and Kemeny, 19O). At this time, the multlgeneration Lyon study was ongoing and preliminary data indicated that International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) also had observed an Increased incidence of hepatomas In nice but no conclusive data were available for publication (IARC, Scientific Advisory Committee to EPA Administrator, personal communication, 1972). The committee agreed at this point that the unpublished evidence made available to them, indicated an overwhelming production of hepatomas In Mice by DDT. llowover, they admittedly were In disagreement at this time, for lack of evidence, whether or not hepatomas signified eventual development of carcinomas. The presence, however, of lung carcinomas ant' malignant lyrp-iomas (lymph gland tumors) In addition to the hepatomas signaled tho ability of Di)T to produce cancerous growths in other tissues a; d gave weight to the potential carclnogenlcity of this chemical in other mj.ntil ian systems. -S3- �A 2-gcneration dose-response study on the fced'ng of DDT to CF1 mice Involving a total of 881 treated and 2.14 control mice has been reported (Tornalls et al , 1972). Dietary concentrations of 2, 10, 50, and 250 ppm technical DDT were administered for lifespan (.ipprox. 18 months). In both parent (P) and offspring (Fl) generations, there was excess mortality from woek 60 onward among mice receiving 250 ppm DDT. Only the incidence of livar-cell tumors was affected by exposure to DDT, and in the two sexes, it ranged as follows: 0 ppra 25/113 4/111 2 ppm 57/124 4/105 10 ppm 52/104 11/124 50 ppm 67/127 13/104 250 ppm 82/103 69/90 (* Number of animals demonstrating the appearance of the first tumor at any site.) The excess of liver-cell tumors in mice of both sexes fo.d 250 ppm DDT over the controls wan significant at the IZ level. The excess of livercell tumors In males fed ?., 10, or 50 ppm over the controls was significant at the i% level in animals surviving more than 60 weeks. 'n fer.ial.es, -'11 liver-cell tumors we-e found after 100 wec!-9 of flge, am' the exce'ifi over the controls was significant n: the 5% level only in the group fed 50 ppm DDT. Four liver-cell tumor.-;, «5j < :currlng In DDT-treated mlc.c, fjavo metast.ises. No remarkable dif forencr-s vtie observed between P anti Fl mice in this study. These results wore confirmed by a later study reporting the effect of DDT on 6 consecutive generations of CF1 nice. CF1 minimal Inbred mice of 6 consecutive generations (parents, F1-F5) were fed technical DDT mixed Into the diet at dose levels of 2, 1.0, 50, and 250 ppm for their lifespans. The experiment involved :V'87 mice, including DDT-exposod and negative and positive conTols. Exposure to all 4 levels of DDT significantly increased liver tumors (hepatomas) In wales (50-55.9!! in the 2, 10, and 50 ppm groups and 86% In the 250 ppm DDT groups, ccnpuret! to 29.5% In male controls). Tn females, hcpatoma incidence increased considerably only after exposure to 250 ppm DDT (65.5% compared to 4.7% in controls). Ten and 50 ppm DDT only slightly increased. tho incidence (9% and 13% respectively). No effect was seen at the 2 ppm l-.-vcl in females. -84- �The average llfesnan of males with hepatomas decreased in DDT-crcated groups (8>'* wk at the 250 ppm DDT level, 101-104 wk at the 2, 10, and 5.0 ppra levels, as compared to 114 wk in controls). In females, only the highest dose level shortened the average lifest>.-»n of hepatona-bearing mice (9-* wk compared to 104 wk In controls). DDT did not alter tumor incidence at sites other than the liver, although an apparent, hut not significant, increase in lung tumor incidence was noted at the levels ot 2 and 10 ppm DDT. No progressive increase of ho.patoma incidence from generation to generation was noted in DDT-treated mice. However, considerable variations in the incidence of tumors of the liver, lungs, and hematopoietic tissue were observed between the generations within each treatment group, including control'}. One metastasl/ing hcpatoma was found in controls and 13 were found in 4 DDT-treated groups. Malignant liver tumors, tentatively termed hcpatoblastomas, also occur nid, with a slightly increased incidence in the 10 and 50 ppm group;; ( ' . % and 3.IX, respectively, as compared .j9 to 0.9% in controls) and a significant increase in the 250 ppm group (7.1/0. Ten of 56 tumor;; of this type found in DDT-treated mice motastaslzed to the lungs•(Turusov et al, 1973). In a 2-gcnerntion study, a total of 515 females and 431 male HALB/c mice were administer .'d dietary concentrations of 0, 2, 20, or 250 ppm technical DDT for lifespan. Only liver-cell tunors wore found in excess, and only the 250 ppn: dose level vas effective. In females, the survival rates were comparable in all groups, and liver-cell tumors were found in 0/131 control mice, 0/135 mice fed 2 npiu. 1/128 mice fed 20 ppm and 71/121 mice fed 250 ppm DDT. In males, early deaths occurred in all groups as a consequence of fighting and (at highest dosage level) because of DDT toxiclty. In males surviving over 60 weeks of age, liver-cell tumors were found in 1/62 control mice, 3/58 receiving 2 ppm, 0/48 receiving 20 ppm, and 15/31 receiving 250 ppm DDT. Liver-cell tumor distribution was unrelated to the litter of origin. No metastascs were found. The tumors grew after transplantation into syngcnetic animals (Ten-acini et a.1., 1973a). Confirmatory results were obtained in two subsequent generations of BALB/c mice fed DDT, although F1-F3 mice, exposed to DDT both in utero and a'ter birth for lifespan developed more liver tumors than did P mice exposed to DDT only after weaning (Terracini et al., 1973b). In a multigeneration study in A strain mice, DDT in 0.1 ml sunflower- rocd oil was administered to 234 mice by stomach tube at doses of 10 ppm. In two control groups a total of 206 mice received either no treatment or sunflower-seed oil (0.1 ml) alone. Similar treatments wore applied to the FO, Fl, F2, F3, F4, and F5 generations. An additional 30 mice were given doses of 0,1 ml of a 50 ppm solution which adversely affected pregnancies, thus no subsequent generations were obtained at this level. Approximately 30-507, of tho animals in the treated groups died before 6 months; all animals were killed after 12 months. Only lung adenomas were found. The incidence •- in FO-F5 generations treated with 10 ppm DDT were: �FO, 8/42 (19?.); Fl.. 4/26 (15?:); F2, 6/25 (242); F3, 19/41 (46Z); F4, 16/37 (43?',); F5, 8/63 ( ' ) controls FO-F5, 15/206 (72). !"; Of the 30 mice receiving 50 ppm doses, 14 died before 6 months, and these (21.52) had lung adenomas; oC the 16 dying after this time, 8 had lung adenomas. The average number of lung i.3'lulos/wousc, about was similar la both sexes, compared to 1.0-4.7 noduif s/mrmse in the generations receiving 10 ppm doses and 1.0 nodule/souse in controls et al, 1973). 3 of (502) 7.2, 6 (Shabad Diets containing 50 or 100 ppm I'.p'-DDT were administered to groups of 30-32 CFl-mlce oi each sex for 2 years. The control groups included 47 mice of each sex. In irales given 0, 50, and 100 ppm, liver tu-aorj occurred in 13/i. 37;'i, and 5.1™ of the animals, respectively, fa females, the corresponding incidences were 172, 507', and 762. The ratio of liver tumors, characterized by simple r.odular growths of solid cords of p.irenchymal cells, classified as benign tumors (type a), to tumors growing with papillary or adenoid growths with cells proliferating in confluent sheets with necrosis and increased raitosip (type b) was greater than .1:1 in the treated group; no type b tumors occurred in controls. The incidences of other tumors were comparable in control, and DDT-created mice. Metastises were found in one treated female (Walker et nl, .1973). In a subsequent utudy 30 male and 30 female CF1 mice were fed 100 ppm p,p'-DUT for llu weeks. The animals were not autopsfod until the ulcraabdominal masses reached u size cviusing the animals to become anorexic or clinically afi'ecit-d. In this o.ieriment, 7 . % of the r.ilcs and 967, of the '' females compared with 24% and 23'' in the controls developed liver tumors within 26 months. The ratio of type a to type b tumors was about, 1:1 in the DDT-treated mice (Thorpe am: Waltcer, 1973). Conclusion As a result of additional stujlec concluded aftrr 1971:, the hepatocarcinogenfcity of DDT by the oral route has been demonstrated in several strains of nice. Liver-c-.'ll tumors have been produced In both sexes, and In CF1 mlci'. were found to have mo*paritasi.zed. An Increased incidence of hepatic tumors has been observed with doses of L)D1" as low as 2 ppm. �TUMOR PRODUCTION IN MICE AS AN INDEX OF' POTENTIAL CARCINOGENICiTY IN OTHER SPECIES Administrator's Findings: .') Hot all chemicals ehoa the same tumorigenic propert-ie • in laboratory tests in animals. 2) Responsible scientists relieve tumor induct-'on in mice is a valid uaming of possible carcinogenic properties. Data as of 1972 Tomatis el al (1973) in a review of the literature containing over 350 reference* dating from 1937 through 1972 concluded that a positive correlation appears to exist between the capacity of a chemical to induce liver tumors in the mouse snd its capacity to inouce tumors at any site in the rat 01: the hamster. The strongest positive correlation was found when the chemical, given to the mouse during adult life, induces tumors of the liver in both sexes AS veil as tumors at other sle«s. However, the induction of liver tumors in the mouse by a chemical does not necessarily imply that the liver would b«! the target organ in the rat or the hamster. Tomatis, in the same review, further indicated that among the 58 chemicals considered, seven are recognized or suspected human carcinogens (3N-ben?,opyrene 4-aminobiphenyl, benzidine, auraiMne, 2-naphthylamine, stilhestrol, and aflatoxin). With the po&aible exception of aflatoxin, there is no evidence that the target organ for man would be the liver. All were hepatocarcinogenic in the mouse and six were carcinogenic, for the liver and/or other organs in the rat. In the hamster, four were tented and found carcinogenic. Data, since 19j^2 The chemical vinyl chloride when given by inhalation has been observed to produce lung adenomas and mammary carcinomas in i,:ice and hepatic angiosarcotnas and anglomas of the liver in mice and rats (Maltor.i and Lefcnlne, 1975). Angiosaccomas of the liver have also been observed in wot'xers employed in the manufacture of polyvinyl chloride resins (Creech and Johnson, 1974; Creech et al, 1974). Current studies on carcinogenic!ty of DDT and metabolites in nice and rats at the National Cancer Institute are to be completed within the next 12 months. Conclusion Although the target tissue may be different, the mouse can, in specific canes, serve as c reliable and proven indicator of the carcinogeniclty of a chemical in other species Including man. However, although carcinogenic effects in mice are valid when dealing with certain chemicals, the rcsulca c;tn vary gr««tly depending on the compound tested and may not always be ,1 reliable basis for extrapolation to other species. -87- �CARCINOGENICITV OF DDT IN' OTHER MAMMAL! AN SPKCIKS Administrator' 'a finding: Then? arc no adequate negative e.i">eiti''ii^.tal atuJi-^3 in other iiiMn-ili-a>i ovecles, Rat In two 2-year experiments started at an Interval of L year, a total of 228 Ossbornc-Mendel rats received diets containing technical OD1 (as a powder or solution In oil) at concentrations of 0 ppm (24 males an<i 12 females) , 100 ppm (12 males), 200 rpn (24 males ,md 12 females) . 400 ppm (24 males .i.u! 12 females), 6CO ppm (24 males ind 24 females), and 800 ppm (36 males and 24 females). Of the 1,92 raf^ exposed .to DDT, 111 died before JO months of treatment:; only 14 ruts given 800 ppm, 23 rats given 600 pprr., K' given 400 ppm, 24 gf.von iOQ ppm, .6 given JOO ppn and 20 controls were alive at this time. Tumor incidences for each dose level were not given. Among the 81 rats surviving at least 18 months, 4 had low-grade hepit ic-ccli carcinomas (measuring i-p r.o 0. !>•-!. 2 cm) and 11 showed nodulsv .-utenoimtotd hypcrplusla (r.odu'ies measuring up to 0.3 cm). No liver lesions were found in control rats (t'it/.hugh and Ni*l*.on, 1947), Hepatic-cell tumors are reported ',iy these authors to occur spontaneously In 1" of the ratH In this colopy, and nodular adc'nom.itous hyperplasia is reported to be rare. Two experiments on Osbortu'-Msndol rats reported from the same institution, exposed groups of 30. males and 30 females for at least 2 years to cither 80 or 200 ppm DDT (rocryslall ired , purity unspecified) and compared them to two control groups of 30 animals of each sex. Undi f fcrentlateu tironchofjt'nlc carcinoma^ wore, soc-n in 8/00 rats fed 8i) ppm HOT, in 2/60 controls and In non£ o: the aninald' receiving 200 ppm DfM . Incidences of otlu-r turaors were sin'.lar in control and treated rats (l)c.lchmann et al , 1967; K.'idonskl et al, 1965). These vcsults are inconclusive sitice carcinogenic effects wen> rot seen at 200 ppm. A group of 15 male and J.5 ft'tnalt- Fischer r.its was glvon dc.srs of l(i mg/rat DDT (unspecified contiot?it ion) by stomach tube, r> times/week, starlinj, at wean ing. Treatment lasted 1 year, and survivors were observed for a further 6 men t its; the average survival was 14.2 months. No heparomas were found. No data are available on the .recurrence of other tunwrs (Weisburger and We.Isburgor, 1968). Groups of 2j-30 Syrian gr;lder> h.-im-Uers of each sex were fed i diet containing cither 500 or 1000 ppn, p,i '-DDT in o'.tvf oil for 44 out of 48 weeks. Survivors at 30 weeks were 70/115 tre*U'd versus b9/79 control animals; all treated .inlmals and (il!'/79 controls were dea>i by the 90 ;h week. Eleven treated «ninu'.3 developed tuniors .it different sites (incividing I hepatoma) , as did 8 controls' (Ajjfhe et al , -88- �Dog A total of 22 animals, approximately equally divided by sex, were fed either 0 (2 dogs), 400 (2 dogs), 2000 (4 dogs), or 3200 ppm (14 dogs) DDT. Only the control dogs, the 2 dogs given 400 ppm, and 2 of the dogs receiving 2000 ppm survived to the time of sacrifice (29-49 months). Functional liver damage but no tumors were observed (Lehman, 19b2, 1965). Monkey Dietary concentrations of either 5 or 200 ppm technical DDT were given to rhesus monkeys (Durham et al, 1963). Seven and a half years after the beginning of treatment, 3/5 animals fed 200 ppm were alive and clinically well. In 2 additional groups totaling 6 animals receiving 200 ppm DDT (either technical or the p,p'-isomer), 3 were alive after 3.5 years. Animals which did not survive died from intercurrent diseases not related to carcinogensis. Data since 1972 No studies, other than in mice, were reported concerning long-term DDT testing after 1972. Conclusion No studies have become available since 1972 to adequately demonstrate the presence or absence of carcinogenic effects of DDT in species; other than the mouse. With animals such as the dog and monkey, which live considerably longer than mice, the studies cited are of short duration, and too small a sample size to yield any reliable information relevant to cnrcinogenicity. Although the evidence presented is limited in scope;, it is apparent that DDT did not consistently enhance the growth of well-defined hepatic lesions in rats or hamsters. However, the experiments available using species other than the mouse are too limited to make definite conclusions. -89- �CARCINOGENIC ITY OF D1)T IN HUMANS Adinlniatratop's Finding: There is no adequate human .'ptdemiological data on the carainoqeniaity uf DDT, nor is it likely that it can be obtained. Data as of JL972 In the first study, 40 men ranging, in age from 39-50 years engaged in the manufacture or formulation of DDT were medically examined (Ortelee, 1958). Twenty-four workers had also been exposed to other pesticides. The length of exposure was less than 1 year for 2 workers, 1-4 years for 21 workers, and 5-8 years fc: 17 workers. Examination included a complete medical history, physical and neurological examinations, hemoglobin litre, white blood cell count and differential, plasma and erythrocyte cholinesterase determinations, and measurement of urinary DDA concentration. DDT intake was calculated from urinary DDA for 38 workers; in 10 cases it was ',', 10-20 ipg/raan/day, 30 mg/raan/day in 15 and 40 mg/man/day in 13. No evidence c£ neoplasia was found among the 40 workers at the time of investigation. Anotiier study was carried out on 35 workers with intensive occupational exposure exclusively to DDT (Laws et al, 1967). Ages ranged between 30 and 63 years. The range of exposure was 11-19 years. Investigations include medical histories, physical examinations, chest x-rays, blood and urine tests, and measurements of fat, urine, and serum concentration of DDT residues. On the basis of DOT storage and DDA excretion, the daily intake of DDT was estimated to be 3-6 mg/man in 3 workers with low exposure, 6-8 rag/man in 12 with moderate exposure, and 17-18 mg/man in 20 with high exposure. No cancer was reported in any of the workers. A study involving 24 volunteers from a penitentiary was started in 1956 (Hayes et al, 1971). The average age was 34 years, and exposure to DDT lasted 21.5 months. Four men were used as controls, and technical DDT was given at daily doses of 3.5 mg/man to 6 men and 35 mg/man to 6 other men. Another group of 8 men received 35 mg/man day p,p'-DDT. Two men in each group were kept under supervision until 4 years after beginning of the study, and the remainder completed an additional year. However, no cases of tumors were recorded although adipose tissue concentration of DDT reached 280.5 ppm in the high dose group. Autopsy studies have been performed attempting to correlate cancerous diseases to the amount of DDT stored in tissue (Hoffman et al, 1967). In one investigation, an average concentration of 9,6 + 6.5 ppm total DDT and DDE in abdominal wall fat was reported among 292 patients with cancer; this did not differ significantly from an average of 9.4 ± 6.5 ppm among 396 -90- �patients with other diseases. Another study dealing with ;nitopsy material from 38 persons aged over 36 years revealed that, of 19 patients with lower tissue levels of organoc.hlorine (total DDT + dieldrin + heptachlor epoxide), 4 haJ malignant tumors, whereas the corresponding figure for 19 patients with higher levels was 9 (Casarett o.t al , 1968). In another investigation, the average level of DDT in fat tissues at autopsy was 21.96 ppro In 40 cases of carcinoma, 21.37 ppm in 5 cases of leukemia, 13.66 ppm in 5 cases of Hodgkin's dlsea-e, and 9.75 ppm in 42 control cases. Samples from 6 patients with brain tumors showed fat and brain levels of DDT residues comparable to those of controls. In patients with nonneoplastic liver diseases, fat and liver concentrations varied considerably throughout all groups, and, therefore, reliable statistical analysis of differences in group averages was not possible. Since the 1972 DDT Hearings, no additional hitman studies with DDT involving detailed medical followup over an extensive period have heeii published. Conclusion The epidemlological studies discussed are of too short duration and too limited sample size to permit conclusions regarding carcinogenic! ty. No additional studies have become available since 1972. The studies examining DDT residues in adipose tissue of terminal cancer patients are Inconclusive since patients with nonneoplastic liver diseases also showed higher adiposo tissue levels of DDT than controls. �CARCINOGEN1CITY OF DDT METABOLITES The activity of hepatic microsomal enzymes varies greatly between different strains of the same animal species, different animal species and animals and man- Since DDT is metabolized by hopatic microsomal ivu.ynes, its degradation in vivo may be affected by drugs and chemicals which Inuuco drug metabolizing enzymes. Drugs such as diphenylhydantoin and phenobarbital have been shown to induce (accelerate) ths hepatic metabolism of L.'T in animals (Conney, 1967) and man (Edmund,'?on et al, 1969; Schoor, 1970). In fact DDT, being an inducer, also could conceivably accelerate its c^n metabolism. Consequently, it is of importance to review the in vivo metabolism of DDT arid evaluate the activity of its metabolites. Metabo 1 isjn in aninia] s DDT is metabolized In a variety of mammalian species by reductive dechlorination of TDK (Klein et al, 1964) and/or by dchydrochlorination to DDE (Mattson et al v 1953; Pearce et al, 1952). Both TDK and DDE ar*i further degraded in 'he liver and kidney to more polar metabolites which are excreted in the urine or bile (Datta, 1970; Suggs ct al, 1970; Judah, 1949; Pinto et al, 1965). A considerable species variation exists in the rates of detoxification of DDT to TDK or DDE giving rise to variable storage, levels of DDE in the adipose tissue (Ortega et al, 1956; Durham et al, 1963). An example is the higher ratio of DDE versus TDE in liver and perirenal fat after DDT administration to Swiss mice, compared to the corresponding values in hamsters (Gingell and Waileave, 1^74). Conversion of DDT to TDE also has been reported to occur via rat intestinal flora (Mendel and Walton, 1966). Storage in animals following c.ontJLnup»is__fcedi_ngp A comparative study with mice and hamsters showed that following a 6-week administration of a diet containing 250 ppra p,p'-DDT, levels of total DDT in both liver and fat were 7-8 times greater In mice than in hamsters, i.e., 56-70 ppm and 8-9 ppm in mouse and hamster liver, respectively, and 2400-2500 ppm and 290-31.0 ppm In r.ouse and hamster fat, respectively. It must be taken into consideration that food consumption in mice per kg body weight was 3 times greater than in hamsters. DDE residues in fat represented less than 1Z in both species; in the liver, DDE represented about 20% of residues in mice and 27-, of residues In hamsters, the DDE:TDK ratio being about 0.5 in mice and 0.02 li. hamsters (Gingell and Wallcave, 1974). Feeding rats 200 ppm p,p'-DDT for 140 days led to fat concentration of DDT in the order of 500 pprn in males and 1500 ppm in female:;; 10% of this was present as ODD, DI>T and DDE concentrations In the liver wore in the order of 1.3-25.ppm, with a DDT:DDK ratio of about 5:1 (Dale et al, 1962). -92- �Ingested DDT yields, following a reductive dechlorinat ton, TDE, which is further degraded and readily excreted in the urine as DDA (Roan et al, 1971). DDT is also slowly converted, by dehydrochlorination, into DDK (Morgan and Roan, 1971), which is retained in adipose tissue (Abbott et al, 1968; Hayes et al, 1971; Wasserman et al, 1967). No increase in the urinary excretion of DDA was noted after the oral ingest ion of DDE by human volunteers; however, such an increase was observed after ingest ion of TDE or DDT (Roan et al , 1971). The observations of Laws et al (1967) of occupationally exposed people indicate that urinary levels of DDA are correlated to the levels of exposure to technical DDT and that DDT and its metabolites are stored in adipose and other tissues. DDT is also excreted in human milk (Curley & Kimbrough, 1969; Quinby ct al, 1965; Zavon et al, 1969; llornabrook, 1973; Kroger, 1972; Kitccy ct ul, 1972; Newton and Green, 1972; Wilson et al, 1973) ;,nd transferred through the placenta (Curley et al, 1969; O'Leary at al, 1970; Zavon ct al, 1969). The ingestion of technical or p,p'-DDT during 21.5 months was stuuied in human volunteers. The concentration in adipose tissue after administration of technical DDT to man at a dose of 35 mp/n-an/day rose from a prcexposure level of 4.1 ppm to 280.5 ppm after 21.5 months. After a recovery period of 37.8 months, 56.8 ppm OUT were still present. The concentration of DDK amounted to 8-11% of the total DDT in adipose tissue during the dosing period; its proportional concentration relative to that of DDT increased during recovery phase and represented 47% at the end of this period (Hayes et al, 1971). A high percentage of DDT is also stored as DDE in the general population (Durham, 1969). Mouse: A group of 59 female CF mice w*s fed a diet containing 250 ppm p,p'-TDE for lifespan, and tuiior incidences were, compared to a control group of 98 nales and 90 females. Hepatomas were found in 52% of treated and 34% of control Males and only sporadically in females. Incidences of lung tumors were 36% in males compared witli 54% in controls, and 73% in females compared with 41% in controls (Tomatis i?t al, 1974). Rat: A group of 10 adult male Wistar rats was fed a low-protein, lowriboffavin diet containing 60C ppm o,p'-TDE and killed at intervals from -93- �24-469 days. Testicular damage was observed from the second month onward. Of the 3 animals killed after 348 or more days, one rat had microscopic adonomatous nodules and 2 had tumors of the interstitial cells of the testes. These lesions are considered related to specific degenerative changes induced on the adrenal cortex by o,p'-TDE. (Lacassagne and Hurst, 1965). DDE Mouse; A group of 53 male and 55 female CF mice was fed a diet containing 250 ppm p,p'-DDK for lifespan, and tumor incidences were compared to those observed in a control group of 98 males and 90 females. Ifopatomas were found in 74% treated males and 98% treated females compared with 34% and 1% in the controls. Incidences of other tumors wt-re not increased (Tomatis et al, 1974). Conclusion The DDT metabolites, p,pf-DDE and TDE (ODD), were tested by onl administration to mice. An increase in hepatomas was observed with both metabolites; also an increase in lung tumors occurred with TDK. Hepatomas were not observed in rats with a high dose of 60 ppm o,p*-TDE although testicular damage was seen. It is interesting that, in a comparative feeding study, reoidues of DDE in rat livers were 10 fold greater (as a fraction of total liver DDT levels) than amounts observed in hamster liver (Gingcll and Wallcave, 1974). These studies .wi;h DDT metabolites are limited and results are not conclusive. Tha fact that these metabolites and DDT accumulate in adipose tissue of animals and man, and the fact that they do have tumor producing potential, would suggest that the metabolites may act with DDT or other DDT metabolites in vivo to potentiate a tumor producing capability; or that the metabolites themselves may be the active, tumorigeus in mice. -94- �EFFECTS OF DDT SUBSTITUTES ON HUMANS Administrator's findings ('.'I, 'Sailers Relating to ,'lethul Par.ithicn): A. Rania Find in? a 1} ''any poisoning a have been attributed to the. use of ".ethyl parathion. 2) Untrained ujcrs of metlri I parathion rirc frequently not sufficiently cweful in its use despite label directions. 3) ''ethyl parai-hion <?.zn .; e> :<rv;,z sifely. •!) Training pro'jrtois ar*(2 useful in a ' J f r t ' n j the negligent use of methyl parathion, 5) '-'ethyl parathion. is a substitute for most arop uses of DJT, P. I'ltim-ite 'windings 1) We thy I parathion is danyeroua to upcrs anJ presents a risk to them. ?,) An opportunity to tr.iin users uill -nininine the riaka and keep ifojn tin number of -.tffcidcntJ. . A2. ~°LJ.?J 1 The availability of efficacious alternatives to DDT which would not present undue or unreasonable risks to nan was addressed in some detail in the Administrator's Decision to cancel DDT (particularly part V.B). The above findings were a key element In the decision leading to the cancellation. Methyl parathion was found to he the principal substitute for most crop uses of OUT. Though many poisonings were attributed to the use of methyl parathion, it was found that it can he used safely (Tr:63(>6; Tr:248). Many accidents connected with the use of met by I parat'.ilon are the result of untrained workers who are not sufficiently careful in its use (Tr:6/*06). Thcreforo, training programs were found to be useful In averting the improper use of the pesticide (Tr:3118). A source of Information on acute (and chronic) effects of DDT substitutes is the reviews conducted by the Criteria and F.valuation Division, Office of Pesticide Programs, EPA, under the Substitute Chemical Program (SCP). The SCP was initiated under Public Law 93-135 of October 24, 1974, to "provide research and testing of substitute chemicals." The legislative intent was to prevent use of substitutes, which nay be more deleterious to man and the environment than a problem pesticide (one that lias been suspended, cancelled, deregistered, or In an. internal review for suspected "unreasonable, adverse effects to man or his environment"). Fourteen substitutes for DDT are being studied under the SCP. Excerpts from tiie. studies on DDT substitutes published thus far in this SCP series relative to acute human health hazards are presented In Appendix I II HI. These evaluations of occupational safetv hazards associated with the SCP reviews are based on available state and federal accident monitoring systems. Analysis of the Pesticide Accident Surveillance System (PASS), sh.>ws that. between 1972 and 1973 parathion and riethvl parathion wer» associated with 78% of the reported episodes (Ostnun, 1974). A more recent analysis of data based on KJ'A's Pesticide Episode Reporting System (PI'.RS) tends to confirm the impression developed in the SCP reviewr, -95- �(sec Appendix IIIB2). That lf>, It appears that the above -natied compounds together with methomyl and several registered substitutes have been associated with numerous reports of occupational poisonings (Appendix IIIB2). Vet, it appears that in many cases, these accidents were avoidable bad label precautions been heeded. In fact, on the whole, there is no evidence in available state and federal accident monitoring systeris which would indicate the DDT decision has increased the number of accidents associated with the use of substitute pesticides. One must move with caution, however, in assessing available data. The most reliable accident data appears to be reported from two state sources — California and Florida — but, neither of the states were major DDT users. Thus, in o::der to evaluate the DDT decisions, we must return co the national data in the EPA's PASS and PKRS. However, careful examination of all the episodes in these systems indicates that these data are not sufficient to rigorously evaluate impact of the DDT decision, in specific use patterns where DDT was used. Although the national reporting systems are being strengthened, for present purposes, they do not permit establishing incident rates by compound and crop or other use patterns. Until this is accomplished, precise evaluations will not be possible on the relative occupational saiety of various pesticides. Since the cancellation, there have been several EPA program actions taken to forestall and evaluate the possibility of adverse effects stemming from the use of acutely toxic pesticides. Those are discussed below. Immediately following the DDT cancellation, concern for the possibility of poisonings among former DDT users unfamiliar with the hazards of the more acutely toxic substitutes prompted the initiation of Project Safeguard (1972). Small acreage cotton growars were designated as a key target group in this effort. The program was organized jointly by Kl'A and USDA and funded by EPA (about $2 million) and I'SDA. The target area included Alabama, Arkansis, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri, North Carolina, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, and Virginia. New Jersey vas added to the project later because it was considered a "pocket problem" area. Project Safeguard's first priority was contacting farmers but, dealers, applicators, formulators, and medical personnel were contacted also in an effort to produce an integrated safety program. Safeguard was successful in its efforts, its major strengths being: the ability to effectively reach small-acreage farmers and ancillary populations; the production of effective literature and media; and the spirit of cooperation fostered among various federal agencies, state governments, community groups, and Industry. Some weaknesses existed in the program due to its short-term, rapid Implementation nature. For example, some concern should be raised about the extent to which non-English speaking groups wore sensitized to the danger. Despite these problems, Project Safeguard proved quite effective In getting pesticide safety information to the target audiences, to prevent an increase of pesticide poisonings (Cannon, 1974). More recently Kl'A hai taken an additional programmatic step to forestall accidents associated with agricultural use of toxic pesticides. In March -96- �1974, the Office of Pesticide Programs, KPA, proposed promulgation of health and safety standards for field workers potentially subject to poisoning by toxic pesticides (EPA, 1974). These standards were based on a variety of inquiries designed to specify the problem, including a series of public hearings in various regions of the country. The thrust of these standards is the setting of a minimum unprotected worker re-entry standard (48 hours) for yields treated with specific toxic pesticides, e.g., ethyl and methyl parathion. Anyone entering the field prior to the conclusion of this safety interval is required to wear protective clothing. These worker re-entry standards are now in effect. During FY 1975, two contract research efforts were initiated by EPA in order to examine acute toxicity safety standards more closely. The first was concerned with estimation of the extent to which soil, air, and plant surface residue? are available for exposure of the field worker. This is a continuing study through KY 1976. The second study, now r.aaring completion, was concerned with the extent of health effects from ethyl parathion exposure of workers in poach orchards in Washington state. Prelim'r.afy indications in the peach study arc that workers are suffering no ill effects from exposure. EPA's applicator certification and training programs now in process of implementation will contribute to safer application of DDT alternatives. The Administrator, in his decision, quite clearly took into account the acute health risks of DDT alternatives, specifically methyl parathion. Later in this co-port data will be presented on use patterns of pesticides on cotton which indicate that there were several other registered alternatives for most cotton pests and that Increases occurred in the use of other alternatives, t'se of Toxaphene/methyl parathion combinations on cotton increased greatly. However, ethyl and/or methyl parathion use actually declined slightly in 1973-1974. Conc_lusJ_on At. the present time, there is no bavls in the available evidence to link the DDT decision to a precipitous increase in pesticide, poisonings among those shifting to new or heavier reliance on the registered alternatives to DDT. Aa will be seen later in this report, methyl parathion (and some of the other more acutely toxic insecticides) were already in general use prior to the cancellation, in the case of cotton the major DDT use. DDT was not generally used alone, but in combination with one or more of the chemicals which replaced it. For this reason, as of 1973, ir.ost farmers who had been using DDT had some knowledge of or working experience with acutely toxic DDT substitutes. However, dosage and frequency of .-applications may have increased in some areas, thus increasing risks to exposed persons. Some of the DDT substitutes are not highly acutely toxic, e.g. Toxaphcne. -97- �REFERENCES Abbott, D.C., R. Goulcllng, and J.O'G. Tatton. Organochlorinc pesticide residues in human fat in Great Britain. Br. Mod.__J. 5611:146-152, 1968. Agthe, C., H. Garcia, P. Shubik, L. Toraatis, and E. Wenyon. Study of the potential carcinogcnicity of DDT in Syrian gol<U;n hamsters. j..- 134:113, 1970. '.^ Bennison, B.E., and F.K. Mostofi. 0!>;;i.-rvatlons on inbred mice exposod to DDT. J^latK_jCajicej-_J_ns_t. 10:VS>, 1950. Ber.jenstal, D.N'., R. llertx, M.B. L*.;>sett, and R.H. Moy. Chemotherapy of adrenocortical career with o.o'-D:)."". Annv Intern . Med . 53:672, 1960. Bonser, G.M., D.B. Clayscn, J.W. Jull, and L.N. Pyrah. Carcinogenic properties of 2-amlno-l-naphthol hydrochloride and its parent aminc2-naphylaminc!. IVr .__J_._ .Cancer 6:412, 1952. Cannon, C. P_roje_c_t _S'\f^S.uarA AYfJ-VLOiJiP.' Washington, D.C., Environmental Protection Agency, April 1974. 65 pages. Casarett, L,.J., G.C. 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J. !!atl_. H4, 1969. International Agency for Research on Cancer, Srlont ll'lc Advisory Committee to EPA Administrator. Personal oomnunicat ion, 197."!. Jud.ih, .1.1). Studies on the not. abol ism and mode, of action of DDT. !5r. J^ Klein, A.K., K.P. LaiiR, P.R. D.Uta, J.O. Warts, and J.T. Chen. Mot nbolitcs : Reductive dechloriu.it ion of DDT to DDD and Isonorlc transformation- of o,p'-DDT to p.p'-DDT lr: vivo. J_._ Assoc_._ .^(.f.i.A'V1.1.---;-!1-'.'.1?.'- •'•7:1129, i()f«/i. -100- �Kroger, M. Insecticide residues in human milk. J^Vediatr.- 30:401, 1972. Lacassagne, A., and L. Hurst. Les tume.rus expcrimcntalcs de la glande interstitieile du rat a propos <l'une manifestation oncogeniquc Jc I'o,p'-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane stir Ic testicule. Buil^Cancer 52:89, 1965. Laugh, E.P., A.A. Nelson, D.G. Fitzhugh, and P.M. Junz. Liver cell alteration and DDT storage in the fat of the rat induced by dietary level of 1 ppm to 50 ppm of DDT. J. Pharmacol. Exp._Ther. 98:268, 1950. Laws, E.R., Jr., A. Curloy, and F.J. Biros. Men with intensive occupational exposure to DDT. A clinical and chemical study. Arclu Ejryi ron. llealth 15:766, 1C67. Lehman, A.J. Chemicals in foods - A report to the Association of Food and Drug Officials on current developments. II. Pesticides. III. Subacute and chronic toxicity. <L. Bull._Assoc. F°?4_ PruS. 9??• Jj§. lb:47, 1952. ' " ~ "™ Lehman, A.J., Ed. DDT (a mixture of l,l,l-trichloro-2,2-bis (p-chlorophenyl) ethane and l,l,l-trichloro-2-(o-chlorophenyl)-2~(p-c.hlorophenyl)ethane. In: §^^.yJi^,S.L.T^^J(S^SL^0Jf.lL^^y.^ P- ^• Washington, D.C., Food and Drug Administration, US Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1965. Maltoni, C., and 0, Lefemine. Carcinogenicity bioassays of vinyl chloride: Current residues. Ann_.J^.X._j\cad_v^_cl,. 46:195-230, 1975. Mattson, A.M., J.T. Snillane, C. Baker, and G.W. Pcarcc. Detornlnation of DDT and related substances in human fat. Anal_._CJu«_ra. 25:1065, 1953. Mendel, J.L., and M.C. Walton. Conversion of p.p'-DDT to p,p'-DCD by intestinal flora of the rat. Science 151:.i527, 1966. Metcalf, R.L. Insecticides. In: Kirk, R.F... and D.G. Othmer, Eds. Erv^ cj/clopedia pf Clicmical Technolo&L* 2nd edition, Vol. 11, p. 677. New York, "John w'iley"'VlonsT T%6. Morgan, D.P., and C.C. Roan. Absorption, storage and metabolic conversion of ingested DDT and DDT metabolites in man. Arch. Envlron_. Health 22: 301, 1971. Morgan, D.P., and C.C. Roan. Chlorinatad hydrocarbon nosticide residues in human tissues. AjrcJi^_Kny_i^w._J£ejalth 2f>:452, 1970. Newton, K.G., anil N.C. Greene. Organochlorine pesticide residue In human milk - Victoria, Australia - 1970. Jles£ij^_MonU_._J. f/:4, 1972. -1.01- �O'Leary, J.A., J.E. Davies, and M. Felclman. Spontaneous absorption and human pesticide residues of DDT and DDE. Am. J . Obstet . Gynccpl . 108: 1291, 1970. O'Leary, J.A., J.E. Davies, W.G. Edmundson, ant' G.A. Reich. Transplacental passage of pesticides. M.r_JL^.^At5'JLi_J5yjI?.l?f^i.< i07:^5, 1970. Ortega, P., W.J. Hayes, Jr., W.G. Durham, and A. Mattson. DDT in the diet of the rat. Its effect on DDT storage, liver function and cell morphology. PiibJLij^Ji^UhJtonq^r. 43:1, 1956. Ortelee, M.F. Study of men with prolonged intensive occupational exposure to DDT. ArpJb^A'-ll^lU} 18:433, 1958. Osmun, J.V. PASS. In forma tj.on_ReJLatjj»g_jo_Agri^ul.tural. Jobs.. Washington, D.C. , Environmental Protection Agency, 1 April 1974. [Memorandum] Pearce, G.W., A.M. Mattson, and W.J. Hayes, Jr. Examination of human fat for the presence of DDT. Sc_ien_ce 116:254, 1952. Peterson, J.E., and W.H. Robinson. Metabolic products of p,p'-DDT in the rat. T£xi_col_._J|ipj»_l._ PJ}annac£l. 6:321, 1964. Pinto, J.D., M.N. Camien, and M.S. Dunn. Metabolic fate of p,p'-DDT (1,1,1trichloro-2, bis (p-chlorophenyl) ethane) in rats. J.JLL01:' CJlS!?- 240: 2148, 1965. Quinby, G.E., J.F. Armstrong, and W.F. Durham. (London) 207:726, 1965. DDT in human milk. Nature Radomski, J.L., W.B. Delchmann, and E.E. Clizer. Pesticide concentrations in the liver, brain and adipose tissue of terminal hospital patients. ' 6:209, 1968. Radomski, J.L., W.B. Deichmann, W.E. MacDonald, and E.M. Glass. Synergism among oral carcinogen?;. I. Results of simultaneous feeding of four tumorigenes to rats. Toj^ij;oJ^._ ApjiJ_^Pj>ajrmaco_l . 7:652, 1965. Report of the Committee on Pesticides. Pharmaco logic and toxicologic properties of DDT (chlorophenothane). J_^Ajn._ M£d_._ A_ssoc. 145:728, 1951. Ritcey, W.R., G. Savary, and K.A. McCally. Organchlor ine insecticide residues in human milk, evaporated milk and sonio milk substitutes in Canada. £ . •„JLvJL4.b-U.9., JLealtJl 63:125, 1972. 51 Roan, C.C., D.P. Morgan, and F,. Paschal. Urinary excretion of DDA following ingestion of DDT and DDT metabolites In man. Arch. Environ. Health 22: 309, 1971. -102- �Roe, F.J.C., and C..A. Grant. Inhibition of germ-free status of development of liver and lung tumors in mice exposed neonatally to 12-dimethylbenz(A)-anthriacino: Implications in relation to tests for carcinogenicity. = 133, 1970. Sanchez, E. DDT- induced metabolic changes in rat liver. 45:180, 1967. Can. J . Bipchem. Schoor, V/.P. Effect of anticonvulsant drugs on insecticide residues. Lancet 2:520, 1970. Shabad, L.M. , T.S. Kolesnichenko, and T.V, Nikonova. Transplacental and combined long-term effect of DDT in five generations of A-strain mice. ISL'^L. .jCajic tar 11:688, 1973. Suggs, J.E., R.E. Hawk, A. Curley, E.L. Boozer, and J.D. McKtnncy. DDT metabolism: Oxidation of the metabolite 2,2-bis (p-chlorophenyl)ethanol by alcohol dehydrogenase. .Science 168:582, 1970, Tar Jan, R. , and T. Kemeny. Multigeneration studies on DDT in mice. . 7:215, 1969. Food Terracini, B. , M.C. Testa, J.R. Cabral, and N. Day. The effects of longterm feeding of DDT to BALB/c mice. Int . J._ Ganger. 11:747, 1973a. Terracini, IJ., R.J. Cabral, and M.C. Testa. A multigenoration study of the effects of continuous administration of DDT to BALB/c mice. In: Deichmann, W.B., Ed. Pesticides and the Environment , a Continuing Co_n_ilJ^y.'lV^Z (Proceedings of thp 8th Inter-American Conference on Toxicology, Miami, Florida, 1973), p. 77. New York, London, Intercontinental Medical Book Corp. , 1973b. Thorpe, E., ar.d A.I.T. WaJker. The toxicology of dieldrin (HKOD) . II. Comparative long-term oral toxicity studies in mice with dieldrin, DDT, phenobarbitone, (J-BHC and y-BHC. Food Cosmet. Toxicol. 11:433, 1973. Tomatis, L. , V. Turusov, N. Day, and R.T. Charles. The effect of longterm exposure to DDT on CF-1 mice. LtlL^,lL_JlaI!£eJ;l 10:489, 1972. Tomatis, L. , V. Turusov, R.T. Charles, and M. Boicchi. Effect of longterm exposure to 1 , l-dichloro-2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)ethylene, to 1,1dichloro-2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)ethane, and to the two chemicals combined on CF-1 mice. ^^Jj^Canccr^lnst^. 52(3) :883-891, 1974. Tomatis, L. , C. Partonsky, and R. Montesano. The predictive value of mouse liver tumor Induction in carcinogenicity testing - A literature survey. Int. J.Cajicer 12:1-20, 1973. -103- �Tomatls, L. , V. Turusov, B. Tcrraclni, N. Day, W.F. Bartliel , R.T. Charles, G.B. Collins, and M. Bolcchi. Storage levels of DDT metabolites in mouse tissues following long-term exposure to technical DOT. Tumor I 57:377, 1971. Turusov, V.S., N.E. Day, L. Tomatis, !•). Gati, and R.T. Charles. Tumors in CF-1 mice exposed for six consecutive generations to DDT. 'J[^.NatI_. Cancer_ liist . 51:983, 1973. US Environmental Protection Agency. Farm workers dealing with pesticides. Proposed health and safety standards. Fed. Register 39(48) .-9457-9462, Walker, A.I.T.. K. Thorpe, and D.K. Stevenson. The toxicology of dieldrin (I1KOD). 1. Long-term oral toxlcity studies in mice. Food Cosmot_. To_xtcp_l. 11:415, 1973. Warwick, G.P. Met-jolism of liver carcinogens and other factors influencing liver cancer induction. In: [Jver Cancers? (Proceedings of a working conference held at the Chester Ueathy Research Institute, London, England, June 30 to July 3, 1969), IARC Scientific Publications No. 1, p. 121. Lyon, International Agency for Research on Cancer, 1971. Wassermann, M. , D. Wassermann, and L. Zellerraayer. DDT and DDK in the body fat of people in Israel. A!;c]LvJinyLr£rl'_.'L°.^LtJ1. 11 = 375, 1965. Weisburger, J.H., and E.K. Weisburgcr. Food additives and chemical carcinogens: On the concept of zero tolerance. .Food. jCpsmet . Toxlcol. 6: 235, 1968. Wilson, D.J.M., D.J. Locker, C.A. Rlt?.cn, J.T. Watson, and W. Schaffner. DDT concentrations in human milk. Am^_._JH_s_._j:ji_nd. 160:196, 1969. Zavon, M.R., R. Tye, and L. Latorre. Chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticide content of the neonate. Aji.n • j . Y_v Ac,-uK_Sj:J . 160:196, 1969. ^ �Ill C. MONITORING OF DDT RESIDUES IN THE ENVIRONMENT AND MAN �PERSISTENCE OF DDT IN SOIL Administrator's Finding: DDT ami persist in soils for years and even decades. A typical degradation curve for DDT in soil leads to half-life values ranging from several years to a decade or more. The major DDT metabolite in soil, under normal conditions of aeration, is DDE. This compound is also highly persistent. Since DDT and DDE are strongly adsorbed to soil particles and are highly insoluble in water, they do not move readily from their site of application and therefore a substantial amount will remain at the site of application for long periods of time. _Data_a9inof 1972 The high degree of persistence of DDT, under many typical environmental conditions, has been well established by many investigators. Prectr.e prediction of the long-term disappearance rate, however, is very difficult since a large nuwber of factors can affect soil persistence: 1) rate of application, 2) mode of application, 3) soil type, 4) soil fertility, 5) type of formulation, 6) topography, 7) climatic conditions, 8) cropping practices, and 9) soil pH. Breakdown of DDT in soil can proceed by several routes depending in part en the redox potential of the soil matrix. Under aerobic conditions, slow conversion to DDE [l,l-dlchloro-2,2 bis(p-chlorophenyl)ethylene) wi!3 normally occur. Under flooded anaerobic conditions, direct and rapid conversion to ODD (TDE), l,l-dichloro-2,2-bis(p-chloruphenyl)ethane can occur which, in turn, can be converted to more polar compounds such as DDA, tbis(p-chlorophenyl) acetic acid]. DDE is quite resistant to microbial attack and unless lost from the soil it can be stable for extended periods. A study of DDT persistence in Oregon orchard soils indicated that 40% of the total amount originally applied remained at the end of 20 years (Tr:721-722). Another study In a Maine forest showed no significant decline of DDT after a 9-year period following aerial treatment for spruce budworm control (Tr:3523). The National Soil Monitoring Program showed that at least five states had soil residues averaging greater than 1 ppm DDT (Tr:3535), Data rs_lnce|_JL972 A number of studies related to time decline of DDT in soils have been reported. Some of the more significant reports are described: Ruhr et al (1972) in a study or. Mew York vineyard soil showed that after 24 years, 22% of applied DDT could still be recovered. Of this amount, 27% was present as DDE. -106- �Another study (Chisolm et al, 1972) gave a halt-life value of 15 years for DDT In a field experiment conducted In Nova Scotia on sandy loam soil. The authors also riaimcd that significant reductions in bean crop yields were associated with the high DDT residues. Ware, Estesen, and Cahlll (1974) reported an "almost imperceptible" decline in total DDT residues in Arizona soils over a 4 year period following the 1969 DDT state moratorium. Additional studies on DDT residues in forest soils have become available on Canadian land sprayed for spruce budworm control (Yule, 1973). Treatments totalling 70 oz DDT/acre had been applied between 1956 and 1967. Samples were taken between 1967 and 1971. A projection of the average loss rate for DDT residues found on the plots give an estimated half-life in the order of 10 years. Wiersma et ai (1973) surveyed total DDT residues in soils from eight major US cities. Levels varied significantly among cities with tho. average level varying from a high of 5.98 ppm to a low of 0.35 ppm. Residue levels in lawn areas were significantly greater than in unkcpt urban areas. A taiga forest, treated for control of mite encephalitis with 4.44 Ibs DDT/acre,showed 7.4 ppm In the upper soil horizon after one year. After 14 years, this level decreased to 0.47 ppm (Konatantlnov, 1972). Since the combined residues of IDE and DDE represented less than 10% of total residues, loss mechanisms other than raicrobial degradation arc suggested. Other new information relating to persistence concerns various environmental parameters which can affect the longevity an»{ nature of DDT residues in soils. Collyard et al (1972) showed that DDT in soil can be degraded to TDE in the presence of cattle manure. Albone et al (1972) demonstrated a new nonpolar metabolite from anaerobic microbial decomposition, bis(p~chlcrophenyl)acetonitrile or p,p-l)DCN. Jensen et al (1972) found up to 0.6 ppm of this product in aquatic bottom sediments from Lake Maeloren, Sweden. Several studies involving in vitro microbial degradation under anaerobic conditions have been reported (Jensen et al, 1972; Pfacnder, 1972; Albone, 1972; Zoro, 1974). In all cases, substantial amounts of TDE were formed which did not further degrade. Similar findings in natural ecosystems have not been reported. Striking differences in degradation rate of l^'C-labeled DDT in estuarine sediment in situ compared with laboratory incubated samples under hydrogen were noted by Albone et al (1972a). These observations are consistent with real life situations where cnly small conversions of p,p*-DDT to dehydrochlorinated products occur in many aquatic systems, even over a period of many years. Also, the stability of DDT and related compounds was studied under alkaline conditions. Based on data developed, normally encountered environmental pH variations should have little if any effect on the dohydrohnlogcnation reaction (Smith, 1972). -107- �The quantitative aspects of pesticide decomposition neve recently been reviewed by Hamaker (1972) and It Is clear that degradation proceases of many pesticides, including DDT, cannot be defined In terms of simple reaction kinetics. Until superseded by better descriptions, the concept of Wheat ley (1964) seems most appropriate whore the logarithm of the half-life is related directly to time on a linear basis. This affirms much of the current field persistence data wherein high initial loss phases are succeeded by slower changes. Base-line data for DDT in US soils have been established by.the National Soils Monitoring Program. Therefore, future time-rate declines should be comparatively simple to establish by means of prograramed resampling. The monitoring programs for FY 1969 and FY 1973 showed that DDT levels in soil have significantly decreased. The overall average decreased from 0.36 ppra to 0.23 ppm, and the geometric mean estimate, with 95% confidence levels shown in parenthesis, decreased from 0.015 ppm (0.017-0.013 ppm) to 0.010 ppm (0.011-0.008 ppm) (Carey, personal communication, 1975). Coi\clusjtj3n The preponderance of evidence clearly demonstrates that DDT is stable in soil under natural, environmental conditions. While um'.er certal" conditions, transformations to the metabolites DDE and TDK can occur, these also resist further degradation. Due to the severe restricli.onb placed on the use oC DDT in recent years coupled with-DDT'9 high degree of persistence a gradual leveling out of the residues of DDT can be anticipated. Future residue levels In crops grown in soils last treated with UDT in 1972 can be expected to remain at current or only slightly lower levels. While average levels of DDT are expected to decline slowly, the ratio of DDE to DDT can be expected to Increase. As notod elsewhere in this document, levels of DDK relative to DDT have increased constantly in many food commodities In recent years, reflecting the slow trend in soils away from parent DDT pesticide to the DDK metabolite. -108- �TRANSPORT OF DDT FROM AERIAL APPLICATION SITES DRIFT Ailtniniatrator's /•' t'n. iinri : DDT nan be trans-ported by drift during application, Pesticides drifting as minute particles, especially from aerial applica tion, have caused widespread contamination of nontarget portions of the environment. Since about only 50% of an aerially applied pesticide reaches the target area, a substantial portion of the environment is exposed to such drift. Localized drift has contributed significantly to contamination of food and feed, whereas more distant movement liar, probably contributed substantially to the world-wide distribution of DDT. Drift of !)L>T, when applied aerially, is "virtually impossible to prevent" (Tr:749). Even with the most up-to-date aerial application devices, up to 6% of an aerial spray can exist as particles with diameters of less than 50 microns (Tr:467; 502). Those particles are known to be highly mobile and it is impossible to control their movement to nontarget sites. Insecticide application technology has not Improved in the last several years so as to significantly reduce drift problems. Con£lusloni Problems encountered with the drift of DDT can be expected to recur if DDT were to again come into general use as a pesticide. Adninistrattw'e Finding: DDT can vaporize from crops and so i la. DDT, like many organic pesticides, tends to vaporize. DDT lost to the air can contribute to air pollution, soil residue declines, and to low-level crop residues by redeposltioc. Quantitative estimates of these various factors are extremely important with regard to predicting long-term changes in environmental residues of DDT and lt« metabolites. 727). DDT m,iy substantially vaporize given the proper physical environment (Tr: Once vaporized, the pesticide can attach Itself to suspended particulate -10')- �matter (Tr:718) and he carried to the far reaches of the Karth (Tr:741-742; DDF-16; KDF-17). It has been estimated that up Co 250,000 pounds per year can vaporise from southern cotton soils alone (Tr:7757). 1972 Additional data (Cliath and Spencer, 1972) are provided in support of the high relative volatility of p,p'~DDK as compared to DDT with the suggestion that the major pathway of loss is probably via this route. An attempt to modify the volatility .of DDT residues in joil was by means of flooding and organic matter amendments (Spencer et al, 1974). Only minor changes in vapor concentration were noted but, regardless of treatments, DDK re.naincd the major constituent to volatilize. Total DDK volati li/.ing from such treatments will ultimately be decreased, since TDK rather than DDE is the major proJuct from flooded soil (anaerobic) degradation. The volatilization of DDT or DDK, as a major source of global atmospheric contamination, was discounted by Freed et al (1972) primarily on theoretical grounds. The transiocation of chlorine-36-labeled DDT in an old-field ecosystem was studied by Bandy (1972). The leaves of 10 herbaceous plant species carried DDT residues at one or more periods during the growing season. DDT vaporization from the soil, followed by condensation on the plant surfaces, is thought to be the mechanism of contamination. The exact role of volatilization versus root transiocation in terms of low-level residues in feed and forage cropa is worthy of additional, study. ; ' Plimmer et al (1970) and Moilanen and Crosby (1973) have shown that DDT can be photochemicully converted to polychlorinatod hiphenyls (I'CB's). The implications of this finding in light of additional environmental PCB burden Is discussed by Maugh (1973). However, Harvey (1974) and Plimmer and Klingebiol (1973) discount the significance of this finding. Their reasoning is that 1'Cli's derived from DDK would contain a much lower percentage of chlorine than those normally encountered in the environment. Kerner et al (1972) report two new photoproducts of DDK from vapor phase photolysis. Physical properties of these products are not described, so that their lipophllic (bioaccumulat ive) potential cannot be estimated. Miller et a) (1973) report that a triplet sensitizer, decyl bromide, can sensitize the photolysis of DDT by way of the intermediate TDK. Several additional reports on measurements of particulate matter, rainfall, or fallout of DDT in various parts of the world are available: particulate matter (Lloyd-Jones et al, 1972; Prospero et al , 1972), rainfall (Kdwards, 1973; Craig et al, 1973; and Hughes et al, 1972). None of those adds significantly to previous observations that low levels of DDT can indeed bo transported by air to the far reaches of the world. Cramer (1973) proposed a model for the global transport and accumulation of DDT based on ;i low mean residence time in air ar.d a low rate of transfer from land to air. Sodergren (1972) measured fallout witli si 1 Icone-impregnated nylon filter nets near Swedish agricultural areas. Levels ranged from 100 to 2,000 mg/mVmonth depending on the season. It could not be established whether the DDT originated within the local agricultural region, or had been transmitted from far away. No additional air monitoring data are available on DDT. -IV)- �Vaporization of ODT and DDE from soils is qualitatively well established. However, the contribution such volatilization makes to overall global dispersal has not as yet been determined. DDT may be deposited on plant surfaces and may be volatilized from the surface; these processes are dynamic in nature and will ultimately approach an equilibrium. SOIL EROSION Aiiminiotratcr'a Sindin?: DDT son be attached to eroding soil particles Runoff of soil particles has long been established as a primary route of chemical transfer from terrestrial to aquatic site*. Vast quantities of particulate matter are yearly carried by water to low-lying areas and, to a certain, extent,, on into the oceans. Some of our richest agricultural areas (delta lands) are associated with the end product of numerous such annual occurrences. Since DOT is extremely insoluble in water but readily adsorbed on soil particles, soil erosion is a major transport mechanism from agricultural areas into aquatic environments. Similarly, DDT can be transported by means of treated sewage sludge draining from sewer systems into aquatic sites. 12 21 Runoff is a major source of DDT contamination in aquatic environments, occurring particularly after heavy rainfall. DDT is strongly bound to soils (Tr:717) nnd erosion of soil particles has been established as the principal means of contamination of lakes, streams (Tr:729; R-107; R-26), rivers, and estuaries. Data since 1972 A number of studies concerning aquatic sediment fractions as they relate to pesticide content of water systems have been described. Some of the most relevant studies are described below: Bradley, Sheets, and Jackson (1972) found that over a 6-month period following DDT application to cotton plots, 2.83% of the DDT applied was present in runoff waters. Of this amount, 96?! of the DDT was associated witli the sediment fraction. High residues In certain portions of bottom sediments from a Salinas River monitoring program (Routh, 1972) were found to be associated with a fine-particle, light-weight sediment as compared to a different textured -111- �material collected from other sampling sites. Sediments precipitated from the collected water samples contained about !» times aa much total DDT as bottom sediments from the same sites. Ahr (1973) discussing long-lived pollutants in st-diments from the Laguna Atascosa National Wildlife Refuge, Texas, suggests that environmental studies made by geologists are needed to assess the significance of sedimentary layers which may ultimately be relocated by post depositional, biological, or mechanical processes. Contamination of cisterns with DDT-laden sediment is a frequent occurrence on the island of St. John in the Virgin Islands. Previously DDT was used extensively in agriculture on these islands (Lenon et al, 1972). Schulze, Manlgold, and Andrews (1973) determined that pesticide concentrations in western streams were always highest in water samples containing appreciable amounts of suspended sediments. Several studies havt been reported dealing with the adsorption of DDT on soil particles. For example, Weil, Duke, ami Quontln (1973) determined the beat of adsorption of DDT to humic substances to be 2.5 kcal/mole. Siggar, Doneen, and Riggs (1966) reported on the adsorptive behavior of various insecticides, including DDT In solution, onco soils. The adsorption of 1*C DDT on coloring colloids in surface water also has been determined (Poirrier et al, 1972). Finally, the ability of sodium huraate to solubilize DDT is discussed by Khan and Schwite.er (1972). Sucli a phenomenon could possibly Increase the total amount of DDT nolublllzed from bottom sediments and thereby make it tsorc available to fish and other aquatic life. All available evidence suggests that erosion is a significant source of transport for DDT via runoff of particulate matter. Continued longterm contamination of aquatic sites from agricultural soils can be anticipated since localized flash flooding of fresh plowed fields can never be controlled and such events can lead to significant losses of particulate matter. Some decline of the environmental burden of DDT can be expected from the continued sedimentary deposition of DDT residues into the upper soil horizons coupled with overlayerlng of fresh sediments containing smaller amounts of adsorbed DDT. This may lead to a partial decline of available DDT per unit area of surface. -112- �CONTAMINATION OF THE AQUATIC ENVIRONMENT AJnu '-stKitof's Finding: DDT is a oonttcninant of fresh waters?. estuaries and tb<*. open ocean, and it in difficult or i to prevent f i-o>n reaching aquati-Q areas awl t-opoyraphy nonadjzaent <*.nd r&note from the site of application. DDT residues are ubiquitous in the aquatic environment, especially downstream from tributary waterways draining either urban or agricultural areas. This contamination generally permeates the major river systems and the estuaries receiving land based runoff. Transport into remote ocean areas can take place in a number of ways including movement on suspended particu.late matter; dissolved in ocean water; movement of plankton by ocean currents; and as an accumulated residtie In free swimming fish. A final source of transfer is rainfall which can carry not only volatilized DDT from other water bodies but also DDT adsorbed on participate Matter directly from terrestrial environments. Da ta a s_j? f 1972 DDT is commonly found in lakes, streams, ponds, estuaries, and ocean sediments (Tr:3808; Tr:5730; Tr:3699-3700) . Although these levels are often quite low, DDT is concentrated and magnified' in aquatic organisms (Tr:371A) ind is being transported into the ocean (EDF-30) . Residue buildup in fish and other aquatic organisms is also transferred to marine mammals and birds (Ref-1) and to remote sections of the world such as Antarctica (Kef-2). Lcland et al (1973) found a strong relationship between quantity of adsorbed total DDT on Lake Michigan bottom sediments and organic content of sediment. DDT was the principal component of sediments except in the eastern edge of the South Basin where reducing conditions (anaerobic) are found. Here, the predominant form was TDK. Oert7.cn et al (1972) calculated that 2.78 x 10* tons of DDT are introduced into the ocean each year by precipitation or runoff, ftcorgii (1973) calculates a similar amount. Two reports stemming from the National Water Monitoring i'rogram have been issued recently. One deals with pesticide levels in selected western streams over the period 1968-19/1 (Sclutlze et al. .973) and another with chlorinated hydrocarbons in sediments from tributary streams of San KranclHco Bay (Law ct al, 1974} • Both authors show the ubiquity of DDT residues stemming from watersheds within the United States. Similar strt-.nn monitoring projects are underway in Canada. A recent repoit by Harris ct al (1973) reviews results of a 1971 survey of streams -113- �draining agricultural, urban-agricultural, and resort areas of Ontario. Of thesa areas, the greatest total DDT transport was noted In the Muskoka River which drains a resort area where DDT was used for control of biting flies until 1966. A peak of 11.8 Ibs total DDT/week was recorded in May with a May to October average of 1.9 Ibs/week. DOE contamination off the southern California coast (MacGregor, 1971), stemming primarily from sewage plant effluents from a DDT manufacturing plant, is approaching a maximum level where metabolism and dispersion of DDT equal system input. DDT wa:> entering the coastal system from 19491970. A best fit accumulation formula, based on residue patterns in myctophid fish between 1950 and 1966, utilized 2%/year as the value of ODE degradation. This suggests half-life values for DDE numbering in decades. Conclusion Contamination of aquatic areas with I/DT and its metabolites can be expected to remain for a considerable period of time. Much contamination is associated with aquatic sediments and therefore, the ultimate fate of DDT will depend on what happens to this material. For example, DDT-laden sediments can be overlayed witii fresli uncontaminated sediments; or they may be resuspended at a later time only to be rcdepositcd elsewhere. Persistence of a chemical in an aquatic ecosystem implie:) a dynamic relationship between the various components within the system, slow degradation of the chemical in question, am* a high retention index within the system. In the case of DDT and its significant metabolites, the bottom sediments act ag the primary reservoir or storage compartment for excess quantities of DDT. Thasc bottom sediments are composed of mineral fractions having a wide distribution of particle sixes along with organic neuter including animal detritus and hiimic substances associated with eroded soil. DDT in excess of the water solubility (0.0012 ppm) is adsorbed onto these .sediments and in turn is available for direct Ingest Ion by bottom dwelling organisms or for rosolubil lz.it ton back into th* .vqueous phase. In turn, tlw DDT solubilized In the aquatic phase is available for direct incorporation, to vary/ng degrees into all trophic levels of the aquatic food web. Kvonttially, much of this DDT Is recycled back to the sediment loservoir from which It can again become available. �PERSISTENCE IN AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS Administrator's Finding: DDT can persist in aquatic ecosystems. DDT and its lipid-soluble metabolites, DDE and TDK, adsorb readily onto aquatic sediments and from this storage reservoir transfer to the benthos and free-swimming organisms including plankton, crustaceans, ar.d fish. The aquatic phase, per se, can hold only a limited amount of the total DDT in many existing contaminated environments and serves mainly as a transfer mechanism between the sediment and aquatic organisms. Much DDT is constantly recycling, but witli time is also slowly metabolizing. DDE, the main metabolite of DDT, is also persistent and capable of recycling in aquatic systems. Data^as of 1972 Persistence of pesticides in aquatic environments was recognized In the early phases of environmental concern over DDT. Residues in fish have been monitored since 1965 In the Great Lakes (Reinert, 1970). The National Estuarine Monitoring Program, established in 1965, was also concerned over the persistent chlorinated hydrocarbons, especially DDT, existing in our nation's estuaries. Numerous other Incidents had clearly established that long-term residues of DDT and similar compounds could cycle through the aquatic environment. Model ecosystem studies reported by Metcalf (1972) clearly demonstrated the potential for DDT and its lipid soluble metabolites to penetrate Into every component of an aquatic environment. Because of the low water solubility of DDT (0.0012 pprn) and the frequent contamination of aquatic areas from local applications due to erosion and runoff associated witli heavy rainfalls, excess DDT tends to i">e taken up on sediments, living organisms, and other participate matter. Due to the highly variable nature of bottom sediments and more immediate concerns over residues in fish and drinking water (filtered water), most efforts aiititd at defining problems In aquatic environments gave secondary emphasis to sediment analyses. However, a striking example of long-term persistence of DDT wee- given by Dimond et al (1972), where residues of DDT in stream bottom muds, plants, insects, mussels, and fish existed for a period up to 10 years following single applications of DDT. In animal samples, 60-85% was present as DDE whereas mud' samples contained 35%, 45%, and 20% DDT, DDE, and lOE, respectively. �Vind, Muraoka, and Mathews (1973) deposited a number of chlorinated hydrocarbons, Including DDT, on diatoniaceous c.>- '\ and cultured them with marine microorganisms in seawater. No appreci, m degradation occurred after one year. Degradation of p,p'-DDT in situ by estuarine sediments (Severn estuary) proceeded much more slowly tfian companion studies conducted under hydrogen in the laboratory (Albone et al, 1972). This is consistent with findings of substantial residues in these sediments resulting from agricultural runoff from the watershed serving this estuary. Harvey (1974) concludes that the half-life of DDT in ocean water is only 10 days. However, his information source (Wilson, personal communication, 1975) has conducted more extensive tests where, during short exposure periods, solubilized DDT in seawater is found to be transferred to suspended material but not necessarily lost or extensively degraded. Rice and Sikka (1973) found that various organisms are able to remove dissolved DDT and DDE from seawater. Patil, Matsumura, and Boush (1972) found, in laboratory incubation experiments using filtered sea water, that no significant degradation took place. On the other hand, particulate materials in the presence of sea water caused further degradation to both polar and nonpolar metabolites. Conclusion Persistence of DDT in aquatic ecosystems has been well documented and long-term studies support the conclusion that contaminated waters and sediments will purge themselves of DDT only after a long hiatus of DDT usage. In those contaminated areas, a gradual conversion of DDT to DDK and TDE can be expected. Residue levels of fish taken from the Great Lakes indicate that either there is a gradual loss of DDT and its metabolites from these areas or that the DDT laden sediments are being overlaid with fresh sedimentary deposits containing lower levels of DDT. Similar residue findings are noted with oysters taken from various coastal areas where, in general, residues have declined in recent years. There arc few direct observations of residue declines in aquatic sediments over extended periods of time, so conclusions with regard to persistency havelargely been based on indirect measurements of residues in aquatic organisms. The fate of DDT in the open ocean is not at all clear and the relative roles of sedimentation of residues into the deep abyss versus other forms of degradation are not well defined. The relatively high levels of DDT associated with coastal environments compared with the open ocean are closely associated with the increased biomass and particulate matter load existing over the continental shelf. The rate cf diffusion of coastal residues into the deeper oceans is currently unknown. Data clearly show, however, that coastal area contamination with DDT can be expected for an extended period. -116- �HUMAN EXPOSURE TO DDT RESIDUES Adviniistratov's Finding; The aecivmilation in the food chain and crop residues results in human exposing. Aside from the effects of DDT on certain forms of wildlife and its persistence in various environmental components, the greatest concern over DDT has been its routine occurrence in staple human foods, especially meat and milk. High per capita US consumption of these commodities leads to relatively high residues in human tissues. Human exposure to DDT has been a constant occurrence since its early ;ise on various food and feed crops. Efforts in the last decade have led to significant reductions of average DDT levels in all commodities including meat: and dairy products. However, low-level residues of DDT and its metaboHlrs are still commonly found in these commodities. Since DDT levels in me.it and dairy products are dependent on levels in feed and forage fed to domestic ruminants, the limiting factor in a future residue decline in humans Is directly associated with these items. Data aapj 1972 FDA data (Duggan and CornelluGsen, 1972) indicate that DDT and it* metabolites are the most commonly found pesticide in market basket samples. The average daily intake of total DDT residues per day in 1970 was calculated to average 0.0004 mg/kg of body weight, down from 0.0009 in 1965. DDT and DDE residues art- routinely found in dairy products and meats. Average levels in total diet samples were 0.047 ppra and 0.233 ppm respectively for these two commodities (Corneliusscn, 1972). There is little doubt that food ingestion represents the primary route of human exposure in the United States (Tr:1987). Ex; osurc by way of drinking water, inhalation, and dermal exposure, while not quantifiable, are not believed to be highly significant. Data since 1972 The Food and Drug Administration (Corneliussen, personal communication, 1973) evaluated pesticides in FY 1973 samples of food and compared them with composite results for FY 1964-1969. Their report stated that "there has been a distinct decline in relative occurrence of DDT-related residues in all major commodity classes except that DDE (degradation product of DDT) remained constant in eggs and showed a slight relative Increase in fluid whole milk. This phenomenon is likely a result of the environmental burden of DDT, since usage has been drastically limited. Continued occurrence of the DDT degradation products in foods of animal origin (particularly fish) is -117- �reasonably expected." Comparative analyses of baby foods (infant and junior) for FY 1973 versus KY 1964-1969 showed a decline in positive DDT findings but little change in DDE interceptions. These data are: DDE DDT I 13.8 12.7 4.8 9.3 Total diet residue studies involving analysis of ready-to-eat foods in 12 food class categories taken from 30 markets in 28 different cities have been conducted by the Food and Drug Administration since 1965. Major sources of DDT food contamination lie in two specific categories: dairy products and meat, fish and poultry products. Data for Fiscal Years 1966 through 1971 are shown in Table IIIC.1 and Figures IIIC.1-6 (Pesticide Monitoring Journal; 1(2)2-12, 1967; 1(4)11-20, 1968; 2(4)140-147, 1969*: 4OW-T05,' 1~9707 "872)110124, 1974). These data show that DDT and its metabolites have been dropping gradually since. 1965. Figures IIIC.1-6 represent statistically computed best,, fit plots for the raw data. ' The residue declines are undoubtedly due to numerous factors, the most likely being increased public awareness and caution in pesticide usage, state restrictions prior to the 1972 Federal cancellations, and gradual phaacout of DDT in preference to less persistent materials. Dietary intake values, based on prorated food quantities of the various food commodity classes i. >ased on typical diet of a 19 year-old boy) have also been summarized in Table IIIC.2. Although a gap exisfs in the data for FY 1971 and FY 1972, a rapid declinein all members of the DD ' family is evident, especially for DDT and TDE. From FY 1969 to FY 1973, respective declines of 86%, 89%, and 64% took place for DDT, TDE, and DDE. A significant decline of DDT residues in poultry between 1968 and 1971 was reported by Spaulding (1972). Data tables for these studies follow (Stadelman, 1973): DDT Residues in Poultry (ppm Fat Basis) •L-JL-. P_-.OL-P.-_1 0,-JLtOil .O.J.-3JI I . - . 0 .O5. 1968 1 406 1781 465 13 1971 138 412 1062 192 0 -118- �Table IIIC.l Total Diet Studies FY 1966-1971 Par^ts^J'er K: Me it, Ftsh and Poultry Dairy Products FY DDT DDE IDE OUT DDK TDE 1966 40 75 15 299 253 139 1967 53 54 19 195 172 110 1968 30 63 19 103 116 62 1969 23 48 10 101 100 43 1970 17 16 6 52 71 29 36 60 11 1971 trace 36 — Sources Pesticide^Monitoring, Jmirn.il PcsHcTde ^njtojri^~journaT 'ic"MonIL£rTn£_ Journaf 1(2):2-12, 1967. 1 (4) :11~20, 196S. 2(4): 140-147, 1969. 4(3): 89-105, 1970. 8(2) :.UO-124, 1974. -119- �Table I I 1C. 2 Estimated Dietary Intake (mlcrograms/day)*!/ DDT DDE TOE 19t>5 31 18 13 1966 4.1 28 18 1967 26 17 13 1968 19 15 11 1969 16 11 5 1970 15 10 4 1.88 4.98 FY 197 ibV 1973£/ 0.72 Sources a/ Dup.gan, R.E., and P.E. Corneliusscn. Dietary Intake of pesticide chemicals \ in the United States (III.) June 1968-April 1970, 1972. W Data for 1971-1972 not available, c/ Corncliussen, P.K., Personal conmunteat Ion, Food and Drug Administration, 1975. NOTE: Less precise values were reported for the period 1965-1970 in the first printing of the report. -120- �Fig. IIIC.l 300 270 m -»rtAT / FISH / POULTRY 240 210 180 150 ro *I 120 90 60 30 0 FISCAL YEAR in vO CO vo Source: Pesticide Monitoring Journal tSee Table IIIC.l). �Fig. IIIC.2 rj_ 300 270 TEE-* T i FISH / ROOT 4i i• t 240 210 ! t f 180 150 fo NJ I 120 f? 90 60 30 0 FISC1 YEAR vO vD Source; CO \o Pesticide Monitoring Journal (See Table IIIC.l). s �Fig. IIIC.3 DDE -* f£AT / FISH / POULTRY i— N> W i RSCAL YEAR vO vC OO vD C> Source: Pesticide Monitoring Journal (See Table IIIC.l). �Fig. IIIC.4 100 50 SO TEE-» DAW PRODUCTS 70 60 FISCAL YEAR CO Source: Pesticide Kjnttoring Journal (See Table IIIC.l). s �. IIIC.5 100 1 90 DDT-» DAIRY. PRODUCTS 80 70 60 ;rj 50 30 20 10 Q FISCAL YEAR CO •o Sourca: Pesticide ton1toring Journal (Sec Table IIIC.1). �Fig. IIIC.6 100 PRODUCTS i *-• cj i FISCAL YEAR O ON Source: Pesticide Monitoring Journal (See Table IHC.i). O »>. O> �Similar declines were not noted between 1967 and 1973 for livestock except for t!u- frequencies of high -residue samples greater chan 1.5 ppm. These data along with a general discussion of the APHIS (Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, USDA) residue monitcriitg program are given by Mussman (1975) and summarized below: __ Percent of Samples 1967 23.3 72.8 2.2 1.5 1973 26.1 72.7 0.6 0.6 A review of similar data from USDA, A-THIS for calendar years 1; '2-1974 (Conrcy, 1975) docs not reveal additional trends for poultry or any ether meat product. However, it must be remembered that many residue problems are identified and dealt with in various manners prior to a product's entering into interstate trade channels. A summary of 1972-1974 data is given in Table IIIC.3. The USDA, APHIS conducted a special monitoring program exposing domestic ruminants to 1974 Tupsock Moth apray residues and monitoring for DDT residues. The animals were grazing in and around the immediate understory of treated forests. However, sincere efforts were made not to treat open pasture land within the forest complex. A significant number of animals developed illegal residues and were quarantined to allow residue decline to occur. Young calves were rolcase-d from quarantine on April 1, 1075 whereas older cows having a greater body pool of adipose tissue were not released until June I, 1975, or later. Data ava liable to date Involve objective phase analyses of 358 samples entering interstate commerce. Only two of these samples were found to contain levels of DDT above the current tolerance. The total number of animals bring held back for later slaughter is unknown (Spauldlng, 1975). Withdrawal of DDT use in Arizona agriculture In 1968 resulted in a drop In total DDT residue in green alfalfa from an average of 404 ppb in 1967 to 45 ppb in 1970. Residues in beef fat during the same period dropped from 0.97 to 0.49 ppra (Ware ec al, 1971). Ware et al (1974) in a recent update of this work found s t i l l lower levels corresponding to about 30 ppb of DDT residues in alfalfa. Statist lea) anals-sls of data for the sampling dates between 1969 and 1972 showed that in three of four areas sampled, levels of total DDT in green alfalfa have stabilised at about 0.03 ppm. Data on the decline of fist residue* from samples taken in the (Jreat Laker, have been reported elsewhere In tM'i document. In summary, precipitous -1.17- �Table 111C.3 DDT Residues in Domestic Animals from Nationwide. Meat and Poultry Inspection Programs ! Spcc'eu No. Samples Violations Warnings None l)c tercet] (2) . . Jit™. Total DDT (K.-itJ 0.01-0.3*0:) 0.31-1.0**(Z) 1.0 (2) • CatjUe f 1972 202 0 0 59 (?9) 135 (66) 8 (3) 1973 710 0 0 132 (18) 464 (65) 95 (13) 19 12) 1974 1CIO I 0 165 (16) 755 (74) 74 (7) 1* CD 1972 11 0 0 5 (45) 6 (54) 0 1973 84 0 1 3 (3) 73 (R6) 4 (4) - -.4) 1974 282 1 0 . 8 (2) 245 (86) 23 (8) 6 (2) 1973 44 1 0 20 (45) 18 (40) 3 (6) 3 (6) 1974 266 0 0 53 (19) 176 (&<">> 25 (9) 12 (4) 1972 129 0 0 64 (49) 59 (44) 6 {••) 1 (0.7) 1973 232 0 0 11*1 (50) 101 (43) 8 (25) 5 <0.2) 1974 329 0 0 84 (25) 229 (69) I- C4) 1 (0.3) 1972 206 0 0 39 (18) 155 C?S) 10 (4) : (0.4) 19/3 517 0 0 5(* (11) 374 (72) VO (13) 1974 734 I 0 75 (10) UO (83) 46 (ft) 3 (0.5) 1972 357 0 0 50 (14) 291 (HI) 14 (3) 2 (0.5) '.97 J 531 0 0 89 C6) 393 (74) 46 (H) 3 (0.5) 19/4 1034 0 0 66 (6) 925 (89) 38 (;) 5 (0.4) 1972 no 0 c '•2 (32) 83 (63) 4 '(3) I (0.7; 1974 V, 1 0 24 (24) 58 (58) 7 <7) < 0 Horses Swim.' . TIP Jce\ s 15 (2) Chickens *.01-0.'i (1972) **0.51-1.0 (1972) Source: Conrey, personal communication, 1975. - 12.H- 10 (10) �declines were noted with average residues in echo salmon (Ot kisutan) declining from 11.8 ppm in 1968 to 4.48 ppm in 1973 (Reinert, 1975). An evaluation of fish residue data in ocean fish from a recent NOAA survey (Stout, 1975) for fish off the Pacific Coast showed a residue trend whl'-r, generally declined with the northward progression of sampling from California to Oregon. In general, the residues-were well within flic current action limit except for samples taken off the coast of Southern California. Butler (1973) described the results of a national program for monitoring estuarino molluscs in 15 coastal states for the period 1965-1972. "For most estuaries monitored, detectable DDT residues have declined In both number and magnitude in several species of estuarlne molluscs in recent years. DDT pollution in many estuaries as judged by the magnitude ot: the residue in molluscs, peaked in 1958 and has been declining markedly since 1970." The North Carolina Agricultural Kxperiment Station (1974) and Sheets (1973) found significant reductions in DDT and TDK levels in flue-cured tobacco bo'w«en 1968 and 1972. These decreases are shown in Tables IIIC.4 and IIIC.5. In 1970, a decrease in use of DDT for tobacco occurred and since 1970, a certification that DDT and IDE would not be used has been necessary for tobacco producers to obtain price support. When reviewing those data, it .should be remembered that a 2-yoar period normally occurs between time of tobacco planting and final salo of cured procttct at auction. Domanski, Haire, and Sheets (1975) proposed that the low levels of DDT found in recent samples (1972) of auction market tobacco resulted primarily from existing environmental contamination rather than direct application. Recent experiments by the North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station (1974) confirmed that tobacco produced with currently recommended cultural procedures will in general have residue levels similar to the 1972 survey cf US auction market tobacco. Residue levels found in the lower stalk portion correlated linearly with those in the soil and were in agreement with recent radiochemical DDT-uptake studies conducted by Rosa and Cheng (1974) Drift of airborne soil containing DDT was considered to be a possible contaminant source, especially for upper tobacco leaves. Domanski arA Guthrie (1974) reporting on residues of DDT in cigars found little difference in the residue levels between the yoars 1969, 1971, aiiu 1" '2. However, Sheets (1974) found a decrease from 15.6 ppm In 1971 to 10.r> [>pm in 1973. Due to the variable time lag between harvest and m.irketinn of finished tobacco products, it may take 5 years or more for the decline in DDT and TDK to manifest Itself fully in such products. -129- �Table IIIC.4 Frequency Distribution of DDT and TDK in Flue-Cured Tobacco US Market Concentration Range (ppm) Samples vithin Range 7. 1968 1972 1970 0.0-0.099 0 0 0.1-0.49 0 11.6 63.9 0.5-0.99 0 27.7 15.7 1.0-2.99 0 31.3 12.0 3.0-9.99 1.2 15.2 7 98.8 14.3 0 > 10.0 0.9 '4 Source: North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station, 1974. -130- �Table II1C.5 Average DDT and TDK Residues In Flue-Cured Tobacco from the Auction Market US, All Belts Average Cone, (ppro) Year 1968 53.0 1970 5.9 1972 0.85 1973* 0.21 *Addltlonal Information from limited survey. Source: Sheets, 1973. -131- �Conclusion Between 1965 and 1970, levels of DDT and DDE in the two commodity groups, dairy and meat, fish and poultry, gradually decreased. Then, between 1970 and 1973 a precipitous drop occurred in residues of DDT and TDK with respective decreases of 86% and 89%. DDE on the other hand decreased only 27%. In FY 1973, these two commodity groups represented more than 95% of the total body burden of ingested total DDT residue with dairy products contributing about 30% of this amount. Based on domestic ruminant monitoring data since 1972, no significant change has occurred in the residue profile through .1974. If current levels of DDT exposure to domestic ruminants are caused by ingestion of food and feed produced from soil having past, but no current exposure, to DDT, diminution of these levels cannot be expected to occur in the near future. DDT residues in agricultural commodities other than dairy products and meat, fish, and poultry do not currently pose a significant problem with regard to direct human intake. -132- �HUMAN STORAGE AND DDT RESIDUKS Administrator's Finding: Hunan beingn store DDT. DDT and its metabolites, DDK and TDF., are highly soluble in fatty sub stances. Thus, when humans are exposed to residue!) of DDT in food, a certain portion will be retained and stored in the body fat. The major source of this DDT is dairy and meat products Ing.sted as part of the total diet. T!io source of this DDT in food is our nation's agricultural soils. Small quantities are taken up by plant materials. Thus, the simple food chain (soil -»• plant •* domestic ruminant -»• human) accounts for most of DDT found in human tissues. Adipose tissue data from the National Human Monitoring Programs (Yobs, 1971) yielded mean levels of total DDT, including metabolites, In the general population of 6.26 ppm in 1968 and 5.97 ppm in 1970. Significant differences were noted between black and white populations (TR:l98/«). Blood scrum levels of DDT varied significantly with the socloeconomic background of the subject and "lowest values are found In the more affluent groups, and higher values in poor" (TR:2022). Analysis of DDT in the human food chain using a .system modeling approach was done by O'Neill and Burke (1972) for the DDT Advisory Committee. This approach revealed that a reduction of DDT levels in human fat to 25% of that existing at the time of cancellation of all DDT uses would take approximately 28 years. Pat a jihicc 19 72 A comparison of 1970 thru 1972 National Hum.-m Monitoring data has been prepared by Kutz, Yobs, and Strassman (1974) and Kutz (1975) and is shown below. The geometric mean of DDT in human adipose tissue declined from 7.95 ppm in 1971 to 5.89 ppm in 1973, which may signal a downward trend. SJ.nce 1970, the percent of DDT residues found as DDE increased slightly (from 77.15/i to 81.19%). Detailed analyses of FY 1970 data were described by Kut/ et al (1974). -133- �National .-luminary of Total DDT Equivalent Residues in ''uman Adipose Tissue (total US population basis) FY Sample r.ize 1,412 1,616 1,916 1,092 Frequency 99.3% 99.75% 99.952 100.00% Geometric mean 7.87 ppm 7.95 ppm 6.88 ppm 5.89 ppm Percent DDT found as DDE 77. m 79.71% 80.332 81.19% Total DDT equivalent = (o,p'-DDT + p,p'-HDT) + 1.114 (o,p'-DDD 4- p,p'-DI)D + p.p'-DDE + o,p'-DDK) As part of an epidemiological. study, Griffith (1975) monitored serum levels of p.p'-DDT, o.p'-DDT, p.p'-DDE and o,p'-DDK In a cohort of 382 exposed human subjects during 1971 , 1972, and 1973. The data (Figure IIIC.7) clearly show that p,p'-DOT serum residue levels have decreased over the 3year period 1971-1973 suggesting diminished exposure to DDT. Residues of p,p'-DDE, on the other hand, do not show such a pronounced downward trend (Figure IITC.8). It lias been suggested by a nuriber of investigators that scrum p,p'~Dl)T levels reflect recent exposure to DDT, while p.p'-DDK, levels socm to correlate well with long-term exposure and tho otoraije capacity of the human body (Keil et ul, 1972; Edraundson, 1970: Morgan, 1971 and Selby, 1968). Cpjvc_ljjsJ.on DDT residues in human adipose tissue have tended to decline in recent years (1971 to 1973), while the percent of DOT stored as DIM; nas moved up only slightly. -IV,- �Fig. EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDIES PROC3AM X Sericn Residues of p,p'-DDT 1971-1973 IllC.7 197 1 11. 0_ Exposed - 382 Control - 129 Exposed 12.0 _ | 11.0 . i j 1972 Exposed | 10,0 _ i I j 1973 i 9.0- | f .. £ 3.0 _ i £j I 1 i 1 Exposed | * i \ i Control 7.0 - Control Control i "b -j tC 4.0 J i i j ! i i 3,0 - i i I 2.0_ ! 1? i 5.0 . 5 i Source: : EPA, Offic? of Pesticide Programs, Hunan Effects and Monitoring Branch Feb 1975. �EPIDEKIOL6GIC STUDIES PROGRAM X Serun Residues of p,p*-DDE 1971-1973 Exposed - 332 Control - 129 Fig. IIIC.8 1 i 50.q_j ; 19 72 19 71 45.0 Exposed Exposed "*• IS_7J . j ^-v ea a. C- 40.0 s 2 35. 0_ $ 30. 0_ tn § £ oo , ) p*s ^ "o. Q_ Control ' j 1 l . j 1 | . | s • : ** 25.0 20.0 - : Control - i t i ii i , j ] j ! * ; Exposed i ! t . 15. 0_^; f 10.0..i t i iI : j | | ! 5.0. -j • . 1 i j i | 1 1 1 .; . Source: EPA, Office of Pesticide Programs, Human Effects and Honitoring Branch, Feb 1975. �REFERENCES Addlson, R.F., M.E. 7Anck, and R.G. Ackman. Residues of organochlorlne pesticides and polychiorinated biphenyls In some commercially produced Canadian marine oils. ^JJL?h^ejL--P°JtJ^Si?Sl.- 29:349-355, 1972. Ahr, W.M. Long-lived pollutants in sediments from the Laguna Atascosa National Wildlife Refuge, Texas. Gcol. Sqc. Am. Bull. 84(8) :2511-2515, 1973. Albone, E.S., G. Eglinton, N.C. Evans, J.M. Hunter, and M.M. Rhcod. Fato of DDT in Severn estuary sediments. Environ. Set, Technol . 6(10):914919, 1972a. Albone, E.S., G. Egllnton, N.C. Evans, and M.M. Rhcod. Formation of bis (p-chlorophenyl)-acetonltrilo (p.p'-DDCN) from p,p'-DDT in anaerobic sewage sludge. Nature 240(5381) :420-421 , 1972. Bandy, L.W. The bloaccumul.n ion and t rants location of ring-labelled chlorine-36 UDT in an old-field ecosystem. Dt88._ Abst_._ Int.. 33(2):G79b, 1972. Beitx, H., and E. Heinisch. Contamination of meadows, pastures, arid forage crops through drifting of pesticides applied by airplane and ground-operated apparatus. NachrichtenbJU _0tsc._j*f lanzens^chutzdlenst DOR 26(3) :57-64, 1972. ...... Beyermann, K., and W. Ectcrich. Gas chromatugraphlc determination of Insecticide residues In air samples. Frcscnij.ig" jZ_. Anal . Chen. 265(1) :A-7, 1973. Biggar, J.W., L.D. Doneen, and R.R. Riggs. SjaJ_l_ Jn_t5'ja_c_t_Ijrjn. KUJ.1- .C.rJ8.'?Il.lc.aJllX. Polluted Water. Davis, CalifornU, University of California, February T96"6V"V3 pag'e s . (PC-229 987] Bjerk, .I.E. Residues of DDT and PCB in Norwegian sprat (Clupea Bfi and herring (:.' lures hatvnguo) . Nojr^J^^JNtejl. 24(9) :45i-457, 1972. Bjerk, J.E. Residues of DDT in cod from Norwegian fjords. £°AVy!^.Tox_lcoI. 9(2):89-97, 19?3. Bradley, .I.R. , T.J. Sheets, and M.D. Jackson. DDT and toxaphene movement In surface water from cotton plants. J_._ Environ ._jQual_. 1 (1) :102-105, 1972. Butler, I'. A. ReKlducs in fish, wildlife and CHtuarles. I'estic. Montt. J. 6(4):238-362, 1973. -137- �Carey, A. Personal communication, 19V5. Carr, R.L., C.E. Finstenwolder, and M.J. Schibi. Chemical residues in Lake Erio fish - 1970-71. PestJLc_Monit^_2- 6(D:23-26, 1972. Chisholm, D., and A.W. Machphee. Persistence and effects of some pesticides in soil. J^J^n._J^njtoraol_. 65(4) :1010-1013, 1972. Clacys, R.R., R.S. Caldwell, and N. Cutshall. Chlorinated pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls in marine fishes along the Oregon and Washington coast. (In press, 1974) Cliath, M.M. , and W.F. Spencer. Dissipation of pesticides from soil by volatilization of degradation products. I. Llndanc and DDT. Environ. S£b-Je<*££).-.• 6(10):910-914, 1972. Coilyard, K, J. , R.E. Johnsen, and C. Lin, Influence of soil amendments on the metabolism of DDT in soil. 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DDT real due 8 In a vineyard soil after 24 years exposure. Bull. Environ^ Contam. Toxlcpl . 8(6} :329-333, 1.972. Kutz, F.W., A.R. Yobs, and S.C. Strassman. A national survey fnr org.mochlorine insecticide residues in human adipose tissue. Presented at llio National Entomological Society of America >5eetlng, Minneapolis, MHnctiota, December 197A. Kutz, F.W., A.R. Yobs, W.G. Johnson, and G.B. Uicrsna. Pesticide residues in adipose tissue of the general population of the United States, FY 1970 survey. V^\.^^V\\jitmM^_.JiM^jan^V£t\\ol_. 11(3):4-10, 1974. Kutz, F.W. Personal communication, 1975. Kvalvag, J., and J. Stevenson. Residues of DOT and Us degradation products in cod liver from Norwegian fjords. Bull. Environ. Con tarn. Toylcol. 8(2): 120-121, 1972. ".....' " ..... -140- �Law, L, , and D.F. Coerlitz. Selected chlorinated hydrocarbons in bottom material from streams tributary to San Francisco Bay. PCS t i_c ._ Moni t_^ J . 8(l):33-36, 1974. Leland, H., W.N. Bruce, and N. Sliirap. Chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides in sediments of southern Lake Michigan. Environ^ , Sci . Techno 1. 7(9): 833-838, 1973. Lenon, H. , L. Curry, A. Miller, and U. Patulski. Insecticide residues in water and sediment from cisterns on the U.S. and British Virgin Islands: 1970. P^lic_._McmlJ:_.__J. 6(3)188-193, 1972. Lloyd-Jones, C.P. , D.P. Seba, and J.M. Prospero. Pesticides in the lower atmosphere of the northern equatorial Atlantic Ocean. ktmps^JF.nviran, 6:282-284, 1972. MacGregor, J.S. Changes in the amount and pitportlons of DDT and its metabolites, DDE and ODD, in the marine environment off Southern California, 1949-1972. Fish. ,_Bull_. 72:275-293, 1974. Maugh, T.H. DDT. Unrecognized source of polychlorinated biphenyls. .Science 180(4086) :578-579, 1973. Metcalf, R.L. DDT substitutes. Crit. JRcv. Envjjrojn._Cqnt_rol 3(l):25-59, 1972. Metcalf, R.L. Model ecosystem for the evaluation of pesticide biodegradability and ecological magnification. Outlook Agrtc. 7:53-59, 1972. Miller, L.L., R. Nakang, and G.D. Nordblom. Sensitized photolysis of DDT and dccyl bromide. J.v^T.SL-.^y-H' 38(2) :340-346, 1973. Moilancn, K.W., and D.G. Croaley. .Pap.er_ presented .at^jiJK A.C.S. Meeting, Pesticide Division, "l)Tl l"as".""f o xa a", "l"97"3— . - . . _™ ^^.~,.<*. ~.,^^-^ »-.AC e. .«—-••---—.-».— » * ..-»—.,«,.™,^» —...-«-• ,,-.»J— -».,.*-»,. «^_ -^,-.tfc—_™™^ ^.-^-..- J«, « , - * , -.^ . -.« . f Morgan, D., and C. Roan. Absorption, storage and metabolic conversion of ingested DDT and DDT metabolites in nan. Arch^ Environ. HcaUh 22:301308, 1971. Mussnar , H.C. Drug and chemical residues In domestic animals. Fed. J^roc* 34(2):197-201, 1975. North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station. An Annual R/>j»ort_ of_ ,kc-_ CaroTina ,""NoVtir "Caro'fina' St a~t «: 975. " pp'6-19. J«orth Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station. £-\te__oJ_P^jJjc_id( Raleigh, North Carolina, North Carolina l74 , -141- �Oertzen, J. Marine pollution - A problem of marine biology. 10(1):1-18, 1972. (Abstract) B lolu Rundsch . O'Neill, R.V., and O.W. Burke. A simple systems model for DDT and ODE movement in the human food-chain. In: Rop_orjt_of_ DjDT _A Ij^^ojrjLjCpnanin ee, Appendix D. DDT Advisory Committee, 1972. Patii, K.C., F. Matsumura, and G.M. Boush. Metabolic t rang format ion of DDT, dieldrin, aldrin ar.d endrin by marine microorganisms. Environ. Sci . Techno.;. 6(7) :629-632, 1972. Pfaender, F.K. , and M. Alexander. Extensive mlrrubial degradation of DDT in vitro and metabolism by natural communities . J^.^B.ri_c._Food_ Chejii. 20(4): 842-846, 1972. Plimmer, J.R., and U.T. Klingebie) . PCB formation. 994-995, 1973. Science 181(4104): Plimmer, J.R., U.I. Kllngebiel, and B.E. Huramer. Photoox'idation of DDT and DDE. Science 167(3914) :67-69, 1970. Poirrlfr, M.A., B.R. Bordelon, and J.L. Loseter. 1972. Adsorption and concentration of dissolved carbon-14 DDT by coloring colloids in surface waters. Envijrojn.^^i^Teclinol_. 6(12) : 1033-1035, 1972. Prospero, J.M., and D.B. Seba. Additional measurements of pesticides in the lower atmosphere of the northern equatorial Atlantic Ocean. Atjios^ Environ. 6(5) :363-364, 1972. R-26 Butlei , P. A. Pesticides In the marine environment. J._ Apjvl. E.col. 3:253-259, 1966. L^-^JOL^A-A^—^iL^JifA^Jia3^^ Vfn* ironmental Protection Agcncv, Was'hingTon',~ if. cT," ' 197l'-i'97'2 ~" R-51 Residues in fish, wlldllft, and estuaries. Org.inochlorine insecticide residues in fish (National Pesticide Monitoring Program) . Pesti£.. Moni_t,._J. 3(3):145-171, 1969. P resent a^l at Pujb 11 clloarl ng_a__on DDT, ~£x£ , Environmental Protection Agency,". Wash fngt'onT B.C. , 19/1-1972. R-52 Henderson, C., A. cide residues in fish, j^9JLLc^Jtonit_.__J. 5(1) Ex^ijvi^, CnvlrTnmental Inglls, and W.L. Johnson. Organochlorlnc Insectifall 1969. National Pesticide Monitoring Program. :1-1! , 1971 . Pjjp^VPHlij?l_^J!iky.^%.^!'J:i?._2P_PMi Protection Agency, Washington, D.C., i9fl-1972. R-107 Burdick, G.E., E.J. Harris, H.JT. iJean, T.M. Walker, -J. Sker., and D. Colby. The accumulation of DDT In la-e trout and the offset on reproduction. AjLvfJLsJl^J>£c^.lrJ™5.- 93(2):127~1<6, 1964. Pj^?fnted^at_F}Aili.^ Hearinjifl "on " a Exhibit, Knvlronmental Protection Agency, Washington, DDT ' " -142- �Rcf. 1 Rlsebrough, R.W., ct al. DDT residues in Pacific Soa birds: A persistent pesticide in marine food chains. P resented at ^Public Hearings mi_ DDTt Exlilb_it, Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C., 197119717* Ref. 2 Risebrough, R.W. Chlorinated hydrocarbons in Antarctic birds. £jLe.5J?Di£.<l $*- JP'lklicJIearings ?n_'11£j ''XhikJl-.* Environmental Protection AgencyT Washington, D.cT,""l97T-1972. " Reinert, R. Personal communication, 1975. Reinert, R. Pesticide concentration in Great Lakes fish. 3:233-240, 1970. PCS tic. Monit.^J. Reinke, .T. , J. Uthe, and D. Jamleson. Organochlorinc pesticide residues in commercially caught fish in Canada - 1970. Festive. Monit. _J. G;43-49, 1972. Rice, C.P., and H.C. Sikka. Uptake and metabolic*, of DDT V»y six species of marine algae. ^JteLL^rJ^jLJibiS™' 21(2) :l-«8-l.,2, 1973. Rosa, N., and II. H. Cheng. Distribution of DDT £a.':V__-lr_.p.La.nt_j;£i. 54:403-407, 1974. 14 C in Nicotiana tabacum, kouth, J.D. DDT residues in Salinas River sediments. ];LuJJvi_Ejiy i r on . Contain.^ Toxicol. 7(2/3) :168-176, 1972. Schulze, J.A. , D.D. Manigold, and F.L. Andrews. Pesticides In selected western streams - 1968-71. Pe^tic.^.Monit^^J. 7(17):73-84, 1973. Selby, L.A., K.W. Newell, C. Wagglnspat'' , G. Hauscr, and G. Junker. Estimating pesticide exposure in man as related to measurable intake; Environmental versus chemical index. A^^^JpJldcraj^l. 89(3) :241, 1968. Sheets, T.J. Research with pesticide residues in tobacco. 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Volatility of DDT residues in soils as affected by flooding and organic matter applications. £^JKnv^ron_._Jiual. 3(2) :126-129, 1974. Stadelman, W.J. Record of some chemical residues in poultry products. Bioscicn_ce_ 23:124-128, 1973. Stout, V.F. Personal communication. National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA, US Department of Commerce, Seattle, Washington, 1975. Tarrant, R.F., D. Moore, W.B, Bollen, and B.R. Loper. DDT residues in forest floor and soil after aerial spraying. Oregon 1965-1968. PCS tic. J. 6(l):65-72, 1972. Tr lyyic^L^XiJlSS-J^ Office of the Hearing Clerk, Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C., 1971-1972. Vind, H.P., J.S. Muraoka, and C.W. Mathews. Insect icidcs in the _0cean. Annual Rep_ort_ No. J3, 1 ^ly 19 7.2-30. June . . 7 3 • Port Hueneme, California, Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory, 19. December 1973. 13 pages. [AD-773 101] Ware, G.W., B'.J. Estesen, and W.P. Cahill. DDT moratorium in Arizona Agricultural residues after 2 years. 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REVIEW OF ECONOMIC ASPECTS �INTRODUCTION Administrator'a Findings: 1) The use of DDT is not necessary for production of cotton, beans, peanuts, cabbage, cauliflower, brussels sprouts, tomatoes, fresh market corn, pimentos, garlic, and commercial greenhouse plants but may be necessary to protect sweet potatoes in storage, sweet peppers against heavy corn borer infestations (in the Delmarva Peninsula only), and onions during an interim cancellation period. 2) Nonorop uses of DDT /or moth proofing and to control bats and mice we proprietary uses for which DDT is not necessary. These are the Administrator's UJ.tJj^.e_Fii^lns^ in Part V of his decision, Benefits. These ultimate findings on benefits were based on 12 .Bajijjc JFindtngs. which generally relate to economic matters. In view of these findings by the Administrator and the more recent regulatory actions involving emergency requests to use DDT against the tobacco budworm on cotton, the tussock moth and the pea leaf weevil, the following crop use patterns were reviewed for this report: 1. Cotton 2. Other crop uses a) b) c) d) e) sweet corn peanuts cabbage cauliflower brussels sprouts f) g) h) i) j) tomatoes garlic lettuce potatoes dry beans k) 1) m) n) p) lima beans snap beans sweet potatoes sweet peppers onions 3. Military uses 4. Public Health use 5. Forest use Information available to the Administrator in 1972 was found In the teotlroonies of the DDT Hearing Record. Current information since the cancellation was located in a variety of sources. Commodity specialists in the disciplines of agronomy, entomology, and economics were contacted in the USDA and the Land Grant Universities. Data sources, both public and private, were referred to and include USDA publications, Experiment Station and Extension bulletins. Tariff Commission Reports, EPA-contracted research projects, and others. -J'7- �DDT PRODUCTION AND USE In the early 1950's thirteen companies were involved in the manufacturing of DDT. Among the last firms to cease producing DDT weie: Oeigy Corporation (1966), Allied Chemical (1969), Olin Corporation (1969), Diamond Shamrock Corporation (1970), and Lebanon Chemicals (1971). Domestic production reached a maximum of about 188 million pounds in 1963. By the late 1960'a DDT output had declined by about onethird, e.g., 123 million pounds in 1969. Then production declined precipitously, to an estimated 60 nillion pounds per year ii; the early 1970's (Table IIID.l). Domestic use peaked at near 79 million pounds in 1959, and declined to about 18 million pounds in 1971 (22 million pounds in 1972). More recent estimates of use arc not available. Export lagged behind domestic consumption up to 1958, and the maximum did not occur until 1963. From 1958 onward, the quantity of DDT exported continued to exceed domestic consumption. -I',8- �Table IIID.l Domestic Production, Consumption, and Kxports of DDT in the United States, 1950-1972 (1002 basis) Year Production 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 67,320 97,875 115,717 72,802 90,712 57,638 72,686 70,074 62,500 45,117 7,898 NA 32,288 31,410 42,743 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 110,550 137,747 129,730 131,862 156,150 fcl,800 75,000 71 ,OCO 66,700 78,682 50,968 54,821 61,069 69,523 76,369 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 160,007 175,657 162,633 137,782 135,749 70,146 64 ,068 67,245 61,165 50,542 86,611 103,696 106,940 113,757 77,178 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 K0.785 141,349 103,411 139,401 123,103 52,986 46,672 40,257 32,753 30,256 90,414 90,914 81 ,828 109,148 82,078 1970 1071 1972 Domestic Consumption (l.OCO Ibs) 2'i,457 18.0003/ 22,000£/ 59,316 63,1342/ 57,4272/ Kxports 69,550 AS, 134 35,424 id on Pesticide Keview 1973, pp. 10, 71, 22, 23. Source: USDA, ASCS. £pj»JtJj:.lJ^ Re^vljj^JL973 and earlier years. -149- �COTTON The major areas covered in this review are: the availability of alternative pest controls, chtraical and nonchemical; impact of the cancollation on cotton production costs (1971-1972 average compared to 19731974 average); and impact of changes in cotton production costs on acreage, production, and prices of cotton and other crops in the US, by region, based on a representative year since cancellation. This latter analysis presents results in terms of the year 1975. Throughout the analysis, only cost impact is considered, as inadequate data were available to systematically evaluate possible impact of alternatives upon cotton yields throughout the areas where DDT was used.i' Before presenting results of the review, a briof summary of relevant background information is presented on the cotton industry. I/ Additional research is currently in progress in the Office of Pesticides, EPA, in cooperation with cotton specialists in the states addressing yield as well as cost Impact.in detail. Basic data on the entomology and economics of alternative cotton producing nrograns, including those with DDT, are now being received from the states but analysis will not be completed until well into FY 1976. Data are being obtained for 57 individual cotton growing regions, which will be utilized in an analysis ot impact of yield and cost effects of the avallabilIty.of DDT and other post management options on the performance ot the cotton and other sectors of agriculture (O.R., acreage, production, and price of cotton and other major agricultural crops). As pa.'t of the cotton pest management study, states were requested to provide information on cotton yield differentials associated with alternative control techniques, including the use of DDT. As of July 1975, eight of the 14 states contacted have responded. This data Is therefore incomplete at this time and the summary statements below provide tentative conclusions only. In the Southeast, the two states respond Ing indicate that growers would use DDT on cotton pests, principally for control of the tobacco budworm, bollworm, and the boll weevil, but yields would not change. Three western states expect very little LOT would be used if available. One state indicated cotton and alfalfa are frequently grown in adjacent fields and DDT would cause residue problems In the alfalfa. Yield inprovements would not be expected except in the case of bollworm control. Three states in the Delta r<;g?on hr.vc responded and two provide specific numerical information on yield improvements if DDT \>erc available. Fstimates of yiol ! Increases range from V,'. to 142, depending upon specific regional area. One ;K*lt.n state does not expect any change in yields. The yield information is obtained 1rom the professional judgement of entomologists knowledgeable on rho prevailing growing conditions In their respective regions and Is bascvi on actual field ..-xrerience, experimental data, laboratory tests and otbtr accumulated experience. �OVERVIEW OF THE COTTON ECONOMY Cotton is one of our most important agricultural crops. It contributes $3 to $4 billion to cash receipts of farmers and is grown commercially on about 125,000 fanu in the United States.!/ As many as one-fourth of tiicse farms have less than 25 acres of cotton. The major cotton production regions of the US are shown in Figure IIID.l. The cotton industry is one of the most intensive users of insecticides. As of 1971, nearly one-half the total insecticides used in agriculture were for protection of cotton. About two-thirds of the cotton acreage in the US is treated with insecticides. DDT was a raajor insecticide used in the cotton industry through 1972. Additional background on the use of DDT and other insecticides., as well as other aspects of the cotton economy, are discussed below (based on recent USDA evaluations, USDA. KKS, £9Jt.t£n_^U_u^_l(m, 1975 and other source as cited). The economic success <j£ t,:e cotton farmer is affected from year to year much more heavily by a number of other factors than by changes in regulatory policy on pesticides. Factor1- such aa weather, government acreage allotment and price support programs, the market price of cotton, competition from other crops, limited input su»pll»s, and costs of other inputs often have a major Impact on cotton production costs and returns. Average total costr, of producing an acre of harvested upland cotton in the US were estimated to be. $254.63 in 1974, of which insecticides accounted for only $9.64 or about 3.8% (Table HID.2) (Starbird et al, 1975).I/ Since 1972, the total costs of producing upland cotton have increased from $193.48 to $254.63 (by $61.15 or about 32%). According to these USDA estimates, increasing costs of insecticides constituted a very minor part of the overall increase In cotton production coats (from $7.74 to $9.64 per acre or by $1.90) (Table HID.2). This is not to say that insecticide cost increases have been so nominal in all areas or that insecticides are unimportnnt factors contributing to cotton yields. Costs of growing cotton varied significantly among the US cotton producing regions. In 1972, the latest year for which co.sts Hy region are available from USDA, total costs per harvested acre varied irom $95.49 to over $500 per acre (Table HID.3) (Starbird et al, 1972). Insecticide costs per acre also varied greatly. The regions with heaviest insecticide costs as of 1972 were: I/ There were estimates of as* many «H 150,000 farms with cotton allotments for the year 1972 (USDA estimate, based on A:>CS * l-.RS data sources). However, as of 1974 the number of farms growing cotton on a commercial basis is about 125,000 (based on market rerK.irch reports available to EPA). 2/ These preliminary t'SIM 1974 estimates of costs for insecticides arc substantially lower than those presented later in this report, based on another data source. They an- utilized here for purposes of indicating the Importance of insecticides in the overall cost of growing cotton, as estimated by USDA. -151- �Figure IIID.l FOR CQHOM Source: Starbird, I.R., and B.L. French. 1972. Costs of Producing Upland Cottoa in tint UrJred States, 1V69, �Table HID. 2 Production Costa per Acre of Upland Cotton Harvested, United States, Selected Years, 1964-1974 Aver;US? 92£!LPer Acre Harvested Item 1964 1S66 1969 1972 1974k/ Labor Power & Equipment Materials Seed Fertilizer Herbicides Insecticides Defoliants Other Chemicals Total Materials 42.40 34.04 27.83 37.28 21.97 42.46 23.33 43.50 27.49 56.90 3.26 11.44 1.59 5.69 1.00 0.30 23.26 3.56 12.67 3.72 6.42 1.00 0.25 27.62 4.20 10.90 4.56 6.79 1.17 0.20 27.83 4.40 10.96 6.18 7.74 1.48 0.52 31.28 7.59 17.56 7.70 9.64 1.85 0.65 44.99 Ginning, Bagging 19.11 A, Ties Custom Services 7.74 Irrigation 8.37 Interest on Operating Capital 2.49 Total Direct Costs 137.46 19.82 18.44 23. 34 25.28 8.90 9.19 9.91 7.86 11.28 •11.12 14.39 13.71 2.29 132.94 2.72 131.18 2.79 146.83 4.75 187.51 24.44 13.99 23.11 13.64 34.15 12.49 51.32 15.80 171.38 167.93 193.48 254.63 Land 24.49 General Overhead 18.74 Total Cost per Acre Harvegteda/ 180.69 a/ Totals do not necessarily add because of rounding. Jb/ Preliminary. Sources Starbird, I.R., et al. on Cotton Fa rma in the United Stftfog , 9 7 2 ^ , 1975 Starbird , I . R. ^ J Rcaultg, and Implicatons, 1974. -153- �Table HID.3 Average Total Production Costs and Insecticide Costs per Acre for Upland Cotton, US by Region, 1969 and 1972 1969 Tnsacticides Percent of Cost Total (dollars) (percent) 1972 Insecticides Total Percent of Cost Cost Total (percent) (dollars) (dollars) Regions Total Cost (dollars) Southern Piedmont Eastern Coastal Plain Southern Coastal Plain Lir.estone Valley-Sand Mountain Clay Hills 179.61 214.17 202.60 165.49 184.23 11.51 18.22 16.19 8.06 6.74 6.41 8.51 7.99 4.87 3,66 SA 230.57 226.40 218.46 189.70 tlA 24.41 31.96 15.86 8.51 :;A Black Belt Brown Loam Mississippi Delta Northeast Arkansas Black Prairie 176.92 178.57 185.98 165.33 76.84 12.40 4.78 10.92 2.41 2.40 7.01 2.68 5.87 1.46 3.12 NA 196.21 210.11 179.33 95,49 NA SA 1.64 4.91 Coastal Prairie Lower Rio Grande Valley Rolling Plains High Plains San Jaoquin Valley 10S.57 183.90 89.21 126.00 313.65 3.27 11.10 1.26 0.53 10.9^ 2.98 6.04 1.41 0.42 3.43 160.15 199.19 103.77 150.94 371.95 11.43 17.58 California & S. Arizona Central Arizona High Southern Desert Upper Rio Grande-Pecos Valleys Trans Pecos 414.94 389.32 330.64 252.02 333.92 35.99 21.81 3.01 3.38 14.39 8.67 5.60 0.91 1.34 4.31 487.73 503.13 SA 332.98 KA 38.32 31.12 NA 2.42 KA United States 167.93 6.79 4.04 193.48 7.74 Sources Starbird, I.H. and B.C. French. Costs of Growing Cotton in the United States. 1969. 1972, » Starbird. I.R. et al. Costs of Producing Cotton and Selected Crops on Cotton Farms in the United States. 1972, 1975, » 3.21 10.31 3.39 3.68 0.61 0.72 9.55 10.59 14.12 7.26 4.49 1.S9 3.85 7.14 8. S3 0.59 0.48 2.57 7. 86 6.19 KA 0.73 NA 4.00 �Southern Piedmont, the Eastern Coastal Plain, Coastal Prairie, Lower Rio Grande Valley, and Southern California/Southwest Arizona. In these regions the costs of insecticides ranged up to 147 of total production costs compared with a national average of 4.0% In 1972. Later in this analysis additional cost data are presented for insecticides by chemical for purposes of estimating the cost impact of the DDT Decision on the average during l'J73 and 1974 In comparison with the 1971-1972 average. Competition from man-made fibers and declining demand, due to the unfavorable general economic conditions in the US and world markets during the last year have had significant impact on cotton prices (Figure HID.2). Cotton prices received by farmers have declined sharply from the high of near $0.60 per pound which occurred about a year ago. The high market prices for cotton during the 1972-1973 and early 1973-1974 seasons generated very large plantings in 1974 (nearly 14 million acres compared with an average of 12.95 million acres for 1970-1974). Although bad weather battered cotton producers all season long in 1974, particu.arly in the Southeastern and Delta areas, thus reducing yields, the 1974 crop totaled 11. / million bales. In the face of declining demand, the crop precipitated dramatic price decreases. For example, the February price received by farmers in 1975 wa8 only $0.32 per pound compared with SO.52 per pound in February 1974. Improvement In the national market situation in cotton depends upon recovery of the economy and reduction In production in 1975, to adjust to needs in the domestic and export markets. The latter is expected to happen as prospective planting In 1975 irf 9.5 million acres, down 222 from 1974, to the lowest level in many years. The cotton commodity market in which one can contract for delivery at specified prices nas been a disconcert'ng factor for the cotton farmer during the last 2 years. In 1974, 20% of the cotton crop was contracted compared with 75% in 1973 and only 15% In 1972. In 1973, farmers received attractive prices for cotton. Cotton was contracted at prices acceptable to farmers, and the $0.15 price support was In effect. However, cotton prices continued to increase throughout the 1973 season, and holders of the contracts were the beneficiaries', not necessarily the farmers. Farmers' anticipation of windfall gains in 1974 appear to have resulted in only 20% of the crop being sold under contract at future prices. However, since cash prices in 1974 were declining and farmers had not protected themselves by contracting at higher prices, 80% of the crop was on the open market at current lower cash prices. The Federal Government's cctton program is a very significant factor affecting the cotton producer. The Agricultural Act of J973 represented an important change in US agricultural policy. This Act reflects a trend away from government controls and guarantees to a more open market-oriented philosophy. L'nder froe-nwrket agricultural policies, farr; markets tend to become more unstable. Annual prices can fluctuate, subjecting farmers to "shocks" in income. -155- �Figure HID.2 U.S. COTTON PUKES' PER LB. Spot market SIM 1-1/16 " 80 60 Spor market SLM !" ! I 40 I '>V 20 Price received by farmers 1969/70 70/71 71/72 72/73 73/74 74/75 YEAR BEGINNING AUGUST 1 Mb fiS«f<9 Mill! -156- �The Agricultural Act of 1973 first went into effect in the 1974 growing season, including now cotton allotment provisions. One important feature was the target price concept to replace the $0.15/lb lint price payment. Farmers would no longer automatically receive a price supplement. Instead, a target farm price floor was set for their crop. As long as the market price of cotton equals or exceeds the target price, no payment is made. Farmers receive per pound payment when cotton prices at the farm level fall below the target price, which for cotton was set at $0.38/lb lint. The farm price of cotton exceeded this level, and no payments were made to farmers for the 1974 crop. The disaster provision of the law gives some income protection ;ln the event of crop loss due to a natural catastrophe. The provision becomes effective if over one-third of the cotton crop grown on allotment actsv.ge is lost. If, for example, a farmer has 100 acres of cotton allotment and the normal yield per acre is 500 Ibs of linl, the farmer's normal yield is 50,000 Ibs of cotton.1/ If one-half of the crop is lost, the farmer qualifies for disaster payments on 25,000 Ibs of cotton. He receives a payment of one-third the current target price multiplied by the pounds of cotton lost if the loss is equal to or greater than one-third the normal yield. ii ', In some circumstances the farmer can suffer a disaster to his crop yet not qualify for the disaster payments in the program. This can happen as follows. Consider the same farm as above with the 100-acre allotment. Now assume the farmer chooses to grow 200 acres of cotton, so that 100 acres under the allotment while the other 100 acres is not. Expected yield in this case is 100,000 Ibs of lint. If 50,000 Ibs of cotton are lost due to a disaster and the farmer produces only 50,000 Ibs at harvest, he is not eligible for disaster payments. Ills disaster payment is based on 50,000 Ibri of his normal yield. The cotton allotment applicable in this case assumes the farmer has received his normal yield and therefore does not qualify for Disaster payments. There are no restrictions on the number of acres of cotton planted. However, the risk to th^ farmer increases if he plants on nonallotment acres. In 1974, for every 100 acres of allotment cotton In the US, there were about 27 acres of nonallotment cotton grown. A combination of bad weather and insect damage in some areas such as the Southeast and the Delta appear to have resulted in yield reductions. However, as a result of growing a large amount of the crop on nonaliotment acres, many farmers experiencing damage either did not qualify for disaster payments or received less than the full benefits of these payments. _!/ Although the allotment is stated in acres, the provisions of the cotton allotment progvon are based on normal yield. Normal yield is derived from A moving average of yields on each farm from previous years. -157- �RODUCING RKG i ONS . . J N J'MJLJLS .AND Jjjr MAJOR - Economic performance (.if the cotton industry since the DDT cancellation must be viewed within the context of trends djring earlier years as indicated in Figure HID.3 and Tables HID.4, 5, and 6. These data indicate that cotton acreage, yield, and production vary greatly from year to year, that there are long-term trends in the cotton industry, and that results in 1973-1974 are not grossly out of line with past performance of the Industry. The high degree of annual variability in the cotton market is typical of agricultural markets. The cotton industry has been able to maintain its production to meet domestic and export needs slnct the DDT cancellation. Although production has declined slightly at the national level, it has been more than.adequate to meet market needs, as prices declined very significantly in 1974. The record high'prices for cotton in 1973 are not attributable to the DDT Decision. The two regions of the United States in which DDT was used as of 1.972 are the Delta and Soutiieast.!/ DDT was used much more extensively in the Southeast Region (Va., N.C., S.C., Ga., Fla., and Ala.) than the Delta Region (Mo., Ark., Tenn., Miss., La., 111., and Ky.). In the Soutiieast, it was used on about half the acreage compared with less than one-fourth of the acreage in the Delta. These insecticide use patterns will be discussed in more detail later in this report. Cotton yields In Southeast Region in 1973 and 1974 are equal to or greater than yields during years immediately prior to the decision and are above the long-term average for the region (Figure HID.3 and Table HID.4). In the Delta Region, cotton yields Increased slightly in 1973 over 1972 and were above long-term average yield. However, the Delta cotton yiold declined from 555 Ibs in 1973 to 406 Ibs in 1974, the lowest yield in the last 14 years. Most of this decline is credited to floods and adverse weather conditions as discussed in USDA's analysis of the situation presented in its recent Cotton Situation reports (January and April, 1975). Changes in pesticide policy are not cited as a significant factor in yield reduction in L'SDA's 1974 cotton situations. Overall production in the Delta area did decline significantly in 1973 and again in 1974 na a result of reduced yield ar.d acreage harvested. In the Southeast, production has been maintained in 1973 and 1974 at levels comparable to 1972 and prior years. II Regions are defined in Figure HID.3. Note that these USDA regional definitions differ from those for which production cost data were presented in Figure IIID.l and Table HID.2. -158- �Figure HID.3 COTTON: ACHE&Gi, YiilD, AUD PRODUCTION UNITED STATES » 01 IW >t »»» —-' J I 1 .L ' WSJ ' • t ' IW3 ' ' .- ~ -I l»6» fUl MOtHKfMO AVOWtt I SOUTHEAST* WEST* SOUTHWEST* * cxnir lt«»| [ tj« . '™ 60 63 6* 69 60 72 *!*• UA*NPtm« AVOUff 1 6) W «t rs >I4I H«WNM« «MHI<> I CS-;'f/>. JANUARV 1975 Note: This chart, based on USDA estimates as of January, 1975, does not reflect more reci-.nt estimates reported in Tables II ID.4, 5 and 6, which are b.isecl on the Cotton Situation published in April, 1975. -159- �Table HID.4 Cotton Yield Per Harvested Acre, US by Region, 1961-1974 Year West Southwest 1961 1962 959 1,356 343 339 489 510 338 363 438 457 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1,034 1,035 1,047 918 828 354 338 394 375 364 642 643 620 532 462 461 488 453 392 356 517 517 527 480 447 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1,047 871 798 724 937 404 293 3J6 261 399 569 528 546 578 539 342 363 410 476 427 516 434 438 438 507 1973 1974 875 983 427 280 555 406 459 451 520 443 Average Yield 1961-1?74 937 348 544 413 477 Delta Southeast (Ibs of lint) Total West: California, Arizona, New Mexico, and N'evada. Southwest: Texas and Oklahomi. Delta: Missouri, Arkansas, Tennessee, Mipsissippi, Louisiana, Illinois, and Kentucky. Southeast: Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, and Alabama. Source: USDA, ERS. 1975. -160- �Table I Hi).5 Jtton Production, US by Region, 1961-1974 Year West Southwest Delta (1,000 bales)-!/ Southeast Total 1961 1962 2,813 3,118 5,145 5,026 4,485 4,710 1,840 1,973 14,283 14,827 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 2,822 2,813 2,707 1,925 1,651 4,744 4,403 5,030 3,393 2,958 5,407 5,468 5,051 3,077 2,179 2,321 2,461 2 , 1 50 1,162 655 15,294 15,145 14,938 9,557 7,443 196d 1969 1970 1971 1972 2,482 2,104 1,796 1,780 2. ,593 3,786 3,138 J, 402 2,791 4,609 3,612 3,691 3,819 4,468 5,139 1,046 1,057 1,175 1,438 1,363 10,926 9,990 10,192 10,477 13,704 1971 1974 2,550 3,716 5,126 2,947 3,990 3,672 1,308 1,367 12,974 11,702 Average Product ion 1961-1974 2,491 4,036 4,198 12,247 Wept: California, Arizona, New Mex.'co, and Nevada. Southwest: Texas .-me! Oklahoma. Delta: Missouri, Arkansas, Tennessee, Mississippi, Louisiana, Illinois, and Kentucky. Southeast: Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, and Alabama. 3/ 480 lb net weight bales. Source: US!)A, EKS. Cntj:oji_ jjJjjia^jLrm, 1975. -lol- �Table IIID.6 Cotton Acreage Harvesti'd in the US by Itegion, 1961-1974 Rtg_Ion Southwest Delta (1,000 acres) Southeast 1,409 1,418 7,205 7,112 4,404 4,434 2,616 2,605 15,634 15,569 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1,310 1,306 1,241 1,006 957 6,440 6,250 6,120 4,348 3,895 4,042 4,080 3,974 2,774 2,262 2,420 2,421 2,280 1,424 883 14,212 14,057 13,615 9,552 7,99'' 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1,138 1,159 1,079 1,180 1,328 4,505 5,140 5,346 5,132 5,544 3,049 3,358 3,355 3,708 4,578 1,468 1,398 1,375 1,451 1,534 10,160 11,055 11,155 11,471 12,984 1973 1974 1,399 1,814 5,757 5,059 3,448 4,344 J.366 1,453 11,970 12,670 •\verage Acreage 1961-1974 1,267 5,561 3,701 1,764 12,293 Yer-r West 1961 1962 Total West: California, Arizona, N*>w Mexico, and Nevada. Southwest: Texas and Oklahona. Delta: Missouri, Arkansas, Tennessee, Mississippi, Louisiana, Illinois, and Kentucky. Southeast: Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, and Alabama. Source: UKDA, KRS. -162- �Trends in cotton yields since 1961 are presented bv state in Tables HID.7 and 8 for the Delta and Southeast regions. These data indicate a high degree of variability in cotton yields within the regions and from year to year at the state level. These data do not preclude the possibility of significant yield impact from the DDT Decision. However, yield reductions such as these have occurred at earlier times, due to other factors. The Administrator's decision on the emergency request for the use of DDT against the tobacco bi.dworm on cotton in Louisiana presents a review of pest problems and the impact of available controls on yields in the State of Louisiana, which is an important state in the Delta producing area. In that decision, the Administrator found that the State of Louisiana had "presentee) no substantial evidence - new or old - to support the premise that the tobacco budworm problem is new, that recognition of its occurrence and seriousness is new, or that the DDT mixture is the only insecticide that can be expected to prevent economically significant damage arisinp, from a possible tobacco budworm outbreak this year." (EPA, 1975) An unfavorable economic situation was faced by cotton producers in 1974 as seen in the basic cost/price relationships for that year. The 1974 L'S average yield of 443 Ibs of lint per acre (Table HID.4) and the estimated average production cost per acre of $254.63 (Table HID.2) give a cost per pound of 57.5 cents. This cost compares with a cotton lint price of 45.9 cents per pound frcra August to January 13 (1974-1975) and an allowance of 10.4 cents for the value of the seed (a total of 56.3 cents per pound), to give an average net loss of 1.2 cents per pound (USDA, ERS, Cottpj»_^ituat_i_oji and Starbird et al, 1972). This outcome lias led to greatly reduced plantings In 1975 and probably hit some areas much harder than others (e.g., as a result of very low yields in some areas in 1974). Yields in the Southwest and Delta Regions were down markedly in 1974, while they were up in the West and in line with recent years in the Southeast (Table HID.4). AVAILABILITY OF ALTERNATIVES TO DDT Findings: 1) DDT io useful for the control of certain cotton insect pants. 2) Cotton peats fife becoming resistant to DDT. 3) Me. thy I parathion and other organophosphatc chemicals arc effective, for the. control of cotton pasta. 4) DDT ie lethal to many insects beneficial to ajriau'ltura. On December 30, 1970, the USDA submitted a list of essential uses of DDT to the L'PA, which was recorded by EPA as Hearing Admission Number 2. The USDA considered DDT essential to control the following pests? hudworm, boll weevil, cotton boilworms, cotton fleahopper, fall armyworm, garden webworirw, Lygus bugs, rnirids, thrlps, aid cutworms, -163- �Table HID.7 Lint Yield Per Harvested Aero in t)u- Delta Region, by State (Major States), I -1974 Year Arkansas Louisiana Mississippi J'Ussouri Tennessee Region 1961 1962 512 512 429 464 (Ibs) 493 512 469 582 493 494 489 510 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 582 605 572 418 333 628 544 540 602 621 709 732 678 653 567 630 564 559 408 314 621 640 611 475 295 642 643 610 532 462 1968 1969 19/0 1971 1972 502 518 470 522 488 636 551 555 576 509 660 534 658 613 599 A 95 533 431 614 520 432 505 483 597 543 569 528 546 578 539 1973 1974 513 368 481 445 651 459 501 356 472 298 555 406 Sources USDA, ERS. Statijstlca. onr.^tton_ USDA, ERS. Cotton Situation, 1975. , 1974. -1.64- �Table HID.8 Lint Yield Per Harvested Acre in the Southeast Region, by State (Major States), 1961-1974 Year Georgia South Carolina NorKi Carolina Alabama Region 1961 1962 354 369 337 373 377 327 327 371 338 363 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 453 467 467 398 408 405 496 486 442 449 449 470 287 290 277 511 512 505 392 282 461 488 453 392 356 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 322 351 373 466 395 352 342 349 412 435 310 287 464 371 337 362 405 453 551 470 342 363 410 476 427 1973 1974 499 480 473 456 455 440 423 431 459 451 (Ibs) Sources , 1974. USDA, ERS. itatlstlcs_onjCotton USDA, ERS. Co t ton"ITt t uat ion'T 1?7 3 . -165- �Heavy dependence on DDT In cotton production was related to the control of the boll weevil and the bollworra. However, Dr. Braz*cl of.the USDA testified that DDT used for boll weevil control also destroys beneficial predators of bollworms (Tr:J07, App. 1:159, 161). Also, evidence presented indicated that cotton Insect pests are resistant to DDT and that methyl parathlon was the most commonly used Insecticide to control the boll weevil In every state but Mississippi (Tr:6332-6334, App. 5:1940). Cotton entomologists participating in the DDT Hearings generally agreed that a successful, boll weevil "diapause" control program, which tends to reduce insecticide use, would contribute to the effective control of the bollworms. This particular control program Includes the destruction of cotton plant refuse after harvest and the use of Insecticides prior to the boll weevil's diapause. Since this practice delays the use of insecticides until late in the growing season of the year, bollwotm predator populations are given some protection. Testimony at the 1972 Hearing presented DDT alternatives for the control of cotton pest infestations. Methyl parathion and carbaryl were two insecticides available for bollworm control and the merits of the boll weevil diapause program were stated. In addition, the possibility of future implementation of sex traps, sterilized Insects, and trap crops were mentioned (Tr: 314 p. 15, App. 1:166-167 and Tr:191, App. 1:102). Dr. Young of Mississippi State indicated that within 3 to 3 years the bollworm will have established a very strong resistance to DDT, as well as other insecticides (Tr:102, App. 1:13). Dr. Newsome of Louisiana State University contributed to this contention, since he believed that overuse of Insecticides by cotton producers would hasten the development of cotton pest resistance mechanisms (Tr:102, App. 2:737). Historically more insecticides have been used for cotton than for any other domestic agricultural crop. Insecticides havo contributed to cotton production, but extensive use of insecticides has contributed to pest management problems due to development of resistance in pests. Shortly after World War II, chlorinated hydrocarbons were successfully Introduced as effective pest controls for cotton. However, many target pests proved to be very adaptive and developed a resistance to these pesticides (Adkisson, 1973). The resistance problem was initially met with yeater quantities of the chlorinated hydrocarbons by increasing thi? number of applications or the rate per acre. Also, cotton producers began to use now chemicals (e.g., organophosphates or carbamates) or they combined different chemicals to achieve cither a broader spectrum of control or a higher probability of target post decimation (HAS, 1974). -166- �Both the increased quantity of insecticides as well as the use of different compounds have had a detrimental impact on populations of natural predators. Natural predator reduction contributed to larger Infestatic .s of the increasingly resistant prircary pests and enabled secondary prob!«ra insects to achieve primary pest status (Adkisson, 1973). In certain cotton producing regions, the chemicals used for boll weevil control enabled the bollworms to surpass the initial target pest in terms of Importance. Also, the tobacco budworro has attained a hig'<i level of resistance to chlorinated hydrocarbons, organophosphates, and carbamates, which will hinder control in the future (Adkisson, 1973). At the Annual Conference on Cotton Insect Research and Control in 1972,-eight insect pests were declared resistant to DDT in one or more states (Table HID.*'). The bollworm and tobacco budworm were each determined to be resistant to ODT in several southeastern states, as of i972 (Table HID. 10). DDT was recommended only for 3 of the 21 Insects cited as cotton pests at the 1972 conference: bo'lworms, budworras, and curworms (Table 1 1 ID. 10). Alternatives to DDT were recommended for each of these three pests. Jli,n£JL - Ghcmic_nl_ alternatives By 1975, the Annual Cotton Conference recommended several additional alternatives to DOT for the bollworm and budworm (Table HID. 11). However, only three chemicals were recommended for cutworms. Thin conference also cited numerous promising new future chemical controls for the bollworm, but only three for the budwor.ii, and none for cutworms (Table IT ID. 11). A review of EPA registration data indicates aev.-ral alternatives to DDT for control of cotton ln«ect peats for which DDT was considered essential by the USDA (Table HID. 12) (DDT V '<ring Admission 2). There may be other alternative controls than those listed in Table HIP. 12, which h»ld registrations since 1972 or were recorroended by the states. Alternatives to DDT are not equally efficacious or economically feasible in all areas due to pest resistance and other factors. Under EPA's Substitute Chemical Program, a series of Minlcconoralc Reviews have been conducted on the efficacy and cost effectiveness of various chemicals for control of cotto'i Insect pests. Those rcvii-ws contain surveys of available literature and data on the capacity of substitute chemicals to control target pests and return a profit over costs when used by the grower. I/ The recommendations of the "Annual Conference" .ire based on the best available current research i'at,i known by representat lvos of the various cotton stnf.es and are generally followed in making recommendations to growers on controls for cotton pests. -•167- �Table HID.9 Cotton Insect Pests Stated to be Resistant to DDT, 1972 Pest States Bollworm Alabama, Arkansas, Arizona, California, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri, Oklahoma, Tennessee, North Carolina, Texas Cabbage looper Arizona, Georgia, Tennessee, Texas Cotton leafperforator Arizona Lygus bug'i Arizona, California Southern garden leafhopper California Tobacco budvorm Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, Texas, Arizona Saltmarsli caterpillar Arizona, California Pink bollworm Texas Source: USDA, ARS. ^XjinuaJ^j^^ Memphfs, Tennessee, January 11-12, 1972. -168- �Table IIID.10 Reccxxsendcd Dosages of Technical Material in a Dust or Emulsion Spray for the Principal Insecticides Used for the Control of Cotton Insects'*/ (1972) aldioarb(Tcalk)^.' azinphossiethyl£/ X . : ; e : , :<i U » V ; > , - ';/ carbaryl carbophenothion yjili'' •^ S de.-r.eton dicrotophosfBidrin) disalfotonl/ endosulf an enJrin ethion EPS salathion£/ cethyl parathion Methyl Trithionl./ 3onocrotophoii (Azc-'Jr jr.) parathion (ethyl) phorateJL/ phosphaaidon Toxaphene trichlcrfon Boll Bo 1 Ivor a or tobacco budworra Cabbage looper Cotton aphid Cotton leaf perforator Cotton leafworn Cutworns Fall arayworD __ Ib/acre Insecticide __ Ib/acre __ Ib/acre Ib/acre __ Ib/acre — 4 to 8x109 Ib/acre -. 0.25-0.5 __ __ Ib/acre — ._ . 1.00-2.5 Ib/acre 0.30-0.5 ~ __ 1.00-2.5 1.00-1.5 0.25-0.5 «— . 1.00-2.5 — — __ — — __ — 1.00-3.0 __ — __ — 0.5 0.30-0.6 0.5— 1.00-2.0 0.20-1.0 0.5 1.0— 0.60-1.0 — — — 2.00-4.0 —- 1.0O-2.0 — __ 2.0 — — — — . — 1.0 — .. .. — ™ 10 . — 0.60-1.0 0.60-1.0 — — — — — — — — —— — w_ — — •. „ 1.00-2.0 0.20-1.0 — 0.12-0.38 0.10-0.5 0.50-1.0 _— . — 0.20-1.0 « 0.30-1.0 0.25-0.5 0.20-0.5 — — __ — — — __ — — 1.0 — 0.3 0.10-0.5 0.50-1.5 0.12-0.5 — 1.0— -_ — 0.20-0.4 w_ — _^» — 0.25-1.25 0.12-0.38 — — 0.12-0.25 — — 2.00-3.0 1.00-1.5 j — __ — .. .» — — — — — — — 2.00-4.0 1.00-1.5 — — — __ __ — __ ^_ — __ 0.25 — — — — — — — 0.5C-1.0 — •/ For information on recotsaended insecticides for the following insects see source report: Beet arayvons, p. 46; ! darkling beetles, p. 56; field crickets, p. 72; seed corn naggots, p. 63; whitefringed beetles, p. 69; virevorns, p. 69; yellowstriped and western yellowstriped arayworas, p. 70. k' Ir.-furrow granule treat~ent at planting. (continued on next page) �Table HID. 10 (continued) Insecticide I o aldicarb^/ azinphosnethyl carbaryl diazinon dicrotophos (Bidrin) diriethcate disulfoton*/ endosulfan aalathion r.ethyl patathion Methyl Trithion r.or.ocrotophos naied parathion phora c j8 / phosphanidon Toxaphene trichlorfon Cotton f leahopper Garden webwonn Ib/acre 0.60-1.0 0.10-0.25 0.50-1.5 . Crasshoppers Lygus bugs & other mirids Pink bo 1 Ivor m Ib/.icre Ib/acre 0.60-1.0 0.10-0.25 0.70-2.0 Ib/acre . . — 1.25-2.5 . Ib/acre — 0.50-1.0 2.00-2.5 . — " • — 2.0— 1.0 — — 1.25-2.5 Ib/acre 0.30-0.5 0.08-0.25 0.35-1.0 — . — __ — — 0.10-0.4 0.10-0.5 — — 1.00-2.0 0.25-0,5 — 1.00-2.0 0.25-0.5 — — 0,70-1.0 0.25-0.5 ' — — — — — 0.25-0.5 — __ 0.23-0.5 — -0.60-1.0 — — — — — — *• •* — — — — — 1.00-1.5 — 0.25-0.5 — 0 50-1.0 1.00-i.O 0.25 ' 0 Thrips — __ — 0.10-0.4 0,10-0.4 ~ — 0.70-1.0 0.25-0.5 0.5 0.25-0.5 . 1.2 Stink bugs Ib/acre Saltmarsh caterpillar Ib/acre - — 2.00-4.0 0.50-1.0 0.5 — — — 1.50-3.0 —« 0.50-1.0 — 1.60-4.0 0.25-3.5 — — — — __ — — • — 1.0 — __ — 1.0— 0.50-1.0 — — — . — 0.50-1,0 ~ — — I.OT-I.S 0.10-0.25 0.10-0.2 0.50-1.0 — 0.40-0.7 0.12-0.5 0.12-0.25 — — — 0.50-1.5 0.25-0.5 0.50-1.5 *""— £/ AzinphosT.ethyl and ranlathion nay be applied ultra-low volume as technical material at 0.125-0.25 and at D.5-1.2 Ibs/^cre, respectively. S?/ Incernational units (1 to 2 quarts) per acre. £/ In-furrov granule at planting. Seed treatment for cotton aphid and thrips control at 0.25 to 0.5 Ib/cwt seed. L/ .Research indicates that higher dosages of Methyl frithion than those registered are required ii*. some areas. £ . In-f'urrow granule treatraent at planting. Seed treatment at 0.25 to 1.5 Ibs/cwt seed. ' Periling the final decision by the Administrator of EPA raconenenda.Aons for the use of DDT for the control of certain insects on cotrcn are included in this report. Source: USDA, ARS. 25tti Annual Confeyenca Report on Cotton Insect research and Control, Memphis , Tennessee, January 31-12, 1972. �Table 1110.11 Recommended and Promising Controls for Bollworms, Budworma, and Cutworms Advocated by the 1972 and 1975 Annual Conferences on Cotton Insect Research and Control Future Promising Controls in the Field Pest 1972 Recommended Controls 1975 Recommended Controls Bollworm carbaryl endrin EPN methyl parathion Azodrin (monocrotophos) DDT carbaryl endosulfan endrin EPN methyl parathion Azodrin (monocrotophos) Toxaphene Chevron Ortho 9006 (Monitor) chlordimeform ratthorny1 Orthene (acephate) Bay NTN 9306 carbofuran Cela S-2957 Lorsban (chorpyrifos) carbaryl endosulfan endrin EPN methyl parathion Bay NTN 9306 FMC 33297 NPV Budwo no Cutworm carbaryl endrin EPN methyl parathion Azodrin (inonocrotophos) DDT carbaryl enurin Toxaphene trichlorfon DDT Ciba-Ceigy CGA 18809 FMC 33297 Hoechst KOE 2960 Leptophor j. Zectran (mexacarbar.e) NPV San I 52, 159 Stauffer N-2596 Azouriu (monocrotophos) Toxaphene Chevron Ortho 9006 (Monitor) chlordimeforra methomy1 carbaryl Toxaphene trichlorfon Sources U5DA, ARS, 25th Annuai Conference Report onCotton L Insect Research and Contrpl, Memphis, Tennessee, January ~JLl-i2, 1972. , USDA, ARS. 28th Anni>al Con/ftrcncc Report, on £ot_tpn_.JCn_8_ect Research andCent rol, New Orleans, Louisiana, January 6-?, 1975~. -171- �Table HID. 12 Alternatives to DDT for Control of Cotton Inject Pests, 1974 Alternative 1'cst Boll Weevil aldlcarh azlnphosmethyl (Cut I- ion) carbaryl dicrotophos (IHdrin) ondosulfan on clrin F.l'N malathlon mcthidathion methyl parathlon monocrotophos (Azodrln) parathlon Strobane Toxaphene Cotton Bollwonns 1 =i azlnophosinethyl ((luthlon ca rba ry 1 c.hlord lino form liydroclilorlde illcrotopho:; (fildrln) methor.iyl raethyl parathion monocrotophos (Azodrln) (ZiGZiiiJiii1 -ii and l' ''- •' naled pnrathion Strobane Toxapliene end r In Kl'N motlitJatliloii Cotton Fle.iltoppur nldlcarl) •izinphosraotliyl (CuthloiO carb.iryl carboplutnothton dtcrutophos (liidrtn) dlmotlio.-itc Kl'N malathlon naled parathion phosphamtdon Strobane Toxaphene trlchlorfan Fa 11 A nnywo rm Ciirlnryl end riii malathlon methyl parathion Cardcn Webworm ,-IK Inpliosmothyl (Giitlilon) carbaryl cndrin nmlntliion methyl parathlon parathion Strobane Toxaphene Lygus BURS aldlc.irb axlnphcBnu'tliyl (Gut. hi on) carbaryl dlcrotuphos (Bihrln) ill mcthoacc cndrln intlaLlitori methyl p.irathloa monocrotophos (Azodrin) naled oxydemetonmethyl parathlon phosphamldon Strobane Toxaptier.e trlrhlorfan Thrlps alillcarb azlnphosmuthyl (tut I) Ion) carbaryl dcnioton dlcrntoplios ( I l l d r i n ) dlmctlioatu dtsulCnton ondosulf in mal.ithlon methyl parathlon Monitor monocrotophos (A^odrin) parathlon phorate phosphamidon Strobane Toxaphone ondrln Kl'N Cutworm Source: c.irb.iryl cndrln methyl parathlon f t robnne 7oxaph«ne trichl,.rfan KPA, Sunmary of " Ppsslblp A l t e r n a t i v e Roj»lsteriid_Pc < atlci<icB_ for I'.'?!' ' ""'' -172- �Information on efficacy and cost effectiveness is oxerpted from sovoral reviews of alternatives to DDT In control, of cotton posts and presented in Appendix IIID.l of this report (paratliion, methyl parathion, aldicarb, and malathion). Although current 0.l'7/«) efficacy ami cost effectiveness data are United, there are indications t.iai. i.heso cliemlcals can serve effectively to control the cotton posts once controlled by DDT combinations. Whether an alternative is effective in a given state or area depends greatly on how long the chemical has been usec? and at what intensity. Additional reviews of DDT alternatives are in progress under the Substitute Chemical Program. oved use_ of chemical and nonchemical ;ilternatiy«_ controls. Substantial economic and environmental benefits can be obtained by use of the least hazardous pesticides, and by their use only in line with economic thresholds of pest infestation, i.e., when the I'/vei of infestation actually justifies use. There has been a tendency to use Insecticides on a regular schedule as part of a cotton growing program designed to insure against insect post damage, with little or no regard for whether an Infestation exists. Increasingly during recent years Interested federal Agencies, such as USDA and KPA, the states, and industry have promoted so-called integrated pest management programs, which are usually devoted to improved use of both chemical and nonchemical controls of cotton pests. Integrated pest management (IPM) is a concept which will probably become more prevalent as a control of cotton pest, infestations. It appears to be slowly gaining acceptance in many different regions of the country, even though many of the basic concepts are from 30 to 70 years old. Publicly run IPM programs have been encouraged in at least three states for 10 years or longer. These 5itat.es are Alabama, Arkansas, and Texas. The objective of the concept In to improve pest control systems. An IPM program normally has three goals: 1. Diagnosis of the post problem (by scouting, also referred to as "field checking"; pest trapping; and/or other methods). 2. Determination if and when intervention (pest suppression) is required (mostly based on damage thresholds). 3. Su;H'i"ossion of the f-est(s) by the most appropriate tool(s) avalIcible. IPM programs vary from state to state, but most are oriented toward improved Insect control by delayed chemical application. The delay of insecticide applications facilitates population growth of natural predator insects, which helps tc control the pests. A number of programs have nadc progress in the use of the most appropriate too)(.s) a v a i l a b l e , e.g., biological or cultural controls, as well as in improved pest dlagnosis and suppression. --173- ! �In states with publicly run IPM, program participants appl> insecticides only on a recognized need basis, rather than treating according to a designated time schedule. This approach is not as sophisticated as some integrated pest management programs, but it lias generally contributed to a 30 to 40% reduction in the number of insecticide applications. Specifically, in the Texas High Plains reproductive-diapause boll v»evll control effort, a comparison ,">f expected insecticide use with and without an IPM program Indicated an 82% decline in the treatment level over a 10-year period. For that region, it meant a reduction of 8,240,000 Ibs of chemicals such as malathlon, Toxapli°.nc, methyl parathion, azinphosraethyl, and Bidrin. This involved a $12 million decrease In production costs, while 76,000 bales of cotton were added to the total yield. Also, no adverse effects on wildlife (especially beneficial Insects), domestic animals, or human beings have been detected (Lacewell and Casey, 1974). In another program conducted f" a previously hi^h Insectlcidal use area, strong positive results were demonstrated by in IPM program at Pecos Station, Texas. During 1968-1970, insccticidal application was initiated based on accurate assessment of insect populations in the field. SyatCM support was provided by good crop management, including a diversified cropping system which supported beneficial insect populations naturally. The experiment demonstrated that Pecos area cotton producers could reduce their treatment costs by over 90%; saving over $60/acre (Pate et al, 1972). Initiation of IPM programs for rotten production requires intensive grower education programs. These educa*.'on program,-* center around workshops for pest scouting. In Arkansas a small industry of consultants specializes in private scouting. In recent years, the US Department of Agriculture lias assumed a much stronger role through federally funded IPM programs. In 1974, 14 states were involved In cotton scouting programs. Initially Implemented .is Jyear project.!, funding from USDA was formula distributed in each state through the Cooperative Kxtennion Service. In addition to required proof of economic feasibility to the groweis, these projects had to provide Insect control comparable or better than customary practices. Grower participation has increased significantly since the 1972 initiation of tt,v J-year programs. In 1972, only 549,000 acres were involved in the progi-« : compared to 863,000 acres projected for 1974 (6% of the plantings). Less th .)-, '0,000 acres wire In each of the federally sponsored programs in New M.'v.ico, Missouri, and Oklahoma; but In many states over 20% of the cotton acreage was committed to IPM programs. These states Included Arkansas with 250,000 acres; Alabama with 154,000 acres; South Carolina with 115,000 acren; and Arizona with over 50,000 acres (Good, 1974). Additional acrenjjes (often sizable) in these states were grouted by private consultants. -174- �In the future, as confidence increases with the use of these controls, more fully integrated pest management programs can be expected. As these programs progress by upgrading field checking capabilities, expanding data bases of actual field histories;, and experimenting with artificially introduced predators and parasites, more sophisticated biological and cultural controls can be expected. However, it has been stated that IPM systems arv not being actively promoted by Federal regulatory agencies despite tiieir potential for the future (RvR Consultants, 1974). Presently, a bacterial spore formulation of Baaitluu thurin(ii.ens'>s is registered for use on cotton, buc the level of control is not as consistent as existing chemical insecticidcs. This particular pathogen has potential, since strains 15 to 20 times r.iore effective than earlier varieties have been developed. However, additional research is needed to improve upon the pathogen's insecticidal properties (USDA, ASCS, 1973). A class of microorganisms that is often mentioned for cotton pest control is the nuclear polyhedral viruses (NPV). Viral diseases have bt?en stated to be highly effective against the cabbage looper, since pest destruction occurs before yield-reducing damage results (USDA, ERS, 1970). Also, there is an experimental permit to use llellothis virus to control bollworns (USDA, ASCS, 1973). However, one study indicated that the following characteristics of pathogenic controls merit increased attention before widespread acceptance can occur (NAS, 1974)A/: 1. Longer shelf life A. More reliable and consistent control of the target pest 2. Creator persistence 5. Lover cost 3. Ease of application 6. Capability of meeting EPA registration standards JL/ A study of the commercial potential of new generation pesticides, including cotton insecticides, h;is been funded under EPA's Substitute Chemicals Program which will give added data on tnc potential for biological and other novel controls. The study IK to t-o completed !>y Fall 1975. 175- �Inserts tltat are either exotic or indigenous to cotton producing arc-as can be used for pest control purposes (NAS, 1974). Some scientists have advocated searching Central America and Mexico to find exotic predators. It has also been suggested to nass rear natural cotton predators for re le^.se in areas of heavy infestation. However, large-scale rearing of predators has not yet been tried, and exotic predator importation has not. been successful. Some o!" the indigenous insects founJ in different producing regions considered helpful to control cotton pests include lady beetles, nabids, parasitic wasps, mlnuto pirate bugs, and the larvae of green lacewlng (Ledbetter, 1972). In 1972 one specific biological control program released sterilized pir:k boliworn moths in the San Joaquin Valley of California (t'Si)A, ASCS, 1973) . About 2K'2 trillion moths were reared in Phoenix, Arizona, and over 99 m i l l i o n were sterilixed for release, to prevent the establishment of the p.'nk bollworn in California. Surveillance with a large number of attractant-baitod traps indicated that the project was successful. Another biological control is the use of cotton plant varieties that have 'characteristics incompatible to pests (NAS, 1974), For instance, crops tli.it mature for harvest in late August or early September, rather than October or .\overiber, reduce the opportunity for tobacco budworms to inflict heavy damage. There is also a frego-bract variety of cotton that Is resistant to the boll weevil and a nectartless variety that Is moderately resistant to Lygus bugs ami fleahoppers and slightly resistant" to the bollworm complex (Shuster a nil Maxwell, \<n-'t and J'.-nklns and Parrot, 1971). Trap crops are one cultural technique that can reduce damage re'ated to infestations. A small portion of the cotton field can be planted early to attract overwintering boll weevils. The tr-ip crop can then be treated with an insect (eld- 1 , shredded, and plowed under the soil (N'AS, 1974). Alfalfa can be used as a trap crop specific to I-vt^is bugs, since this Insecc prefers alfalfa to cotton as a food source. A l f a l f a can be planted In areaa of heavy infestations and treated with relatively small amounts of insecticides for control (1'resley, 1972). There ar'1 other cultural pest control practices that merit brief attention. Cotton producers have used <!esic.cants and defoliants to f a c i l i t a t e rapid harvest ;md io force a shedding of fruiting forms that are food sources for certain pests. "lant stalks can also he destroyed and plowed under, since the stalks nay Irirbor overwintering pests, diversified cror>plnjj nay be used to Increase populations of beneficial insects. Also, tinuse of mechanical strippers, rather tl--.in .spindle pickers, w i l l leave fev.er harmful larvae in the fields a f t e r h.irvet.1 (N'AS, \')~I-'<). �Conclus i_on DDT substitute chemicals aro available for cotton pest control. The chemical substitutes arc generally effective, but pest resistance problems are encountered In some areas. In addition, IPM programs are substitutes for DDT use duction. These programs can combine' chemical, biological, controls and may achieve results comparable on bettor than cotton pest control practice.';. However, most IPM programs the initial stages of development and implementation. in cotton proand cultural conventional are still in Si* ta. jas_of_ J9_72, At the time of the DDT Hearings and the decision in 1972, limited current data were available on insecticide use patterns. There were estimates that up ti- 38% of the cotton acreage was treated with DDT (Tr:6171-6l72), which accounted for as much as 85/i of domestic DDT use (soybeans, 5%; peanuts, 92; and other uses, IX) (Order oi Administrator, p.2). The 1964 and 1966 US DA surveys wvro the most recent data. Since that. th..o, US DA has conducted a survey for the year 1971 (published in 197'*) and private markei research data are now available and will be discussed herein. USDA_dat.a: 1j6/t^ 1966, a nd^1971^surveys Historically more insecticides are used in cotton production than any other domestic agricultural crop. From three insecticide use surveys conducted by tlu ERS of the I'SDA for 1964, 1966, and 1971, cotton wa.o estimated to account for 55.f>2, 47.27,, and 47.6/! respect Ively, of .ill agricultural crop insecticides («.'SDA, ERS, 196«: I'SDA, KRS, 1970; USDA, KRS, 1974). For these 3 years, DDT aecoanted for 31.2', , 29.6", and 17.9X of the total rotton insecticides and represented 74.1^, 7'3.0/i, and 94.0;' of the total DDT used on crops, A profile of quantities of the various insect!-tdor. used In cotton production prior to the cancellation of DOT is providt-u in Table 1110.13 and provides a basis to study past trends. WliiL Toxaphcne, exhibited stability of consumption, use of DDI declined from over 23 m i l l i o n pounds in 1964 to near 13 million in 1971. Conversely, organophosphate use abou' doubled. The USDA pesticide use surveys indicate a similar pattern on the basis of cotton acreage treated with various Insecticides (Table II ID.14). Quite clearly DDT use was on the decline (and th< use of org.'tnophnsnh/ites on the increase) prior to th<; 1972 cancellation order. -177- �Table HID.13 Quantities of Selected Types of Insecticides Used on Cotton, United otates, 1964, 1966, and 1971 Type of Insecticide Product Inorganic Insect* ^ic'c-* Botanicals and Biolop.cals Synthetic Organic Insecticides Organochlortnes Lindann Strobanc TDE (D'JD) DDT Methoxyclor Endrin Heptachlor Dieldrin Aldrin Chlordane Endosulfan Toxaphene Others Total prganophosphoro UB_ Dlsulfoton ™ Bldrln Kethyl Parathion Parathion Malathion Demeton Mazinon Trichlorfon Azlnophoamcthyl Phoratp Ethion Other Total Carbamates Bux Carbaryl Carbofurau Me t homy 1 Others Total Other Synthetic Organics . Total Synthetic Organics Total Insecticides (Not Including Petroleum) Petroleum Total Insecticides 1964 2,518 NA 1966 (1,000 Ibs) « • 1971 69 2 — 540 NA 191 23,588 NA 1,865 163 2,016 167 19,213 6 . . 510 — 17 — NA NA 26,915 2,660 55,7/8 — 11 123 3 61 27,345 85 49,703 565 NA 8,760 1,636 1,8.11 47 300 1,857 7,279 2,181 559 NA _963 __ 200 NA — 250 10 NA 2,177 15,196 73 212 .13,624 NA 1,571 NA NA -_ 1,571 — 216 — 13,153 — 1,068 f — >5 —. .. .. — 28,112 — 42,619 225 778 22,983 2,560 670 NA 144 — 288 100 6 1,617 29,376 _1,214 NA 4,510 NA NA NA 4,510 14 72,978 — 64,898 — 40 37 1,291 2 73,288 78,016 6 78,022 64,900 /;68 65,368 73,357 8 73,365 Sources USflA, ERS. Quantities of Peatict<lea Used by Farmers In 1964, 1968. USDA, ERS P^^^mej^.t^fifltilcl^h-st Used by Farmers in 1966, 1970. USDA, FxS. F.iimcrs' Uso of Pesticides In 1971 - Quantities, 1974. -178- �Table HID.14 Acres of Cotton Treated with Selected Types of Insecticides United Stages, 1964, 1966, and 1971 1964 Type of Insecticide Product 57 NA Inorganic Insecticides Botanicals and Biologicals Synthetic Organic Insecticides Organochlorlnea Lindane ~* Strobane TDK (ODD) DDT Methoxychlor Endrln Heptachlor Rieldrln Aldrln Chlordane Endosulfan Toxaphene Others Orgnnpphospho ruo Dlsulfoton" Bidrin Methyl Parathlon Parathion Malathion Dcmeton Diazinon Trichlorfon Azinopho'jmothyl Phorate Ethion Others Carbamates Bux Carbaryl Carbofuran Met homy 1 Others Other Synthetic Organlcs Petroleum 1966 1971 (1 >00l) acres) mijm 23 8 — __ 2)8 636 NA 225 61 33 6,901 4,767 6 NA 1,194 403 ~ negligible 36 — 16 161 6 NA 56 NA 3,881 5,016 428 285 619 NA 5,420 751 213 322 — NA 641 35 NA 2,236 NA 1,002 NA NA NA 102 ;:A 473 1,416 3,577 860 245 NA .— 512 222 NA 26 534 NA 415 NA NA .. . — 71 13 — 2,383 — 262 174 — — — 3,275 M * * » 553 1,797 6,384 682 __ 273 __ 191 119 182 30 1,216 244 — -_ 84 66 24 11 Sources USDA, ERS. USDA, ERS. Oji.intljtj.es USDA, ERS. ~ ~ ~ -— ^ ^ -179- 1963. 1970. 1974. �Therefore, it would appear that DDT and other chlorinated hydrocarbons were diminishing in importance as factors of produc.tio i in cotton at the national level. Conceivably, if EPA had not issued the cancellation order, factors such as development of DDT-resistant cotton pests and effective chemical and nonchemical .substitutes would have contributed to further decline in the chemical's importance. The USDA surveys did not provide use pattern data by region for individual chemical/crop combinations such 83 DDT on cotton. Data since _1_972_ The above USDA data on cotton insecticide use at the national level are complemented with market research data which show more recent national trends and us« patterns of DDT and other insecticides hv regions of the United Sta::es. These data are utilized to obtain a picture of shifts after the cancellation in the number of farms and acres with treatment of DDT, treatment with other insecticides and with no treatment. In this analysis, data are presented for the 2 years prior to cancellation (1971-1972 average) and for 2 years since (1973-1974 average), fable HID.15 contains a summary of use pattern data for these 2 periods. Review of these data indicates: 1. DDT treatments were used on about 17% of US cotton farm In 1971-1972 (18,744 out of a total of 110,724 cotton farms in the L'S). An additional 32,066 farms (.297, of the total) treated with other insecticides, while slightly more than half of US cotton farms used no Insecticide treatment on cotton (59,914 farms e>r 547. of L'S total). 2. DDT treatments averaged 11.7 million acre applications out of a total of 47,0 nillion acre applications with cotton Insecticides (25% of the US total). I/ This resulted in 51.8% of US cotton acreage being treated one or more times per year during the 1971-1972 period with the overall average number of applications belrf? 7.3. \J An acre implication in the use of a chemical or chemical combination on one acre one tine. The nunber of acre applications exceeds the number of acres treated If there are multiple treatments during the year. For example, a farraer treating five tin'"* on 100 acres of cotton would have 500 acre applications even though his total treated acreage in only 100 acres. -ire �Table HUMS DOT Cotton I n s e c t i c i d e l!»« Patterns In I'S. l>y Rcitlon, 1971-1972 .inJ 1911- <>7i South All ant It- (%) No. (%) No. (56) (.U) (22) (100) 6,Vb 14,904 18. B I S 42,1")6 (20) (35) (4S) (100) .,_ 10.578 3.->,8',6 43.424 (24) (7ft) (100) }, 472 4, 547 8. 019 (55) <4i) (100) 6.119 20.8)4 27,11) (21) (77) (100) i. J94 I.W (100) (100) 5. 046 ">, 04C (74.8) -- 1,486.5 ( 2 5 . 4 ) 140.5 -- 917 (91.1 ) 69.1 — 1,144 133.9 10.27 -- Nunber of (aim* till', ire.itmontu Ochwr tre.»lfienl« No t r e a t m e n t s Total tartan Number of a p p l l c a t ions/ac^fl So. (t) Total US No. __ ,_ (43) (57) (100) 18.744 32,066 59.914 110,724 (!') (29) (54) (100) „„ 8.62 -- 3.6 doo) — (100) 11.738 35,268 47,006 (25) (75) (100) 954 (58.7) 274 .8 — (51.8) ft, 501 127. » « 5 .29 — -- 7. 3 — _ 11.544 — 2,304 11,848 (31) t!7) (100) 29,102 1ft, 7rt'> 46.01T 11,032 11.0)2 (100) (100) 10,355 30,)'>5 . „. (h4> (16) (100) . . „., I6,6f,2 Oil H.4V. ' (f.7) 51,116 (100) . . H20.5 Ol.'ii) 71.1 — 11.41 -- (100) (100) 7.482 7.4S2 . ft. 776 4, 622 11, 400 . . . (100) 2, 261 2M (100) 1,510 f82.7) 121.2 -- 1.810 (29) •)ft.2 ~- 8. « -- 4.13 1, ?>tl -- Itit -. (59) (41) (ICO) -. (100) flOO) (67.4) ... • •» 64. .284 58.J70 122,454 . . 51,140 51,140 1 .76 -- KPA consultation. >ase.; on Sjert.il PC -it 1 r t d c M a r k e t Kt?'«-.irv!ii Scirvev I n f n r n a t l n n for f l ' A , 0 ( f t r * o f Pc«t Icicle Program, 197i -181- (52) (48) (100) — (100) 7,461 (55.9) 116. 1 -- *1 Percent of rot«l cotton acrt ddc In renton treatoiJ oni, or riorc t l ^'•c9 (<my I n n e c t Ic Itie) COMIC«I (» _ Nunber of ttppl lcail<m»/acr* etwnlcal*/ (in 1 hauwiu'a ) Acr*» t r e a t e d / f a r ™ (») 5,217 4.216 9,418 Total acr«« treated - any <:!-.«ntcal5' (In thousan.-ti) Arre« tr«a:eU/farra Su-r,h«: »( acre a p p l i c a t i o n s ( t n thouB«iv]«) DOT t r « a t m « n i » Other tre.nnent* Total aero a p p l i c a t lon*t All Other Re^.o^s 9,516 3,76'. 3.70fc 16,946 Number of acre a p p l i c a t i o n s (In thounandn) DDT treai.nents Oilier tieatnen'.a but no. DOT West South Central No. Number of tarn* DOT t r e a t m e n t * Other treatment* No treatments Total fiwni K.l»t South f'entl.ll ... 79 -- �3. DDI was used rr.ly in tin- Sovicli Atlantic and East South Central Regions (region.!* definitions provided on Flgvre HID.4). 4. The South Atlantic Region was more dependent on DDT, as more than half of Its cotton farms used it compared with less than one-fourth of the fai*ns in the Kast South Central Region. More than 90Z of cotton was treated with an insecticide in the South Atlantic Region compared with only 75% in the East South Centra]. The number of applications per year was also greater in the South Atlantic (10.3 compared with 8.6). 5. Acreage treated per farm is considerably smaller in the South Atlantic than in the East South Central Region (69.1 acres compared with 133.9 acres in 19*1-1972). 6. In 1973-1974, total cotton acreage and the number of farms declined in the South Atlantic Region while increases occurred In the East South Central Region 7. The percentage of acreage treated one or more time.? remained near 93*' in the South Atlantic Region In the pre~ and postcanrellation periods while it Increased quite significantly in the F.ast South Central Region (from 74.8;; to 82.72). 8. The number of applications per yc;ir Increased between the pre- and postcancellatloti periods in the South Atlantic Region (from 10.3 to 13.4 treatments per year) while remaining essentially constant In the I'ast South Central Region at near 8.6 treatments per year. 9. The percentage of farms treating with one, or more Insecticide treatments increased between the pre- and postcancellation periods f.i both (regions (from 787 to 832 in the South Atlantic and from 552 to 647 in the East South Central Region). Cgn_c_lu9imi DDT was widely used as a cotton insecticide through 1972, although Its Importance was on the decline. !iy l')71-1972 it was used on about one-sixth of l!S cotton farms, and It equalled about one-fourth of total cotton insecticide acre applications. -182- �Figure HID. SPECIAL PESTICIDE MARKET SURVEY: COTTON REGIONS North Atlantic S.atcs South Atlantic StQJCi East North Central States East South Cerlrol States West Noivh Central States Western States West South Central S'otei �INSECT CONTROL COSTS Administrator's Finding: Py using methyl paratliion 01' other weans of. p<-a>t controlt cotton proJuaaa'a can generally produce aatiofactory yields at aeoep~ table eozt. Data as of 1972 The DDT Hearing Record Includes test'wony by Dr. Ricigoway from Texas (Tr:2495) who referred to an unspecified study which estimated chat the replacement, of DDT with organophosphates would increase cotton prouuction costs by $15 million (presumably per year). lUdgcway was not concerned as raucli by the $15 million production cost, impact as by possible economic side effects on industry and regional economies that could be associated trlth cancellation. Ridgeway contended that increased use of orgar.opliosphatcs after DDT's cancellation would accelerate tht> development of resistance mechanisms of cotton pests, which would increase the chance of not bavin,; idequato < ntrols for cotton pests at some future time. Inadequate controls for cotton pests could force cotton production out of certain geographic regions, which would have economic impact on other segments of the local economy interrelated with cotton production. Cookc of the USDA testified that use of Toxaphene and methyl parat'tlon as substitute-] for DDT would increase the number of insecticide applications, thuo Increasing cotton production costs. Also, Cooke submitted a USDA study (USDA, ERS, October 1970) which esttrujted that annual coCtor. insecticide and application costs would double (i.e., Increase by about $54.5 million over those associated with present average insecticide prac-. tices) if DDT were cancelled (Tr:2472-25?8). The above estimate was limited-to the Southeast, Appalachia, Delta Status, and Southern Plains Regions. It .'as based on 1969 data and the two DDT substitutes Toxaphene and nethyl parathion. Cookc indicated that the cost per treated acre in the regions would have increased $9.95 (or $5.24 for all rot ton acres). Expressed in terms of 1970 data, the increased cost pet pound of lint was 1.2 cents, which was estimated Co be about a 52 Increase in the cost of production. Coolie also indicated that the relative increase in insecticide costs would be higher for low Insecticide users relative to the high users (Tr: 2578). The insecticide cost per pound of lint produced by the lilgit use farmers was estimated to Increase from 4.33 cents to 5.09 cents. For the low use farmers the name cost item was "stlmatcd to fhmiqe from 2.5.1 cents to 4,67 cents. -184- �The above estimates of impact on the costs of cotton production ($15 million to $54 million per year) are much greater than those indicated by Dr. Headley, an economist from the University of Missouri who testified at the DDT Hearings. Dr. Headley testified that the cancellation of DDT would not have a significant (or adverse) effect upon the cotton economy (Tr:6180-6184), as he believed that pest control costs and the cotton market price would noc be influenced by the unavailability of the chemical. This contention was based on the premise that only half of the cotton farms used any insecticide and further that only 38% used DDT. Also, Headley indicated that DDT use was concentrated in the Southeast, Delta States, and eastern half of the Southern Plains with larger farms probably using more DDT than small farms. Data since 1972 Total expenditures^ national level Expenditures for insecticides to protect cotton have increased sharply since the cancellation. Nationally, annual average insecticide expenditures for cotton increased from $64.6 million in 1971-1972 to $102.9 million in 1973-1974, while the average number of acre applications per year increased only slightly (from 47.0 to 51.1 million) (Table HID.16). Costs per acre application on the average increased from $1.38 in 1971-1972 to $2.01 in 1973-1974. Total insecticide costs per treated acre increased f.r<vn $10.07 (7.3 applications x $1.38) to $13.65 (6.79 applications x $2.01). The largest single shift from the use of DDT combinations obviously was to the use of Toxaphene/methyl parathion combinations, as total acre applications of this combination increased from 2.4 million to 10.4 million. Substantial increases are noted in several other individually named chemicals such as tetnik, galecron, guthiou, and fundal plus endrin/parathion combinations and other miscellaneous combinations. These data at the national level are provided as general background for the review of changes in expenditures for cotton insecticides in the two regions in which DDT was used prior to the cancellation. Total expenditures, regional level Cotton insecticide expenditures are presented for the pre- and postcancellation periods for the South Atlantic and East South Central Regions of the US in Tables HID.17 and 18 including data for all insecticides combined and individually for specific major pesticides including DDT combinations. Average annual expenditures increased very sharply in both regions in the postcancellation period compared tc the precanccllation period. In the South Atlantic Region, average annual expenditures increased from $14.2 million per year in 1971/72 to $26.6 million in 1973/74 and from $1.51 to $2.41 per acre application. Costs per acre application more than doubled for ethyl and/or methyl parathion (from $1.89 to $4.35) and increased rather sharply for other miscellaneous combinations $1.37 to $2.53). -185- �Table IIID.16 Average Annual Expenditures and Use of Cotton Insecticides in the US, 1971-1972 and 1973-1974 Type of Insecticide Bid r in CD JN Azodrin Oi-Syston Toxaphens Toxaphene/niethyl parathion DDT/methyl parathion/ Toxaphene Ethyl and/or methyl parpthion Tetnik Galecron Guthion Fundal Endrin/parathion Other miscellaneous chemicals Other miscellaneous combinations**/ Unidentified No answer Total Average Annual Expenditures ( , 0 dollars) 100 1971-1972 1973-1974 Average Annual Acre Applications ( , 0 acre appl.) 100 1971-1972 1973-1974 1,118 5,243 1,481 391 376 1,640 1,380 220 512 3,835 19,916 2,407 15,008 _.. — 1,076 2,384 Average Cost per Acre Application (dollars) 1971-1972 19?3-1974 14,618 1,134 — 2.20 1.22 10,369 1,59 1.92 5,083 — 746 1.32 11,402 — — — —• 2,790 10,296 16,179 6,214 6,930 12,754 27,503 7,992 10,110 119 221 121 103 18 75 56 54 64,631 102,930 46,978 51,140 17,905 1.66 2.33 20,046 26,072 1.60 6.61 2.95 1.38 2.72 2.16 1.91 2.01 10,19£ 14,302 ' — — — — — 292 688 — 50,810 1,362 64,283 5/ Includes DDT/Toxaphene treatment in the South Atlantic Region as reported in Table HID.17 Source: — 18,359 2,602 5,026 4,882 1,312 2,720 17,020 — — — • — 616 954 — 1.61 5.70 1.22 1.68 1.38 2.60 1.04 287 1,186 — 8,752 3,319 4,950 3,394 5,392 3,630 1,644 2,254 14,135 — — 1973-1974 1.07 14,691 — — _. 1971-1972 1.04 2.20 1.78 0.73 1,380 22,640 1,636 3,399 1,034 1,320 3,086 15,265 Average Annual Number Farms Using Insecticides EPA computations based on Special Pesticide Markei Research Survey Information for EPA, Office of Pesticide Programs, 1975. �Table IIID.17 Average Expenditures and Use of Cotton Insecticides in South Atlantic Region, 1971-1972 and 1973-1974 Type of Insecticide UDT/nethvl parathion/ Toxaphene -U'i'/r.et:iyl parathion Tosaphene/nethyl parathion Ethyl and/or methyl par-nthion Other -iscellaneous chemicals Other r.iscellaneous Average Annual Expenditures (1,000 dollars) 1971-1972 1973-1974 6,374 434 — — 3,445 Average \nr.ual Acre Applications (1,000 acre appl.) 1971-1972 1 973-1974 4,830 336 1.31 1.29 — — 1.62 Average Annual Number Farms Using Insecticides 1971-1972 8,677 840 1973-1974 — — 3,224 1,082 — 1.89 4.35 — 3,116 2,804 1,210 2,724 1.92 2.07 8,503 13,711 1,126 5,026 56 8 11,032 " 1.37 2.53 2.16 0.38 2.41 "" 4,150 7,654 683 320 11,544 2,304 — 3,528 4,706 — 1,862 2,323 5,629 combinations 1,548 Unidentified No answer Total users Total nonusers — 16 14,226 17,71s 121 3 26,624 •~ ~ ™~ Source: — — 2,125 Average Cost per Acre Application (dollars) 1971-1972 1973-1974 — 8 9,432 " — 2.00 1.51 " — 453 13,230 3,706 EPA computations based on Special Pesticide Market Research Survey Information for EPA, Office of Pesticide Programs, 1975 . �Table HID. 18 Average Expenditures and Use cf Insecticides in the East South Central Region, 1971-1972 and 1973-1974 Type of Insecticide Average Annual Expenditures (1,000 dollars) 1971-1972 1973-1974 Average Annual Acre Applications ( , 0 acre appl.) 100 1971-1972 1973-1974 Average Cost per Acre Application (dollars) 1971-1972 1973-1974 __ . 1 § 1 Bidrin Toxaphene/iaethyl para th ion DDT/Toxaphene/ methyl parathion Ethyl and/or parathion Endr in/para thion Other miscellaneous cheaicals Other miscellaneous combinations Unidentified Uo ans'.-er Total users Total nonusers Source: 224 « 260 712 13,747 517 Average Annual N'unber Farms Using Insecticides 1971-1972 1973-1974 __ 1,020 0.86 — 8,343 8,601 — 11,864 2,890 6,319 10,442 — 6,351 3,012 — 4,726 5,999 15,616 — 116 30,348 — 72 52,202 "" ™"~ 6,843 1.3S 1.32 — 9,915 1,092 0.82 2.01 • 1,330 8,576 1.20 2.65 9,102 8,618 — 10,363 2,640 5,110 — 1.34 1.57 — 8,753 4,825 7,346 1.24 2.13 5,648 7,714 — 34 27,133 — 34 30,354 — 3.41 1.12 — 2.12 1.72 —— —— — 223 23,481 18,815 — 720 29,302 16,789 ™"" M EPA co-putations based on Special Pesticide Market Research Survey Information for EPA, Office of Pesticide Programs, 1975. 17,806 �Total insecticide costs per treated acre more than doubled between 1971-1972 and 1973-1974, i.e., from $15.51 (10.27 applications x $1.51) to $32.37 (13.43 applications x $2.41). It is very difficult to determine which chemical combinations were used as alternatives to DDT combinations in the South Atlantic Region. Most of the increases in farms reporting insecticide use occurred in unspecified chemicals or combinations of chemicals (Table HID. 17). During 1971-1972 cotton insecticide costs in the South Atlantic Region averaged $1,071 per farm for all farms using insecticides ($715 per farm for DDT combinations). Costs per farm more than doubled in 1973-1974 ($2,306 per farm for all users) (average computed from Table HID. 17). For the East South Central Region, average annual expenditures for cotton insecticides increased from $30.3 million during the precancellation period to $52.2 million after cancellation (Table HID. 18). Average costs per acre application increased from $1.12 to $1.72 and insecticide costs per treated acre increased from $9.65 to $14.71. In this particular region, ethyl and/or mothyl parathion applications increased about. 50% in contrast with a more than 100% increase in the South Atlantic Region.—' During 1971-1972 cotton insecticide costs in the £• Scuth Central Region averaged $1,292 per farm per year for all farms using insecticides ($973 per farm for use of DDT combinations). These costs per farm increased by about 38% in 1973-1974 (from $1,292 to $1,781), considerably less than in the South Atlantic Region. Impait of cancel lat_L9rLJ?£. ^n5.?(rLJ- 9if! ? _P°..S ?JL This part of the report is concerned v£lth estimating the impact on the costs to cotton farmers for insecticide materials and application costs in the two regions where DDT was used prior to the cancellation, i.e., South Atlantic and East South Central (Tables HID, 17 and 18). The procedure to be used in estimating impact of the DDT cancellation on cost is as follows: 1. The number of acre applications with DDT in 1973-1974 Is the actual number of acre applications in the region, with all chemicals, times the percentage of acre applications which contained DDT in 1971-1972; J./ Average costs per acre application were generally lower in the East Soutn Central Region than in the South Atlantic Region. In the precancellation period the average expenditures per acre application were $0.39 ($1.51 versus $1.12) less In the East South Central Region and in the por.tcancellation period costs were $0.69 less ($2.41 versus $1.72) (Tables HID.17 anJ 18). The reduced number of acre applications of ethyl and/or methyl parithion together with substantial increases in costs of these insecticide's suggest a shortage of such materials, particularly In the South Atlantic Region. •189- �2. The cost of DDT combinations in 1973-1974 is estimated as the 1971-1972 cost per acre application for DD7.1 combination plus 20% to allow for price increases at a rate of about 10% per year; 3. The cost of DDT alternatives in 1973-1974 is the actual average cost per acre application for all insecticides (some of which are not used as alternatives to DDT)j./; 4. Compute impact of DDT decision on insecticide costs as number of projected acre applications in 1973/74 with DDT times difference between DDT cost/acre application and other chemicals cost/acre application; 5. Add $1.00 per acre application for application costs assumed to be attributable to DDT cancellation, computed as the total change in acre applications between 1971-1972 and 1973-1974, times the percent of a'-.re applications with DDT in 1971-1972. Alternative methods could be used; however, this method is thought to give reasonable approximations of cost impact. Impact on yield and changes in crops grown which can .iffoct costs and income (as well as acres grown and production) is not considered in this particular cost analysis. South Atlantic Region 2/ In the South Atlantic Region-- , DDT was used in two chemical combinations: 1) DDT with methyl parathion and Toxaphene, and 2) DDT with methyl parathion. These two DDT combinations accounted for an average annual expenditure of $6.8 million in 1971-1972 ($1.31 per acre application). This cost annually accounted for about 48% of the total cotton insecticide expenditures for 1971-1972 in the region which were $14.2 million ($1.51 per acre application). Also, the insecticide treatments containing DDT accounted for about 55% of the annual regional acre applications and 72% of the cotton farms utilizing insecticides during this period, which indicates smaller cotton farmers used DDT more than larger acreage growers (Table HID.17). The average annual number of acre applications in 1971/72 was about 9.4 million and 13,280 cotton farms were projected to utilize insecticides (Table HID.17). I/ It would be preferable to use the weighted average cost of insecticide actually used as alternate to DDT. However, this could not be done because of data limitations, so the overall average was used. 2j South Atlantic Region includes Maryland, Delaware, Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida. -190- �Following the cancellation of DDT Che average annual expenditure for cotton insecticide In the South Atlantic escalated to $26.6 million (Table HID.17), $12.4 million more than the precancellation average. Since DDT mixed with other insecticides gave broad spectrum control of many different cotton pests, it is probably reasonable to assume that many alternative insecticides were used as substitutes after DDT's cancellation. If the proportion of acre applications with DDT combinations is assumed to be the same in 1973-1974 as in 1971-1972 (55%), then approximately 6,068,000 acre applications would have been DDT combinations in the South Atlantic during 1973-1974 (55% of 11,032,000). In the Soutn Atlantic Region the average acre application cost of insecticide tratoriils was $2.41 in 1973-1974. By increasing the acre application cant of DDT treatments by 20% to account for inflation, the average annual acre application cost for DDT treatments In 1973-1974 would bo about $0.84 more than nor.-DDT treatments ($2.41-($1.31 + 20%, or $1.37) = $0.84). Therefoca, a rough estimate of the additional insecticide cost associated with DDT substitutes in the postcancellation period would be $0.84 times 6.1 million acre applications, which amounts to about; $5.1 million. If an aerial acre application costs $1.00 and if 55% of the increase in acre applications were due to the DDT cancellation (wiiich Is only an assumption), an additional $880,000 can be added as an Impact of the cancellation (^S"/. of the 1,600,000 added acre applications, i.e., 11,032,000 compared with 9,432,000). Therefore, the total annual insecticide and application costs associated with the DDT cancellation in the South Atlantic Region would be approximately $6.0 million. The increase in insecticide costs attributed to DDT cancellation of $6.0 million would equal $630 per farm based on the average number of farms using DDT in 1971-1972 (9,517 farms).!/ This Is a significant cost effect, as these farms had an average, cost of $715 per year for DDT combinations in 1971-1972. The $5.1 million increase in Insecticide costs equals 41% of the tot;.l increase in insecticide costs between 1971-1972 and 1973-1974 (i.e., from $14.2 million to $26.6.million, or $12.4 million). The average insecficide cost per treated acre (all insecticides) in the South Atlantic Region increased from $15.51 in 1971-1972 to $32.37 in 19731974. The DDT cancellation accounted for $5.56 to $6.25 of this increase ($16.86) depending on whether the $5.1 million increase is computed on ba«is of 1971-1972 treated acreage (917,000) or 1973-1974 (820,500). j./ This may overstate the impact per farm since more farms than 9,517 may have used DDT in 1973-1974, as the number of acre applications increased significantly between 1971-1972 and 1973-1974. -191- �East SouthCentral_Ref i In the East South Central Region— , DDT combined with methyl parathion and To\aphcnc accounted for over 27% of the annual cotton insecticide expenditures, which averaged $8.3 million for 1971-1972. DDT mixture accounted for 23% of the acre applications and \"\3 used by 36% of the cotton producers utilizing insecticides in the region (Table HID.18). Before DOT use was cancelled, the average annual insecticide expenditure in the East South Central totaled about $30.3 million. The average annual number of acre applications was 27.1 million, on about 23,500 cotton farms (Table HID.18). For 1973-1974 the East South Central's average annual insecticide expenditures climbed to $52.2 million (Table HID.17), which was about $21.9 million more than the 1971-1972 average. Also the average acre applications increased to about 30.3 million, which was 3.2 million higher, and the avenge number of farirs utilizing insecticides increased by about 5,800. By using the same estimation technique applied to the South Atlantic Region, an approximate 7 million acre application of DDT combinations would have been used annually in .1973 and 1974 if DDT had not been candled (?.?% of 30.3 million). In tiie East South Central Region, the average acre application cost of insecticide materials was $1.72 in 1973 and 1974. By increasing the acre application cost of DDT treatments by 20% to account for inflation, the average annual application cost would be nbout $0.14 more than a DDT treatment. Therefore, a rough estimate of the additional insecticide cost associated with DDT substitutes in the postcancellation period would be $0.14 times 7.0 million acre applications, which amounts to about $1.0 million. The $1.0 million increase in insecticide cost amounts to about $0.30 per treated acre of cotton in the region, out of an increase from $9.65 per acre in 1971-1972 to $14.71 per acre in 1973-1974. The change in the number of acre applications attributable to the DDT cancellation was about 750,000 (23% of 30.3-27.1 million). If an aerial acre application costs $1.00, the increased cost of applying the DDT substitutes would be $750,000 per year. Therefore, the total annual insecticide and application costs associated with the DDT cancellation In the East South Central Region would be approximately $1.75 million. JL/ East Souih Central Region includes Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas, and Louisiana. -192- �The insecticide cost increases due to DDT cancellation (about $1.0 million) would be about $116 per farm, based on the. 8,576 farms using DDT in 1971-1972. This compares with a cost per farm for DDT combinations in 1971-1972 of $973.00. This impact plus the application cost impact brings the total cost impact to about $200 per farm. Cpncluaion The analysis of cost impact for the tvo regions where DDT was used in 1971-1972 results in a total cost of $7.75 million, of which $6.1 million was insecticide costs and $1.63 million was application costs. Whether this increase in application costs (1.63 million) can be fairly attributed to DDT cancellation is unknown, but it is consistent with the hypothesis that DDT is more persistent than alternatives and therefore they require more treatments. This analysis does not address the possibility of impact in 1973-1974 in areas where DDT vas not used in 1971-1972 and dons not take into account the declining trend in DDT use which may have continued through 1973-1974 without tiie cancellation. The cost impact of $7.75 million per year on cotton production costs due to the DDT decision is well within the range of estimates in the record at 1972 Hearings (from Headley with no Increase in costs to Ccoke with $54 million per year). The $7.75 million cost impact is significant in local regions where DDT was used. It amounted to an average of more than $600 per farm in the most significantly affected region, a near doubling of per-farm insecticide costs. The $7.75 million is a nominal impact on the average consumer of cotton products, i.e., about 2.2 cents per capita per year.JV INTRARRGIPNAL AND JNTKRREGIONAT, UfPACT ASSpCIATKD WITH CANCKL1.ATTON OF DDT The previous analysis has considered the gross cost impact associated with shifting from use of DDT in cotton pest control to alternative insecticides. It has been demonstrated that increased costs of alternative controls are not distributed evenly across all cotton producing areas. On an interregional basis, cotton producers in the Southeast were more reliant on DDT than those in other areas. In addition, a greater percentage of cotton acreage is treated with insecticides in the Southeast than in other regions (Appendix HID.2). The differential rates of economic impact stemming from cancellation have been evaluated within an equilibrium framework through the use of a national-interregional linear programming model of US agriculture which was developed to assess the impact of pesticide; policies. A national model was chosen for this analysis because of the high degree of sunstitution between various land uses within a region and between regions for production of a given crop when comparative a-lvnntage is altered by differential changes in production techniques or input availability (Appendix HID.2). I/ Based on 1973-1974 lint consumption of 17.3 Ibs/capita and US lint production of 5,922 million Iba. -193- �The DDT cancellation on cotton was evaluated by solving the linear programming model for equilibrium land use allocation when DDT is available and, alternatively, when DDT is not available. Both solutions are based on the year 1975, which simulates a typical year in the period 1973-1977. The results of these two solutions are reported in Appendix HID.2 and can be summarized in acreage shifts, costs of production, and economic returns to land (a proxy for profit). The cancellation of DDT caused a slight reduction in total cotton acreage in the US as evaluated within the framework of the linear programming model (from 10.972 million acrfts to 10.952 million acres). The reduction in acres was distributed as follows: Atlanta, -3.,924 acres (-0.42%); Memphis, -8,915 acres (-0.37%); New Orleans, -24,056 acres (-7.21%); Louisville, -625 acres (-34.05%); San Francisco, +17,590 acres (2.24%) (see map in Appendix HID.2 for regions). The relatively minor shifts in acreage demonstrate that the change in production co'its associated with cancellation is not large enough to generate significant vhanges in comparative advantage among regions, and therefore does not affect cropping patterns for cotton or alternative crops. Aggregate costs of cotton production were affected both by a change in production costs per acre in some regions and by the slight changes in acres planted between regions. In the Atlanta region, aggregate production costs increased by $2.1 million (1.4%); in Memphis, the increase was $1.8 million ( . % ; in Nev Orleans, where cotton acreage decreased the largest, total 05)' production costs declined by $3.0 million (-6.45%); in San Francisco, the increased plantings led to increased production costs of $4.3 million (2.2%). Total US production costs increased by $5.2 million ( . % as a result of 04) the cancellation. Returns to land, which serve as a proxy measure for Impact on the profitability of cotton production, were affected slightly. In the Atlanta region, these returns decreased by 0.37% (from $45.35 million to $45.19 million); in Memphis, the decline accounted for a 1.93% reduction in the precancellation returns of $63.53 million; and in New Orleans the $100,000 reduction in returns accounted for 0.93%. San Francisco encountered an increase in returns to land of 0.26% (from $33.41 million to $33.50 million). Conclusion The analysis which was carried out through comparative analysis of linear programming solutions Indicates that production cost increases due to the DDT cancellation on cotton are of insufficient magnitude to cause sizable shifts in economic parameters at the regional or national levels, e.g., acreage, production, total costs and returns to land. A more detailed discussion of the results of the linear programming analysis is presented in Appendix HID.2. -194- �REFERENCES Adkisson, P.L. The Principles, Strategies, and Tactics of Pest Control ^njCot^ton. College Station, Texas, Texas A&M University, January 1973. [draft] Arthur D. Ltttlfi, Inc. Azodrin — Initial Scientific and Miniecoriomic Review. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Arthur D. Little, Inc., October 1 7 . " Idraft] 94"' Eichers, T. , R. Jenkins, and A. Fox. DDT JJsed ij\_Fj,n^J^Ojc!juc_^ion. Washington, P.C., US Department of Agriculture, ERS, July 1*971. [AER 158] Cood , J.M. Extension emphasis and results from cotton pest management. projects . Pj,<isented_at_ 19 74 Bel twidc^ Cotton_ Prod_uc^tion-Hcchaniz^atj.on Conference, l)allas, Texas, f974. Jenkins, J.N., and W.L. Parrot. Effectiveness of frego bract as a boll weevil resistance character in cotton. Crop^_Sci_. 11:159, 1971. Lao.ewe 1 1 , R.D., and J.E. Casey. Evaluation of integrated pest management programs for cotton in Texas. In: j^£lji^jL_ojii^J_Jjij^ej^aj^d_J^es_t ]l2!L^£e-m.e.r*.t.Jl^PSri'?I!Lr> C°r ?otton__fn_ the JJnited_ States^. Washington, D.C. , Environmental Protection Agency and Council on Environmental Quality/,, 1974. [D-16-18] Ledbetter, R.J. et al. Guide forjCottpn Inspect Ma n a g erne n t i n Alabama . Auburn, Alabama, Auburn Ilniversity, 1972. [Circular E-ll] National Academy of Sciences. Cotton; An Assessment of Current and J H J ^ J ^ ' ^ l l ' Washington, D.C. , National Academy of Sciences, ^^ltl^J-It Sep'tombe'r f9~74T '[draft] Pate, F.T., J.J. Hefner, and C.W. Neeb. A Management Program to Reduce 92?J'.^^SJ'^iJ-I]KCC-^^°S^^-J-JL^^~?.^PJL.^I^.' College Station, Texas, Texas A~&M: University , Agricultural Experiment Station, February 1972. Presley, R.J. Insect control in cotton In the USA. In: CotJ^on. Basel, Switzerland, Clba-Geigy, Ltd., 1972. [Technical Monograph 3] KvR Consultants . Ej^iUua^Jcm_j5_f_Jnf.egr/U;eji_Pj;^^i^^^ fj^S&rj Cot_ton In the United St;itcs_. Shawnee-Mission , Kansas, RvR Consultants, September 1974V "fdrafTj "' -195- �Shuster, M.F., and F.C. Maxwell. The impact of nectariless cotton on plant bugs, bollwonns, and beneficial insects. In: ^J^'^il'lBJL3 °- ^'l 0 jk?.?^. B_eltwtdc Cot ton ^Research Conf erenco , Dallas, Texas, 1974. Special Pesticide Market Research Survey Information forJiPA, Of_fice_of Pesticide Programs . St Louis, Missouri, Doane Agricultural Service, Inc., 1975. Starbird, I.R. Costs of producing upland cotton in the. US - Procedures, results, and implications. Presented a i: 1^74 Rcltwldc Cotton IP roductt qnHechauization Conference., Dallas, i'exr.a, January 10, 1974. Starbird, I.R. , and B.L. French. Cosjcs_of J'j[o_du£_ijij^UpJand__Cptj:.on_in the United States, 1969. Wa ihington, 7).~C. ,~Tffif Dopartinent~oT~AgricuTt\fre,~~ ERS, 197*2. "[draft! Starbird, I.R., B.L. French, and J.A. ^vans. <;2£cs. of Producing Upland Cotton_and Se I ectcd Crops t..i_Cotton Farms in_ the_Uni_ted States, 1972. Washington , D."cT "~"0s"^epar tnit'iie* "of" " Agr i"t:Tjfl t u re",' ' ERS"," 19"75".~" [ draTt']" " Tr E^i£ji£3.^iJl£.s_£lLJlPZ*-X^?JLy'.!j>.?.» o f f i c c of tlle Hearing Cltrk, Environmental' Fro tec tion~Agenc"y / Was'n'lngton, I), C. , 1971-1972. US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. 25th Annual Cpnference Report on Cotton_ Irisect Research ar.d C o n t r o l , Memphis , *Tenm:ssc>G, January 11-ff, ~1972'~ " ~ ' "" US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. 28th Annual _Conferencc Report ori_ Cotton Insect Research aiid Control, New Orleans, Louisiana, January 6"-87T97*5. ...... US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service. Pesticide RjlYj«w_JJ)72. Washington, D.C. , US Department of Agriculture, June" 19 73"."" US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Stabilization and ConeervatLon Service. PCS t i cide jteview 1973. Wasliington, D.'J., US Department of Agricultural, 1974. US Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. Co_tton_ S i t. Washington, D.C., US Department of Agriculture, January and April 1975. US Department of Agriculture, Kconomic. Research Service, Kconomie E f f e c t of 01 . lJs . ~ _. , . . .'L 5/_. J^TJ-Pr-Jl . ™'!'- Washington , I). C.~"US"T)t'p"a"ftmenT "of" - ™ Agriculture, Octl>ber~TJ, T9™70. US Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. ];£°njDn'ic. Rcsearcli on_ P e a ttcj.de 3 f or PgHcv_ ^e_cls ioj>- I^titc i njgj I'roccodjngs, Wasliington, D.C. , April 27-29, 19707 US Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. Ha£S?55.'...li.s.9. ?.L J'j-:.s~ ti ct <jc fi in 1 9 7 1 -- Quant it. I es. V.'aalilngton, n.C., US DopartmciH of Agricul- ture., July 1974. TAER 25~2~j �VS Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, Quantities of Pesticides Used by ^Farmers In 19j?4. Washington, D.C. , US Department of Agriculture, January T968. [AER 131] US Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. Quantities of JPesticides_Jjse_d__by_ F&™ejcs_in_l<)(>6^. Washington, D.C., US Depar.ment o f Tgri cuTtu r e", ~Apr i 1 ~i~9 70." ["AER 179] US Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. ^tat_isJtJLcs__pii ^ ° L B . . Ul _ lM . . . . 0- . . Washington, D.C., US Department of yIJ^.M>^Jai.l?2:23 Agriculture, 197'*. [Statistical Bulletin 535] US Environmental Protection Agency. Opinion^ of the Administrator . Wash ington, D.C., Environmental Protection Agency, 1972. US Environmental Protection Agency. O^nJior^^th^Mrni^^tra^o^. Washington, D.C., Environmental Protection Agency, April 1, 1975. US Environmental Protection A& .icy, Office of Pesticide Programs. _Ini_tjI_a:L Sci.eS.?Ay.c. and Minieconomic Review - Methyl Parathion. Wash ington , D . C . , Environmental Protection Agency, October 197A. US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Pesticide Programs. Summary of Possib^le Alternative Registered Pnsticid_cs for JJDT jiisc^ct^icides^. Washington, D.C. , Environmental Protection Agency, 1974. [draft] -197- �ECONOMICS OF THE MINOR USES OF DDT The minor uses of DDT present special problems for economic analysis, not only of data but also of simple identification of the uses. At the Public Hearings on DDT in 1971, no party was able to identify all uses for which DDT was registered. The cancellation orders dimply cancelled all registrations of products containing DDT and TDK (EPA, OPP, January 1971; EPA, OPP, March 1971). The Department of Agriculture submitted a list of uses it deemed essential (EPA Hearing, Admission 1), but this list was never taken to be a comprehensive statement of all registered uses. It was finally agreed by all parties that the only uses of DDT at issue in the hearing and on which evidence would be taken were those contested by the registrants. These uses, designated in the Hearing Record as Admission 11 (Table HID.19), are the only uses on which the Administrator needed to make a determination of risks and benefits. All other uses of DDT were finally cancelled prior to the hearing because all parties failed to appeal the original cancellation notice. This analysis is confined to those contested uses of DDT. Generally, the hearings produced very little economic data concerning minor uses. Most of the economic information presented concerned cotton, by far the largest use of DDT. Since the presentation of the economic benefits of DDT was taken to be the responsibility of the registrants and others opposing cancellation, neither EPA nor EDF prepared analyses of economic benefits and costs. Most of the information in this analysis lias been prepared since the final cancellation decision and deals with observed economic effects in the 2 year.-; sincn cancellation. CONTESTED NONESSENTIAI, CROP USES 'ff Finding: DDT is useful, for controlling inaects that attack th<i following: beans (dry, linn, snap), sweet potatoes, peanuts, cabbage, cauliflower, bruzsels sprouts, tomatoes, fresh market com, sueet peppers and pimentos, onions, garlic, and commercial greenhouse plants. The use of DDT is not necessary for the production of these crops. Crops which do not require use of DDT because adequate substitute chemicals are available at reasonable costs are listed in Table II ID.20. The Administrator found that the registered alternative Insecticides were sufficiently effective to allow the maintenance of crop yields without burdening farmers with increased insecticide costs. -198- �Table HID. 19 Cancelled Uses of DDT subjected to Objection by Group Petitioners and Other Uses Deemed Essential by USDA Use Pattern Notes and Limitations I . F£esh^ Market Corn Armyworm Corn Earworra European corn borsr Cutworm 2. Peanuts Whitefringed beetle Cutworm Soil application 3. Cabbage, Cauliflower, Brussels Sprouts Cutworm 4. Tomatoes Cutworm 5. Corn earworm Cutworm Fall lettuce only (Northeast) 6. Potatoes Flea beetles White grubs Wireworms 7 . Sweet potatoes Cucumber beetle Flea beetle Swe.et potato weevil 8- Commercial Greenhouses and Nurseries Necessary for State-Federal quarantine and generally safer to humans than alternatives 9. Beana (dry, lima, snap) Armyworms Corn earworms Loopers 10. Pj.iblic Bats Ro ,ents Pests 11. Agriculture, Health and Quarantine Treatments in Emergencies as Recommended by and under Direction of State-Federal Officials 12. Peppers and Pimentos European corn borer Military only 13. Fabric Treatment 14. Onions/Garlic Cutworm Source: Public Hearings -n DDT, Admission^ 11, 1972. -199- �Table IIID.20 Crop/Pest Combinations for Which DDT Use Was Found Not to be Necessary Crops Pests Sweet corn Armyworm, Corn earworm, European corn borer, Cutworm Peanuts White-fringed beetle, Cutworm Cabbage Cutworm Cauliflower Cutworm Brussels sprouts Cutworm Tomatoes Cutworm Garlic Cutworm Lettuce Corn earworm, Cutworm Potatoes Flea beetle, White grub, Wireworm Dry beans Armyworms, Corn earworm, Loopers Lima beans Armywortns, Corn earworm, Loopers Snap beans Armyworms, Corn earworm, Loopers Source: Ruckelshaus, W.D. Opinion of the administrator. Pi.'j>_li_c Hearings on DDT, Admission 11, 1972. -200- �Data jts _o LJ.97J2 During the Consolidated DDT Hearings limited evidence was presented on the benefits or .'ack of benefits of DDT use for crops Listed as essential. On the benefits side was the contention that these uses of DDT were essential, and the testimony of USDA entomologists that DDT was needed for ccntrtil of the specified pests on the Indicated crops. On the otiicr hand, Respondents! pointed out that Group Petitioners never quantitatively defined "essential" and, In tact, the hearing examiner refused to allow any testimony or cross-examination challenging the "essential use" contention. (The hearing examiner was under the mistaken impression that by allowing the USDA list of essential uses to be designated as an Admission, the Respondents in fi:ct agreed that these uses were essential. However, Respondents merely agreed the USDA considered them essential.) No accurate data were presented on either current DDT use or trends I-. DDT use on the affected crops. The 27 Group Petitioner registrants did submit their total domestic sales for 1970 by region and crop and the aggregated data were included In the hearing record (Table HID. 21; EPA Hearing Admission 6, 1972). The data, however, only break down the crop usage into cotton, soybeans, peanuts, and others. The. state sales breakdowns are for the total DDT sales only, and not on a crop-by-crop basis. Tin? data gave no indication of DDT use for any of the Individual contested uses, except peanuts. The hearings produced no Jata on the efficacy or yield effects of DDT compared to the registered alternatives, beyond the personal observations and beliefs of entomologists. There was no analysis made by either side of yield, quality, or post control cost impacts of switching from DDT to the alternatives. The limited information in hearing testimony lias been incorporated Into the analysis of economic impacts since cancellation. The Administrator's finding that DDT was not necessary for production of these minor use crops was based primarily on the fact that alternative insecticides were registered for those contested uses (Ruckelshaus, 1972). He also took into account the lack of. any information presented about the possible, benefits of DDT use. Since tho 1972 cancellation of DDT there have been virtually no economic data developed outside EPA on the contested minor uses of DDT. It is possible, however, to obtain some idra of the economic impa. t since the cancellation took effect. This analysis will focus on estimates of the extent of use of DDT prior to cancellation, on observed changes in crop yields since can.collnti.on, and on estimates of changes in insect control costs brought about by loss of DDT. To the extent possible, these effects will be Identified for each use under consideration. -201- �Table HID.21 Summary of 1970 DDT Domestic Sales Item DDT (100% BASIS) Total pounds of DDT soldi/ 11,966,196 Ty^ea of DDT formulations sold Emulsiflable sprays Dust Wettable powder Granular 10,318,915 .1,506,1.86 127,350 13,736 Cotton Soybeans Peanuts Other 10,277,258 603,053 937,901 158,853 Use States Alabama Arkansas California Delaware5-/ Florida Georgia Louisiana Maryland Mississippi Missouri North Carolina New Jersey New Mexico New York Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania South Carolina Tennessee Texas Virginia Washington 1,139,256 1,193,175 2,500 21,AGO 74,888 1,600,556 2,712,347 133 3,731,876 11,895 426,810 2,352 6,948 2,612 865 200 33 1,016,286 207,104 97,422 13,28;: 1,000 a/ Number of DDT Formulators: 27. ]»/ Information supplied by H.P. Cannon and Sons. -202- �Extent jo.f._PpT_ugeAs previously stated the DDT Hearings produced no complete data on the extent to which DDT was used by farmers for the minor uses at issue. Associate USDA Entomologist Clarence H. Hoffman did state that the minor uses were limited to specific, usually small, regions of the country (Tr:1958). Beyond this, however, there was no attempt to define the areas encompassed by each of the minor uses in question. The US Department of Agriculture surveys of pesticide use provide some indication of the extent to which DDT was utilized by farmers (USDA, AER-252, 1974; USDA, AER-179, 1970; USDA, AEK-131,' 1968). These data are presented in Table HID.22. As the table, indicates, DDT use on peanuts fell dramatically.between 1966 and 1971. As a proportion of the total acreage harvested, DDT (and TDE) treated ?.cres dropped from 35.2% to 1.5% of the peanut acreage. DDT use on potatoes rose from 21.9% to 32.1% of the total acreage between 1964 and 1966, but by 1971 had fallen to 2.7% of the potato acreage. Use of DDT on vegetables other than potatoes has declined ste.-idily over the period from 19.b/. of the acreage to about 2.8% of the acreage in 1971. These published USDA data do not go into any more detail on the individual crops within the category O^thej^J/egetables, but all of the contested minor crop uses should be included in this group. As aggregated as the data are, they do show that in the last few ye'ars prior to cancellation, DDT was becoming a much less important insecticide tor the uaes in question. This trend is probably due to the development of resistance in target pests and to the advent of more effective insecticides. Beyond these published use data, the Department of Agriculture has a few more detailed accounts of DD1' use on the crops within tho Oth«?r_ Vegetables group (USDA, unpublished, 1974). The Ic'vel of precision of the USDA survey makes the accuracy of DDT use estimates for these individual crops highly speculative. These figures should not be construed as official USDA estimates but merely serve a« a guide to the relative magnitude of DDT use on these crops. They are, however, the only .such figures available. Table HID.23 presents theue more detailed use data in terms of acres treated. Also presented arc total acres harvested in 1971, and the estimated percentage of the national acreage treated with DDT. As the table indicates, USDA picked up no use of DDT on five of the crops listed. This does not mean that DDT was not used on these crops, but itdoes indicate that these uses wore probably vi,:ry small. Another factor Is that the indicated use on these crops may include treatment for Insects other than those for which use was contested. Thun, of the estimated 8.8% of the cabbage acres treated with DDT, some m.iy ha»'e been treated for insects besides cutworms, the only contested use on this crop. -203- �Table HID.22 DDT and TDK Use in the US, 1964, 1966, 1971 1964 1966 2,265,000 500,000 35.2 62,000 22,000 % of US acres NA2/ NA2/ NAiL' Potatoes Ibs acres % of US acres 373 279 21.9 633,000 470,000 32.1 77,000 38,000 Other Vegetables Ibs acres % of US acres 1892 641 19.6 1,428,000 406,000 11.9 407,000 88,000 Crop Peanuts Ibs acres aj 1971 1.5 2.7 2.8 In 1964 peanuts were included in a category called Other Field Crops. Sources USDA, USDA, USDA, USDA. ERS. (|uantit_ies of Pest tcj-des. Used by _Vanne_rs__in JL964_, 1968. ERS. ^"nU.tiWTf\es"t^cJdcslJseJl)£ f^nH^is l ' . 6 1970. nj%, ERS. Fcu^e'rsj Ua'o''oTTea.ticJd'cs"in"l97JLj-' quant 11ics'," 1974. Agricui'tuTa'i Tt^'tIstTcK 1_9~73',~ lT7~3. -204- �Table IIID.23 DDT Use by Crop In the US, 1971 Crop Acres Treated with DDT2/ Total Acres Harvested Percent Treated with DDT Sweet corn 12,800 606,100 2.1 Peanuts 22,000 1,454,500 1.5 Cabb -jge 9,600 108,480 8.8 Cauliflower Tomatoes -_ 25,710 61,900 391,040 Lettuce — 15.8 217,000 — Brussels sprouts Potatoes Snap beans Dry beans — 38,000 1,391,300 — 2.7 323,710 700 „_ 0.2 1,316,000 Lima beans Garlic aj . /1.130 — Total — 6,140 3,700 — 145,000 5,914,810 — — 2.4 Includes acres treated with TD13. Sources USDA, ERS. Unpublished data from 1971 survey of farmers' use of pesticides, 1974. USDA, ERS. Farmers* Use _of Peatictdes in JL9J1. ^_OjJiantitics_, 1974. USDA. ^icul'tural^Sta'tistrcs 1973, 1973". -205- �Some information on DDT use is available for individual states. The state of California publishes annual reports of pesticide use by crop in the state (Cal. Dept. Food Agric. 1971, 1972, 1973, 1974). These reports are most accurate for those pesticides whose use is restricted by California and must be reported to county and state officials. Since DDT is on this restricted list, the use figures should be quite accurate. The California use data for the crops of interest here are presented in Table HID. 24. The figures show that in that state DDT use fell drastically between 1970 and 1971, and went to 0 by 1972. This sudden decline in use is due to the removal of DDT from state insect control recommendations and to the banning of DDT use within California. It appears, therefore, that the Administrator's 1972 decision to cancel DDT actually had no economic effect on California, as DDT use on these crops had been eliminated before the decision was made. The state of Arizona also publishes data on the total quantities of pesticides used within that state (University of Arizona, 1974). Table HID. 25 presents the agricultural use figures for DDT from 1967 through 1973, with the exception of 700 Ibs used in 1970, DDT use was entirely eliminated In Arizona by 1969. Further, a conversation with an extension entomologist in North Carolina revealed that that state had stopped recommending DDT several years prior to the DDT Hearings and that there was virtually no DDT use ,it ii'e time of cancellation. This information implies that neither Arizona nor North Carolina should have been affected economically by the cancellation of the contested drop uses of DDT. These three states, California, Arizona, and North Carolina, together account for some 16% of the national acreage of the contested crops. For this review, an attempt has been made to estimate the number of acres of the contested crops that would have received DDT treatments in 1973 had DDT not been cancelled. These estimates are based on the proportions generated from the USDA data and various other information as described below. The estimates are presented in Table HID. 26. The figure for lettuce in Table IIID.26 represents the 1973 acreage for fall lettuce in the Northeast since Admission 11, Public Hearings on DDT specifically limited the contested use to this area and season. For the other crops the estimated acreage was calculated by subtracting fro.n the 1973 national harvested acreage of these crops, the acreage contained in the three states (California, Arizona, and North Carolina) in which it was known that DDT would not have been used. The remaining acrss were multiplied by the estimated percentage of the 1971 acreage treated (Table HID. 23 with the assumption that this proportion would also be treated in 1973. For those crops for which the USDA survey showed no DDT use, the average percentage treated for .ill the crops, 2.4%, was used. For the harvested crop acreages found in . only the acreages for the fresh market were presented. It was, therefore, necessary to estimate the additional acreage harvested for the processing market. After determining a ratio of fresh market acreage to processing market, acreage from 1972 data (USDA, 1972), the ratio was applied -206- �Table HID.24 DDT Use in California, 1970-1973 Acres Crop 1970 1971 1972 1973 74 0 0 0 Peanuts 0 201 0 0 Cabbage 4,570 210 0 0 Cauliflower 9,680 549 0 0 106,882 8,891 0 0 Sweet corn Tomatoes Lettuce 41f> 0 0 0 Brussels sprouts 182 20 0 0 Potatoes 0 40 0 0 Snap beans 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Other uses 504,308 52,663 42,095 544 Total 643,899 63,652 42,095 544 Dry beans 16,088 Lima beans 1,699 Garlic Source: 1,078 California Department of Food and Agriculture. Pesticide Use Reports, 1970, 1971 , 1972, 1973. -207- �Table HID.25 Agricultural Use of DDT In Arizona, 1967-1973 Year Quantity Used (Ibs Tech. Material) 1967 2,519,900 1968 528,000 1969 0 1970 700 1971 0 1972 0 1973 0 Source: University of Arizona. Agricultural Use of Pesticides in Arizona, 1974. ~~~~ -208- �Table IIID.26 Estimated Acres Affected by OUT Cancellation Crop Estimated Affected Acreage—' Sweet corn 17,800 Peanuts 20,000 Cabbage 8,000 Cauliflower 200 Brussels sprouts 0 ToHatoes 14,500 Lettuce 900 Potatoes 32,700 Snap beans 600 Dry beans 28,300 Lima beans 1,200 Garlic 0 Total ji/ 124,200 For derivation see text. Sources USDA. A£r_i_cuUiH-al__Statlst_ics « 1973, 1973. USDA, S\S.'~^a^fj^ctj.in]^^9nt~i97^. USDA, SRS. Vegetables_- j'resj^ M'"»rk?i.J^. -1??^ J^'l^'lL JLll™!!i'.r.X.> 1574. -209- �to 1973 data (USDA, SRS, 1974) to estimate, harvested acre-age for the processing market. These acreage estimates wore added to the appropriate fresh market acreages to represent the 1973 total harvested acres. The estimated total acreage of these crops that would have been treated is about 124,000 acres or about 2.«»% of the national acreage of these crops,. There is no acreage indicated for brussuls sprouts or garlic because both of these crops are produced entirely In California. The acreage figures in Table HID. 26 should not be taken as being in any way as price estimates. They are merely the best f.it iuates based on the extremely limited data available. Furthermore, even these rough estimates do not take into account the fact that some of the treatment in 1971 may have been for insects not at issue in the hearings. These estimates a.'.so do not reflect Hie decline in DDT that would likely have continued even if it had not been cancelled. Considerable research has failed to uncover any studies which document per acre yield changes due to the inability to use DDT on the concerted crop uses. DDT has not been the standard insecticide- treatment for purposes of efficacy comparisons In these crops since the mld-1960's. Data from this time cannot be used today because of the rapid changes in insect resistance conditions that have occurred. About the best that can be done is to compare reported average yields and production for these crops before cancellation with these since the DDT cancellation. While changes In yield and production cannot be shown to he casually related to the loss of DDT, these changes may help evaluate Mofftiaii's claim that ''if growers are unable to have the use of Dt"'T, they will be unable to produce these crops (on L'SDA's essential list)" (Tr:1891). Table TIID.27 presents the comparisons of pri;- and postcancel lat Ion yields and production. The ore-cancel lat Ion figures are the averages of the 1968 through 1972 average national yields arid production, whereas the postcancellation figure;; are the averages, of 1973 and I'i74 yields and production. The comparisons for swret corn are for fresh market only, and the figures for lettuce arc- only for fall lettuce in the Northeast (I.e., New Jersey). Brussels sprouts and garlic do not appear in the comparisons because all of their production wa.< In OjU fornia ar.d changes in yield:; and production could not be related to the DDT cancellation. The p.^stcvncel lat ion figures for peanuts, potatoes, and dry beans are for D73 only, ar.d those for lima beans were not available. As Table HID. 27 sluws. total production has increased in five of the crops, and per acre yield lias (p.crv.'jsed ir. h since the DDT cancellati.n took effect. Average yijlds of cauliflower declined 9.8 cwt (about 10?,) while -210- �Table HID.27 Production and Yield of Contested Crops US 1968-197«i Crop 1968-1972 Production 1973-1974 Differ(million cwt) ence 1968-1972 Yield 1973-1974 (cwt/acre) Difference Sweet corn3/ 12.8 13.3 +0.5 69.6 77.5 +7.9 Peanuts^/ 28.7 34.5 +5.8 19.6 23.0 +3.4 r 23.3 24.4 +1.1 215.6 226.0 +10.4 Cauliflower 2.6 2.9 +0.3 98.8 89.0 -9.8 Tomatoes!/ 18.8 19.7 +0.9 133.0 149.0 +16.0 -0.05 172.0 185.0 +13.0 abbage Lettuce^./ 0.21 0.16 309.5 297.4 -12.1 225.6 228.0 +2.4 Snap beans?./ 3.2 3.0 -0.2 36.8 35.0 -1.8 Dry beansk/ 17.5 16.8 -0.7 12.5 12.1 -0.4 Potatoes!?/ a £// Fresh market crop only. b/ 1973 .yield and production only. £/ Includes only Fall lettuce from the Northeast. ' Sources USDA, Agricultural StatisticsJL973., 1973. USDA, SRS. Croj> Production - 1973 Annual _Surunary_t 1974. USDA, SRS. V egejjib fes -_ Fr esh Market - .1 974 Annual Sunmarv, 1974. -211- • �yields of snap beans and dry beans declined very slightly. Production declines in potatoes, snap beans and dry beans wer^ nominal. However, the decline in fall lettuce equalled 28Z of the I%8-1972 average. Again, there is no way to determine the do, oe to which any of the yield or production effects may have been caused by loss of DDT. So many factors such as temperature, rainfall, levels of insect and disease infestation, and others influence crop yields and production that the impact, if any, of CPT alone is impossible to separate. Furthermore, there is no way to determine whether DPT was even used in th^ areas in which these declines took place. About the most that can be said Is that farmeVs have continued to produce the contested crops despite loss of DDT. Yield and production of most of the crops has actually increased since cancellation, and there is no evidence that the declines which have occurred are due to EPA's cancellation of DDf. Changes in insecticide cost!3 Another measure of the economic impact of the DDT cancellation is through the changes in insecticide costs to farmers. Farmers previously using DDT had to switch to some alternative insecticide or other means of pest control. These alternative controls may cost more per pound, may be applied at different rates per acre, and may require more applications per year than DDT. Several difficulties arise in actually attempting to compute these cost effects. There are considerable differences across the country in amounts and frequency with which DDT was applied. Identifying the alternatives used in place of DDT is also difficult. State insect control recommendations provide a clue to the alternatives, but they are not always Indicative of what is actually used. Even if per acre cost changes can be estimated, there still exists the uncertainty as to the total number of acres on which this cost change would occur. A rough estimation of these costs has been attempted and is shown in Table HID.28. The rate and frequency of DDT applications have been assumed based on the testimony at the DDT hearings of entomologists Joseph Capizzi, Dr. Stuart Race, and Dr. William Eden (Tr, 1972). The alternative insecticides and their rates of application have been based on surveys of recent state insecticide recommendations for the crops and pests under consideration. It has been assumed that the alternatives would be applied with the same frequency as DDT (Brogdon, personal communication, 1975). The costs of alternatives are the average of the prices from two pesticide dealers, one on the East Coast (Agrotec, Inc., 1973) and one in the Midwest (E-Z Flow Chemical Company, 1973). The price of SI.27 per pound active Ingredient for DDT is the price paid by farmers In Washington and Idaho for DDT in 1973 to control the pea leaf weevil under a temporary emergency use permit. This price is assumed to approximate the price that would have been paid by most farmers in 1973. -212- �Table HID.28 Estimated Changes In Insect Control Costs, US 1973 BasislL/ Crop ' »=-.:-^s of DDT Per Acre Application DDT Applications Per Season DDT Cost Per Acre Pounds of Substitutes Per Ac:re Application Carbaryl Me thorny 1 none listed Dylox Toxaphene 2 0.45 1 3 Substitute Applications Per Season 1 5 $ 6.35 10 1 1 3 12.70 3.81 Cauliflower 1 3 3.81 Dylox Toxaphene 1 3 Tomatoes 1 3 3.81 Carbaryl Toxaphene 2 2 Sweet corn Peanuts Cabbage M ^* " ( 0 i 5 Substitute Cost Per Acre $11.95 Change in Cost Estimated Per Total Change Acre in Cost $+5 . 60 $+99,800 3 NA 6.90 NA +3.09 NA +24,700 3 6.90 +3.09 + 3 5.94 +2.13 +30,885 NA 618 Lettuce 1 3 3.81 Carbaryl Phosdrin 2 0.75 3 11.22 +7.41 + 6,700 Potatoes 6 1 7.62 12.92 +5.30 +173,300 1 3 3.81 4 4 2 1 Snap beans Dyfonate Diazinon Carbaryl 3 8.04 +4.23 + 2,500 Dry beans 1 3 3.81 Carbaryl 3 3.81 Carbaryl 8.04 8.04 +119,700 1 3 3 +4.23 Lima beans 2 2 +4.23 + 5,100 +460,700 3.1 See text for sources and derivation. �The table indicates that based on the above assumptions, per acre costs for insect control on the contested crops increased between $2.13 and $7.42 when DDT could no longer be used. Multiplying these per acre cost increases by the acreage estimates in Table HID. 26 will give a very rougli estimate of the total increase in farmer pesticide expenditures brought about by the loss of DDT. The total increase in insecticide costs are estimated to be about $460,700, at 1973 prices. For the individual crops the total estimated cost increases range from about $600 for cauliflower to $173,300 for potatoes. There is insufficient data to attempt any discussion of the regional distribution of these costs. It: should again be emphasized that these dollar values cannot be taken as precise estimates of impact. They merely serve to demonstrate the order of rsagnitudo of the economic effects of the DDT cancellation and not the actual values of these effects. Accurate specification of the economic impacts requires much more data than presently exist. 1. The consolidated DDT Hearings brought out limited Information relating specifically to economic consequences of a DDT cancellation on minor use crops, i.e., limited estimation of production yield and price effects on these crops. 2. Based on estimates of DDT use, only about 2.4% of the national acreage cf these crops would have been treated with DDT had it not been cancelled. 3. National average yields pcr^acre have increased in six of the nine crops and total production has increased in five of the crops since the cancellation took of feet. 4. It is estimated that insect control costs to farmers have risen somewhat due to DDT cancellation. The estimated total cost increase for these contested uses is $400,000-$500,000. It is possible that the cost impact in this range is mora than offset by production increases in other crops, their neutralizing overall impact on the consumer. 5. Available information Indicates that farmers have been able to continue producing the contested crops since DDT was cancelled. There h.we been some slight-to-moderate declines in production, none directly attributable to loss of DDT. -214- �SWEET POTATOES, SWEET PEPPERS, AND ONIONS Administrator's Finding: Adequate substitute chemicals, natr.ely, rr.ei.hyl parathion, and o^her or.janopnosphates — for the *noat part — exist fop... crops except: sucet potatoes, Jieavu infestations of corn bore)' attacking aveet peppers grown on the Delmirva Peninsula, and onions attacked by cutttoms. >*\ The Administrator found that DDT may be the dnly useful treatment, of sweet potatoes In storage, and for control of European corn borers attacking sweet peppers on the Delmarva Peninsula and cutworms attacking onions. Final cancellation of this; use was not ordered by the Administrator in June 1972 oecause of questions about the supply of those crops, registration oc alternatives and so forth could be rssolved duj^ng a transitional period. The Administrator based his finding that DDT may be necessary for these three uses primarily on the fact that no party had demonstrated that any alternative insecticides were registered. While Toxaphene and diazinon were registered for general cutworm control, it was not clear whether this included registration for control of cutworms on onions (Kuckelshaus, 1972). Swcc t Testimony Indicated that DDT was the only registered insecticide that would satisfactorily protect stored sweet potatoe,j? from attack by sweet potato weevils. Dr. Dale Newsom, an entomologist from LSU, testified that Imidan is a satisfactory alternative (Tr:2397), but it was not registered at the time of the hearing. No clear information on the quantities of DDT use on sweet potatoes was reported. Sweety _E££pjers The hearings brought out that the European corn borer is an important pest of sweet peppers on the Delmarva Peninsula that are grown almost entirely under contract to H.P. Cannon and Sons, a vegetable processor. Infestations of corn borers higher than 10£ rendered the peppers unsuitable for canning and, therefore unsalable for the fanmjrs. Carbaryl was registered for corn borer control, but a Delaware entomologist testified (Tr: 1623-1671) that will not work during heavy Infestations. He also testified that Furadan (carbnfuran) was a completely acceptable alternative, but at the time of thp Hearing it was not registered for this use. -215- �Oiiipn_3 Little evidence was presented concerning cutworm control in onions. An entomologist from Oregon testified (Tr:2775-2831) that DDT was the best cutworm control for onions, but this use of DDT was not included in the state insect control recommendations. He testified that the results of a USDA survey indicated that the only state with cutworm problems on onions was California. Data since 1972 Sweet potatoes^ The 1971 USDA pesticide survey data indicated some use of DDT on stored sweet potatoes. The survey reported that DDT was used on 127 million pounds of sweet potatoes in 1971. Since total production in that year was 1.17 billion pounds (USDA, 1973), about 10.8% of the sweet potato crop was treated. At the time of the hearings, there were no acceptable registered substitutes for DDT, but since the cancellation EPA has registered Imidan for sweet potato weevil control. Since Imidan has the same effectiveness as DDT for this use (Tr:2397) the cancellation should have had no effect on sweet potato production. Sweet potato production in 1973 was down 57, from the average level of the 5 previous years but this Is less than the average annual variation in production within this period (USDA, 1973). No information is currently available on the differences, if any, in the cost of sweet potato treatment between Imidan and DDT. Any cost differentials should, however, be small, since DDT was only applied at a rate of 5 Ibs active per 1,000 bushels. Onions Since hearing testimony brought out that cutworms were only a problem on onions in California there should have been little, If anv, impact from the 1972 cancellation decision. The California pesticide use report (1973), indicates that only 50 acres of onions were treated with DDT in 1972. This represents only 0.2% of the onion acreage in that state. The economic impact of loss of DDT from this acreage would be clearly negligible. Sweet peppers According to Dr. Paul Burbatis (personal communication, 1975), a witness at the DDT Hearings and probably the leading expert on this use, there are about 4,000 acres of green peppers (also known as sweet peppers or bell peppers) in the Southern New Jersey and Delmarva area. DDT was used -216- �throughout this area for control of the European corn borer. The University of Delaware Includes ^reon peppers as one of the crops in its Pilot Pest Management Program. The reports for 1972 and 1973 (Graustein et al, 1973 and 1974) arc available and provide a contrast between pest control costs before and after DDT was cancelled. In the 1972 pest control program, European corn borers were controlled with DDT. 12,127 pounds active ingredient of DDT were applied to 1,100 acres at a cost of $7,158. The average DDT cost to farmers was, therefores $6.51 per acre. In the 1973 program Furadan (carbofuran) was used for European corn borer control. Furadan is a systemic insecticide, usually formulated as a 10% granular, and needs only be applied twice during a season, compared with 3-5 times for DDT. In this year, 4,165 Ibs (active ingredient) of Furadan were applied to 850 acres at a cost of approximately $21,658 (based on the 1973 price for Furadan 10G of $0.52/lb). The average cost of European corn borer control in 1973 was approximately $25.48 per acre. Cancellation of DDT and subsequent substitution of Furadan increased costs of corn borer control by about $18.97 per acre for a season. For the approximately 4,000 acres involved in the contested green pepper use the total Increase in pest control costs were about $75,800. Even this figure probably overstates the cost impact had DDT not been cancelled. It is likely that the price of DDT would have risen along with other pesticide costs, decreasing the difference between its price and that of Furadan. Dr. Burbatis indicated that Furadan can be used with no declines in green pepper yield from the levels when DDT was used, lie did indicate, however, that in the first year after cancellation, 1973, there was an unexpectedly large infestation of armyworms which had apparently previously been controlled with the DDT. This infestation caused some loss in yields in 1973, but farmers were ready for the armyworm population in 1974 and experienced no adverse effects on yields. Conclusion 1. The Administrator's finding with respect to DDT use oh stored sweet potatoes is probably no longer valid. Imidan, not registered at the time of the Hearings, has since been registered and is an acceptable alternative to DDT. 2. The need for DDT to control cutworms on onions is restricted to California. Since DDT was used on only a very small number of acres there the impact of cancellation has been negligible. -217- �Loss of DDT for use on green peppers has had little adverse impact on growers in the Delmarva area because Furadan has been registered for the European corn borer. The primary Impact has been on insecticide costs which have increased about !?76,UOO over the whole region. MILITARY USE OF DDT Administrator's Findings: DDT is used for exterminating bats and tnicc by the tnilitan. a) Fumigation and nonahemiaal methods can guard against bat infestations, b) Warfarin ie effective for exterminating house: miee. The Administrator found that acceptable alternatives are available for the military uses of DDT. These include all military uses that are not for the purpose of health quarantine. Data _as of 197^ Very little information was generated at the DDT Hearings regarding the use of DDT by the military. The only quantitative data involved a statement by Col. Fowler of the Armed Forces Pest Control Board to the effect that the military used only about 800-900 Ibs for bat and mouse control (Ruckelshaus, 1972). There were no data presented concerning the efficacy or costs of alternative means of pest control. Data_s ince 1972 In cooperation with OPP/EPA the Armed Forces Pest Control Board is in the process of preparing a short statement on the military uses of DDT and, to the extent possible, on the impact of the cancellation. This statement has not yet been completed. PUBLIC HKALTH Administrator's Finding: DOT is considered useful to have in reserve for public health purposes in disease veator control. The Administrator found that DDT Is useful to have in reserve for public health purposes in disease vector control. The cancellation order exempted public health and quarantine uses by official government agencies. -213- �Data as of_ 19J 2, The Hearings revealed that DDT was no longer the primary insecticide for disease vector coucrol in this country. However, no quantitative data on use were produced. The main emphasis on DDT use in vector control was the worldwide dependence on DDT as an inexpensive method of malaria and typhus control. The international use was not really relevant to the hearings since domestic cancellation had no effect on DDT production for the export market. Data si nce_ _197_2_ The cancellation of DDT had virtually no effect on the public health uses since they were exempted from the order. The cancellation may have made DDT somewhat more difficult to obtain for public health agencies. According to Dr. Darsie of the Public Health Service, Center for Disease Control (personal communication, 1975), DDT is very seldom used in this country for vector control. It is used for lice control, but even then in only n few states. Most body lice are controlled with either a lindane i.r a nalathion preparation (Pratt and Littig, 1973). No figures could be obtained on the extent of current DDT use for public health purposes. Conclusion DDT is of minor importance for public health vector control in this country. Furthermore, if an emergency arises, DDT may still be used by public health officials. -219- �PEA LEAF WEEVIL The use of DDT against the pea leaf weevil was not considered at the DDT hearings but subsequently was the subject of a special request for use, which was granted for the 1973 and 1974 growing seasons. As a result of the work done under the limited use registration, alternatives have been tested and registered, making it no longer necessary to use DDT, as discussed in more detail below. Since 1970, an area of Northern Idaho and Eastern Washington which produces 95 percent of America's dried peas has been subject to economically critical infestations of the pea leaf weevil. The only effective control for this weevil had been DDT. The growers commission involved (Washington and Idaho Dry Pea and Lentil Commission) felt that the cancellation of this use of DDT placed dried pea production In serious economic jeopardy. As permitted under FIFKA, through regulations promulgated in the Federal Register on January 9, 1V73, parties nay petition for special use exemptions to a cancellation or a denial of registration of a pesticide. With the' support of the dry pea industry in the states of Idaho and Washington the Crop King Chemical. Company petitioned the Administrator of EPA on December 13, 1972, requesting permission for a registration to employ DDT on dried pea acn.ago in tho infested areas of their states. Following an EPA review of the matter, toe Administrator determined that the use of DDT was indeed critical for pea leaf weevil control because of the economic importance of the industry and the absence of viable substitutes. On April 27, 1973, EPA granted th»» request by the Crop King Chemical Company for a temporary registration of DDT for use against the pea leaf weevil. The use exemption was implemented and then officially expired August 1, 1973. With the support of the industry, Crop King Chemical Company a£.iln petitioned the EPA'for/a DDT use exemption on January 25, 1974. On February 15, 1974, LPA convened a public hearing in Spokane, Washington to review much of the petition. On February 22, 1974, the application was approved for 90 days' DDf use during the 1974 growing season. The approval was based on a determination that in absence of alternative controls, DDT control oi' the pon .loaf weevil wass indeed economically critical. The decision was oased on evidc-nce presented by the growers indicating losses of 600 to 800 pounds per acre would be incurred in absence of pest control. This is quite large given average yields range from 1200 to 1600 pounds per acre. Whereas barley can be grctvn in place cf dry peas, based on. February, 1974 prices, the comparative value of barley was §101 per acre and for dry peas was $380. This represents a marginal difference of $279. Moreover, from an agricultural standpoint, it was rovcnled that dry peas have proved to be far more effective than spring barley as » cover crop to prevent soil erosion, which is a chronic problem in the rolling -err;;in of the region. In addition, dry peas provide nitrogen to the soil, thus reducing the fertilizer requirements of the winter wheat crop; in contrast, spring barley is nitrogen depleting. Finally, it was revealed that this region nat only supplied the majority of the U.S. -220- �demand for dry peas during the previous two years, but it supplied.13 to 15 percent of world market. Thus, witli as much as 70 percent of the crop going to export markets, there were obvious balance of payment considerations. The industry scouting into the exemption was granted, provided that pea growers and the pesticide (with assistance of EPA and university scientists) would launch a program designed to monitor and reduce the amount o'; DDT released environment. - Operationally, the weevil scouting Involved rifting soil and young pea shoots from sample rows and counting weevils. Aerial spraying of DOT was limited to fields or parts of fields, where the weevil count per plant exceeded a predetermined economically critical threshold. By this procedure, scouting records were available to determine which fields should be sprayed. Only about 12 percent of seme 89,000 acres surveyed were certified for spraying. The scouting program provided protection at minimum ppray costs to the fanner and, at the same time, afforded an opportunity for further testing of three chemicals — methoxychlor, Imidan, androalathionULV — which had shown some promise as alternatives to DDT. Othor possible alternatives to DDT were tested in 1974 as well. This was accomplished on a matching fund basis with the Washington and Idaho Dry Pea and Lentil Commission, USDA, and EPA each supplying partial funding. The program subsequently established that Imidan and methoxychlor are viable substitutes for I/DT. They are now registered and are being employed during the 1975 growing season. Further match-funding research for DDT alternatives is being conducted during the current fiscal year in order to explore other chemical and biological control possibilities. -221- �REFERENCES Agrotec, Inc. 1973 Price List . Salisbury, Maryland, Agrotec, Inc., 1973. Agrotec, Inc. jjjA^j'ri^e j.j._8t_. Salisbury, Maryland, Agrotec, Inc., 1974. Barry, R.M. Personal communication, University of Georgia, Coastal Plains Experiment Station, 1975. Brogdon, J. Personal communication, University of Florida, 1975. Burbatis, P.P. Personal communication, University of Delaware, 1975. California Department of Food and Agriculture. Pesticide Use Report 1970. Sacramento, California, Department of Food and Agriculture, 1971. California Department of Food and Agriculture. Sacramento, California, Department of Food and Agriculture, 1972. California Department of Food and Agriculture. Pest Icidc Use^ kepor'tmJL97_2. Sacramento, California, Department of Food and Agriculture, 1973. California Department of Food and Agriculture. Sacramento, California, Department of Food and Agriculture, f974. Darsie, R.F. Personal communication, US Public Health Service, Center for Disease Control, 1975. Deer, J.A. Personal communication, Texas A&M University, 1975. Dibble, J. Personal communication, University of California, San Joaquin Valley Agricultural Research Center, Parlier, California, 1975. E-Z Flow Chemical Company. Company, 1973. 197 3 Price Jjopku. Dayton, Ohio, F.-Z Flow Chemical E-Z Flow Chemical Company. 19.74^ Pricg^ Book. Dayton, Ohio, E-Z Flow Chemical Company, 1974. Graustein, M.R., et al. Delaware Pepper Pest Min.igcment Pilot Program First AnSiiSJLJSroJLV Newark, Delaware, University of Delaware, Cooperative Extension Service, February 15, J973. Graustein, M.R., et al. ! ! ! * a ? ^ J j iLjw£^>L^ Nevurk, Delaware, University of Delaware, Cooperative Extension Service, February 1, 1974. Hofmaster, P. Personal communication, Virginia Truck and Ornamentals Research Station, 1975. Rccpmmend atlona from California, Washington, New Mexico, Louisiana, New Ifork, New Jersey, New Hampshire, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Delaware, Virginia, and Maryland. -222- �Johnson, F.A. Personal communication, University of Florida, 1975. Lilly Co., The Charles II. H. Lilly Co., 1974. 1974_Pric_eJ.ooJ5. Portland, Oregon, The Charles Miller, R . L . Personal co. mnication, Ohio State University, 1975. P r a t t , H . D . , and K.S. L l c t i R . ^ Control. Atlanta, Georgia, US Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Center for Disease Control, 1973. Race, S.R. Personal communication, Rutgers University, 1975. Ruckelshaus, W.O. Coahoma Chemical .CjOTpjiny ot__aJL_, " . l - , ; ' . . ^undj_ct al_j_ y_s_._WilliaT, i). RuckelslwiuSj et alj^BrJef Loj^pspondeju^;, in the" US District Cou7Tof"~\pp~ealT~£oi- Tli^'lUsYr let oT Columbia "circuit, 1272. Ruckelshaus, W . D . Opinion of the a d m i n i s t r a t o r and order, in re Industries, Inc., et al. Presented at P u b l i c Hearings on_ DJ)T_, Transcr l£t_, Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, 1).C. , June 2, 1972. Scott, H.E. Personal communication, North Carolina State U n i v e r s i t y , 1975. Svecney, E.M. Hearing examiner's recommended f i n d i n g s , conclusions, and orders . Pjiejien^cd^aj^ V\\bli^\cnrij\^^^r^^J_lfJr^nscrJ.j>t^, Knvironnental " " * " l J i " . c " . , A~p'ril 2 5 ~ ~ ' Tr L4kU£_Ji9iL1J^_SJLPPJC*_Jjri055Jjjl£« O f f i c e of the Hearing Clerk, Knvironmentaf Pro'tcctfon "Agency", w'ashlngton," B . C . , 1971-1972. US Department of Agriculture. ^^l-.^^^J\}-^tatistJ^^9(->2.' b'S Government P r i n t i n g Of f ice7~i%9". Washington, D . C . , US Department of A g r i c u l t u r e . Agx i c u 1 1 u r a I S_t a t i s t_i_ c 3_ 1 9 72 . W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . , US Government P r i n t i n g Of flee", *1~972. " US Department of A g r i c u l t u r e . AgH c u l t u r a l St-Ttlstijcs^^l^T^. US Government P r i n t i n g Otfice~," 197T. US Department of A g r i c u l t u r e , Economic Researci Service. from 1971 survey of farmers' pesticide use, 1.V74. Washington, D.C., Unpublished d a t a US Department of A g r i c u l t u r e , Economic Research Service. !?j\rj'l?_r_?JLJ!.fl£, °.£. Pe«ticl.des_ in 1971_j- Ojiant Jti£g. W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . , US Department of AgrTcuTtureV Tl/7V.' lALi US Department of A g r i c u l t u r e , Economic Research Service. ('{l*i'*n.t.y-_ii\s _o_f Pesti^iilos L'sed bv Fanners in 1%4. Washington , D . C . , t'S D e p a r t m e n t of AgrTcu IturT," 1968*."" "Utk" Til"]" US Department of A g r i c u l t u r e , Economic Rcscarcli S e r v i c e . Q u jL n JL' f J?? 9' P estate ide.» Uf»otJ_Jhy J;\irncrsJji_J.i%6. W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . , US Departnont of AgriclfllurY," * "' -223- �US Department of Agriculture, Pesticide Regulation Division. P^NojtJc_e_ _7_0_-1J9. Washington, D.C., US Department of Agriculture, August J8, 19~70. US Department of Agriculture, Statistical Reporting Service. ( r j J>rj3duc_tJ.on_j'jp 1973 An_nuajLJ3urvey_. Washing tor,, D.C., US Department of Agriculture, f'j74. " -2:T(74~)f US Department of Agriculture, Statistical Reporting Service. Vc£cjr,;!blj.>s__^ F s r JL Jl^!?^K®.!'- "Lj^Z^LA^-yJ-^^ALV' Washington, D.C., UK Department of Agric"uitu"rci~19/4. " " " " I'S Environment.'il Protect i 'n Agency. PubHc_Jle.Tr_lngs on DOT, Admission^ ] , Office of the Hearing Clerk, Environmental Protection Agency, K'asliinj-t in, D.C., 1972. L'S Environmental Protection Agency. Pub_U.c™llc5J'.Ln^ £IL J?JIT.» . , Office of the Hearing Clerk, Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C., 1972. US Environmental Protection Agency. VuMic_\le^ij\^^^fiT^fMmJisjRjipn_7^ OffiC': of the Hearing Clerk, Hnvirontnental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.. 1972. US Environmental Protection Agency. Office of the Hearing Clerk, Environmental Protecton Agency, Washington, D.C., 1972. US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Pesticide Programs. £K_J!iot_l ce n_-l. Washington, D.C., Environmental Protect ion Agency, January 1.3, 11'71. US Environmental Protection Agency, Office if Pesticide Programs. PRJ^A'rS. 7JV5. Washington, D.C., Environmental Protection Agency, March 18, 1971. University of Arizona, Department of Entomology. AgrlcuJj.»iraJ_ •'se__pf Pesticides in Arizojja. Tucson, Arizona, University of Ari/oua, July 31, 1974". �FORliST USKS OF DDT HISTORY OF USE ON FOREST PESTS Among the many insect pests which prey upon North American forests, two groups account for the overwhelming majority oC tree losses: defoliators, and bark beetles. In the discussion which follows, major attention will be given to defoliating insects, since bark beetles, because, of the location of their attacks, are not amenable to control by mass spraying methods. While the discussion is intended to generalize about dofol iator,>, it: is recognized that except Ions are common and most oC these ar-.- noted for the three r^ajor pescs discussed. Bark beetlejs Several species of bark beetles attack numerous forest tree species, especially conifers. Adult beetles typically penetrate tbe outer bark, laying eggs in or near the soft inner bark which hatch into feeding larvae. The larvae consume the inner bark while piotccted by the outer bark, often girdling and killing the tree. Several species of bark beetle attack already weakened or dying trees-1 and are considered secondary pests. A few, e.g., the southern pine and mountain pine beetles, may become primary killers when epidemic populations develop. DDT-has never been an important control agent for bark beetles. Defoliators The overwhelming majority of forest tree defoliation results from the attacks of insects in two orders: Lcpidovkcva, mostly moths and a fow butterflies; and Uynetioptci'a, principally sawflies. The larvae of defoliating moths and sawflies feed on the needles and leaves of many important trees. During the period 1945-1972, efforts to control defoliating forest pests were mounted on nearly 30 million acres of US forests. On almost 95% of this area, control efforts were directed at four defoliating moths: the wes»'«rn budworm; gypsy moth; spruce budworm; and Douglas fir tussock moth (Sartwell and Alligood, 197/t)The population dynamics and feeding patterns of these moths make them ideally suited to control by aerially applied insccticlilen. The typical patteru of population development is for the insect to maintain endemic low levels of population for periods of several years, then for reasons yet unknown, to deve.'op epidemic numbers, usually in localized areas which may persist for 3 years or longer. During the epidemic population phase, the �larval stage feeds on the foliage of host trees in large numbers frequently causing complete defoliation in a matter of weeks. The emergence of the larvae of most species is timed to coincide with the production of new foliage during the late, spring and early summer. New foliage is usually consumed first. In most cases, the larvae complete their growth at about the time „ defoliation is complete. They then change to the pupal stage for a period of one or more weeks emerging in summer as adults, completing the life cycle by reproducing and laying eggs. During the outbreak phase, epidemic attacks are usually quite localized. However, migration for some distances is possible during both the early larval and adult stages when insects may be carried long distances by prcvaling air currents (adult female gypsy moths are flightless). The gypsy moth may also be distributed into new areas by the transport of egg masses on recreation vehicles. Adult moths seek out any convenient protected surface and frequently attach their egg masses to camping vehicles during late June. Thus, new localized outbreaks may occur many miles* apart expanding in size over succeeding years of population buildup. Because large numbers of insects are concentrated on relatively small areas aerial detection is quite often possible. Since the timing of egg hatching and larval feeding can be predicted, foresters are able to anticipate the tir.lng of control sufficiently in advance to plan aerial spray control efforts. Egg hatching may vary over several weeks in a given attack area. Since the purpose of control is to reduce the amount of defoliation and prevent epidemic buildup, the application of the insecticide must be carefully timed to achieve the highest possible mortality of feeding larvae. The most severe defoliation (as opposed to damage) occurs during the last 2-4 weeks of the 3-8 week larval stage. It is, thus, easy to understand why persistent pesticides, such as DDT, have been favorite control tools. Larvae from late hatching eggs can be controlled even after the time of application. Use of DDT prio_r _to_ 1972 \ DDT was relied on almost completely for control of defoliating insects from 1945 to 1958 . During those 14 years more than 20 million acres were aerially sprayed for the control of some 22 different defoliating pests. Four of these pijsts accounted for nearly 96% of the nearly 30 million acres to which insecticides have been applied for the period 1945-1972 (Sartw^ll and Alligood, 1974). Table HID.29 presents the acreage breal-down by chemical agent, showing DDT was applied to more than 88% of the total. Table HID.30 presents the 34 forest insects requiring control efforts during the period 1945-1972. Threo of these, the western and spruce budworms and the Douglas fir tussock moth, attack various species of spruce, the true firs, and Douglas fir. The gypsy moth attacks a wide variety of trees, feeding most heavily on oaks. This moth was introduced at Medford, Mass, about 1869, by a French naturalist who had Intended to cross it with tho silkworm. During the next 40 to 50 years,, «:he moth spread gradually throughout roost of New England and by 1973 was causing extensive damage, in these states as well as New York, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey (US Foreat Service and APHIS, USDA, 1974). -226- �Table HID.29 Materials Aerially Applied to Suppress Forest Insect Populations US Tot.-»l 1945-1972 Material Area (1,000 acres) Percent of Total 25,713 88.1 2,187 7.5 mexacarbate 550 1.9 nwilathion 380 1.3 fenitrothion 222 0.8 trichlorfon 51 0.2 Douglas fir tussock moth virus 16 GardonaS/ 14 DDT carbaryl lead arsenate 9 raethoxychlor 7 phosphamidon Bacillus ihuinngiensis 7 5 dimethoatc 2 propoxur 1 Giant Basin tent caterpillar virus 1 „_ 29,165 100.0 Total a_/ Trademark, Shell International Chemical Co. Source: Saitwell and AlliRood, 1974 -227- —— �Table HID.30 Forest Acreage Sprayed for Particular Pests US Total 1945-1972 Acreage (1,000 acres)*/ Insect Western bud worm Gypsy moth Spruce budworm Douglas fir tussock moth Pine butterfly Pitch-pine looper Fall cankerworm Jack-pine budworm Western hemlock looper Saratoga spittlebug Great Basin tent caterpillar Pine tussock moth Kim spanworm Blackheaded pine sawfly Western blackheaded Vidworm Redheaded pine sawfly Saddled prominent Lodgepote needle miner New Mexico fir looper Pine reproduction weevil White fir needle miner Grasshoppers White fir sawfly Arkansas sawfly Eastern hemlock looper Fall webworm Forest tent caterpillar Larch sawfly Loblolly pine sawfly Lodgepole pine sawfly Southwestern pine tip moth Utah cankcrworms Virginia pine sawfly European pine sawfly 12,816 12,324 2,113 724 255 239 132 123 101 102 54 41 24 18 16 14 14 13 10 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ~ Total 29,165 a/ b/ Percent of Total 43.9 42.3 7.2 2.5 0.8 . 0.8 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.1 b/ b/ b/ b/ b/ b/ b/ b/ b/ b/ b/ b/ b/ b/ b/ W I/ b/ b/ b/ y 100.0 These figures nay not represent actual acreage, as the same land may have been treated more than once in different years, Less than 500 acres or 0.05%. Source: Sartwcll and Alligood, 1974. -228- �The most serious effect of defoliation, usually resulting from several successive years of attack, is the outright killing of the host trees. Less obvious but extensive damage also occurs from partial defoliation which often results in top killing. Damaged trees suffer reduced growth and vigor making them subject to later mortality from other environmental agents, especially bark beetles (Wickman et al, 1C/J). In general, the softwoods are less able to withstand repeated defoliation than hardwoods. Two to 3 years of nearly complete defoliation usually results in the death of conifers while hardwoods may withstand as many as 6 or 7 consecutive years of hnavy defoliation (US Forest and APHIS, USDA, 1974). The development of extensive control efforts since World War II was made possible by 1) the availability of OUT, a persistent broad spectrum insecticide, effective as both a contact und a stomach agent; and 2) the use of aircraft for rapid detection of attacked areas and for rapid, broad scale application of this inexpensive chemical. (Gypsy moth detection remains heavily dependent upon ground sampling techniques which Include eggmass surveys and .sex pheroir.one baited traps.) Due to reliance upon aerial detection lower levels of attack not resulting in visible defoliation may go undetected during the first year. This has meant that insects have been able to build up to epidemic proportions before discovery aiid effect considerable damage before control can be accomplished. It has been observed of many forest Insect pests that periodic epidemic outbreaks often run their course in a period of 3-5 years (sometimes longer) In the absence of controls. The causes for the collapse of epidemic populations are not fully understood. For example, studies of the Douglas i'lr tussock moths have identified a virus disease of these insects which may be responsible, in combination with starvation, for the almost complete •~ollao.se of large populations In a single year (US Forest Service, 1975). Since past control eftorts have usually been mounted only when epidemic numbers art: detected, it appears that massive spraying programs may have been delivered or. the targot pests during the decline or collapse phase of the epidemics (Wickman et al, 197.1). Consequently, it has been very dlfflcul: to assign easily measured benefits to these control programs. During tho last 10 years, research lias been intensified to Improve forest managers' techniques ot pest control. Several aspects of the control problem have teen attacked with limited success. Earlier detection of incipient epidemic outbreaks! is now possible through the use of synthesized sex attractants, recently developed for the gypsy r.ioth. Ttiey arc used to monitor Insect population levels, helping to identify areas of potential build-up in insect number?. Tn addition, experimental use permits have been Issued the US Department of Agriculture for the aerial application of a synthetic sex phcromone attractive to the male gypsy moth. Large acreage applications, following earlier small plot trials, are bt-ing made to substantiate the finding that rhe presence of the pherorone results in confusion of the male. This confusion Impairs the nale's ability to locate a virgin female and results in reduced mating success. Other problem areas being researched include -229- �the development and wide scale production of disease causing agents specific to target pcbcs; identification and rearing of parasitic or predacious insec.s which, if successful, can bt introduced into target populations; and development of chemical insecticides having short residual life and a minimum of unwanted ecological effects. Reproduced from best available copy. Alternative controls During the period 1945-1958 aerial spraying efforts to control defoliating insects relied almost'exclusively on DDT (Table HID.31), hut included two minor applications of lead arscnate (9,000 acres, 1945) and malathion (4,000 acres, 1957). Of the nearly 26 million acres of DDT applications which ended in 1967, 78% occurred prior to 1959 (Sartwoll and Alligood, 1974). In 1959, there began a major shift to carbaryl and other agents. Use of carbaryl has risen gradually over the years as the use of DDT was phased out by 1967. The last major application of DDT was in 1974 for the control of the Douglas fir tussock moth, under an emergency exemption granted by KPA, March 5, 1974. In the face of a large and apparently expanding epidemic of these insects and lacking any registered substitute control, the US Forest Service, together with the States of Oregon and Washington and private landowners applied DDT. at the rate of 0.75 Ibs/acre to approximately 430,000 acres. Experiment al.,^ests of lower application rates for DDT and testa of other control agenda were also conducted, as directed by EPA (KPA, 1974b). W * Four other chemicals have beer, used with varying success: malathion (extensively, 1963-1966); mexacarbate (ZectranJL/), used in toker. amounts until 1972 when 500,000 acres were sprayed; fenitrotivion (1968 and 1970) (Sartwcll. and Alligood, 1974); and trichlorfon (US Forest Service, 1974 and 1975). The decline in DDT usage was coincident with increased reliance on several more environmental ly favorable control agent;). Table HID.32 shows comparisons between DDT and the major alternatives. Malathion was also used on extensive acreage. In a final environmental statement for a proposed spruce budworm suppression project, the US Forest Service summarized the findings of five studies on the efficacy of malathion against the spruce budworm. It was concluded that "nalathion ran be used safely in the environment and that it will have no significant effects on man or other animals when suitable aerial spraying precautions are taken. However, malathion has not demonstrated consistently satisfactory control at the registered dosage." Use of malathion on forest pests has been minimal in recent years (US Forest Service, 1974). Of the six alternatives (some of which are not currently registered for control of forest defoliators), four are chemical insecticidos: carbaryl, mexacarbate, fenitrothion, and trichlorfon: and two are biological control agents (Bacillus ihur-ingieneis and Polyhedrosis viruses). Bioethanomot'.irtn and resmethrin synthetic pyrafhroida also have shown promise as controls for 17 Tradename, Dow Chemical Qo. -230- �Table HID.31 Forest Area (1,000 acres) Aerially Sprayed with Insecticides In the United States Tear DDT 1945 1946 1947 1943 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1963 1969 1970 1171 1972 7 64 533 218 661 -_ ._ __ 1,548 1,105 — .. . __ — __ __ — 1S73£/ 1974S/ Total a/ b/ £/ sso 700 1,733 3,653 2,306 4,893 1,773 216 430 21S 1,592 2,074 632 363 -100 — _— _-- —_ — — 240 25.944 Carbaryl _ — 86 11 29 31 130 97 234 275 203 201 95 233 390 172 47 91 Hexaearbate Mala-* thlon Fenitro— thioa _ _ _- Trichlorfon _ _ — ____ — ___ __ —. __ -— • — _~ — —— — _-_ —— — _— — ___ — __ -— 5 3 7 16 19 500 504 469 1,523 .-•— tt __ 3 1 — — — ——— — . 5 —_ ___ __. ___ ___ ___ _— _-» _— —_ _-_ 10 10 — 212 __ — 212 — ' — 22 11 268 — 222 — -__ —_ _-_ -_. -_ ___ -„ —_ — — — -— __ ___ ___ _____ __ ___ ___ __ ___ _— — . —_ ___ x __ 4 — . . __ — ' -__ __ ___ _ ___ __ ___ __ ' ' — ' • ' 253 Sartvell and Alligood, 1974 (calendar years 1945-1972). US Forest Service, 1974 and 1975 (fiscal years 1973 and 1974). ; —— 20 2 16 64 533 218 661 1,548 1,105 680 700 1,733 3,653 2,306 4.S02 1.774 305 450 259 1.623 15 12 1 ^ 1 10 3 i 2 2 4 2,236 733 599 280 307 268 127 663 410 679 700 907 20 68 30,639 — ___ 1 — _ — — • • .__ 16 Douglas fir tussock soth virus. TrichJorfon, Lead Arserjte, Sethosychlor, Phosphanidon, Blaethoace Propoxur, CBTC Virus, Cardona (Trade nase, Shell International Chemical Co.). These figures are for fiscal years 1973 and 1974. The KTT application for the Douglas fir tussock IX)th extended into FY 75, covering a total of about 430,000 acres. Sources • —- 2 — _ •._. 39 6 .. 3 -,p " _ 3 125 77 Total , ___ —_ — __- _ — — — _ OtherL/ — -_ __ _ ___ . —__ _ Bacillus . tfetrin^iensis -__ —_ 4 __ __ — ___. _~ DFTM virusi' — 2 �Table IIID.32 Conparison of DDT arid Alternative Controls on Major Forest Defoliating Insects DDT Registration Spruce ijudwonn Gypsy aoth Tussock raoth Availability Persistence Chenical cost ($/A) Total cost£/ Carbaryl Mexacarbate No No No Yes Yes No Yes No No Several years Limited 2 weeks Unavailable*!/ 2 days Bacillus tkuringisnsis Yes No Good Several days to 2 weeks $1.00 $1.50 $1.68 $9.00 $3.00 $3.50 $3.68 Polyhedrosis Virus Fenitrothion No No EPa/ Yes No No Limited Limited 2 weeks $11.00 Trichlorfon No Yes No Good 1 week $1.10 $3.38 $3.10 Unknown?/ $5.38 i a/ E? - An experimental permit has been granted by EPA. b_/ Moatrose Chemical Co. produces DDT for export purposes. £/ Dow Chtaical Co. was the sole producer of raexacarbate (Zectran - registered trademark). The product is no longer produced due to the limited market. d/ Virus persistence and spread is dependent on biological and environmental factors. £/ The virus is in the developmental stage. f_/ Total cost includes the application cost assuned to be $2/A. This assumes maximum economies of scale in large area applications. Smaller areas require higher per acre application costs. Sources Registration: Availability: Persistence: Chemical Costs: Registration Division, Office of Pesticide Programs, EPA. Hofacker, 1975. US Forest, 1972a, and Northeastern Regional Pesticide Coordinators, The Charles H. Lilly Co., 1974. 1972. �tussock moth but much further testing of fornul.it ions and application techniques must be done (EPA, 1974a). The shift from DDT to alternatives can be characterized by a changeover to non-persistent control agents. DDT is very broad spectrum, affecting many non-target Insects and other organisms. Carbaryl and fcnitrothion are also broad spectrum to a degree but their low persistence allows nontarget species to recover to near normal levels in a short time (US Forest Sefvvice, 1974). Pr ojb lens At present, no one alternative is registered for all three major forest pests. There are currently no registered products available for use against the tussock moth, although an experimental use permit has been issued for polyhedrosls virus. Of the alternative controls, only mexacarbate is now unavailable. Dow Chemical Company was the only manufacturer and ceased production in 1972 due to the limited and highly uncertain market for the compound. Carbaryl and fenltrothion are available in limited amounts due to allocation .-.rograms following the shortages of many pesticide conpounds in the previous two years. Ocher biological controls arc essentially in the developmental stage and it is doubtful that commercial quantities would be available for widespread use if needed on short notice. The benefits of control .arc entirely due to preventing or reducing the loss of living trees. Primary losses result from reduction in commercial wood supply, loss of valuable esthetic trees, and major changes in some ecosystems. Secondary losses result from disruption of normal harvesting of timber and management of forests, as well as the consequent economic and social losses occurring to the dependent communities. These and other losses are discussed further. Timber Ipjsse8_ The most obvious Impact of epidemic defoliation is the killing of commercially valuable trees. Areas attacked may suffer losses varying from 51005;. Individual areas may vary from a few to several hundred acres. Salvage of this killed timber is often feasible where sufficient quantities per acre are harvested, providing the harvest occurs promptly after death. Prompt salvage of all killed timber is almost never possible and recovery may be limited to 507, or lesa. There are several reasons for this. Many areas requiring salvage are inaccessible until roads arc built to serve them. The economics of harvesting Is closely related to the amount of wood harvested per aero. Harvesting of small volumes per acre where mortality Is light is uneconomical particularly where new roads must be built. Where large volumes nro involved, but ar« scattered or patchy within a single -233- �timbershcd (area serving a processing center) , the time required for major jilvage may exceed the durable life of the dead timber. In northern timber areas of the United States, where the most serious epidemics have occurred, trees usable for sawtimber may remain salvageable for up to 3 years. In the south most dead trees have lost salvage value after 1 year. Trees, in the north, salvageable for pulping may last for 6 or 7 years for some species. In all cases, there is a gradual deterioration in value over time. In many cases, the delayed mortality of trees initially weakened by partial defoliation, further increases the amount of unrecovered loss. A less obvious, though possibly as serious a loss, may occur from the reduction in growth rate in many young trees not killed. Repeated defoliation, even partial, reduces new wood formation during the attack year and for several subsequent years. Where repeated partial defoliation affects wide areas of poorly stocked stands, the loss represents a sizable reduction in forest productivity and becomes serious where young, immature stands are affected. As indicated, the costs of harvesting dead or injured trees is usually considerably higher than normal harvesting costs. Combined with this is the continued deterioration in the value of the salvaged wood. At seme point these combined losses exceed the value of the wood delivered for processing. The pace of harvest is necessarily limited by the processing capacity within hauling distance of the affected forest and/or the pace of road building. Where processing plants run continuously on raw material from salvage operations, the quality of their product is necessarily lowered. Marketing this lower quality material may seriously affect the profit position of the mills. The saw and pulp mills may be required to run at an accelerated pace, requiring additional labor for ;he period of salvage. This may result in overtime payments to regular workers, -v.nd possibly the importation o£ workers for extra shifts. A short-term stimulating effect on local employment and business may follow; however, a long-term reduction of timber supply can result in future curtailment of economic activity in these communities. Disruption In the management of & forest property results in both shortan.J long-term effects. An epidemic insect attack may require that all management personnel and equipment be involved in control efforts. Other normally scheduled activities such as timber eale preparation, tree planting, and fire suppression are temporarily suspended. The consequent organization of salvage activities further interferes with the conduct of norma.1 oianagcmcnt functions. Extensive areas of dead and dying timber also increase the hazard of explosive, highly destructive wild fires. The threat of catastrophic less from wild fire may continue for several years requiring additional equipment, personnel, and preparation. Layout and construction of access roads to effect salvage oi killed timber will require extra efforts and personnel, during the period of salvage. -234- �Long-term effects on systematic management of forest0* are more subtle. Forests, fully organized to provide a sustained level of annual harvests, require a fairly even distribution of areas in progressive stages of growth from seedlings to mature trees. Very few forests in the United States, particularly in the West, have yet achieved tills degree of organization. Under an ideal forest organization, areas to he harvested in a given year would consist of one or a few sizable blocks of timber which coulJ be harvested with a minimum of new road building or maintenance. Where insect attacks result In widely scattered, sroall areas of liquidated forests replaced by new established stands, future management efforts, including eventual harvests, are further complicated and correspondingly costly. Aside from these complications, the overall management of the forests may be disrupted seriously only when these attacks result in an overbalance of young stands in relation to juvenile and mature timber. Many, if not most, of the western forests, particularly public forests, have a serious overbalance of mature timber. Accelerated harvest and replacement of older stands on these forests results in accelerated forest growth by replacing old, slowly growing forests with young ones. To the extent that this condition exists, the future productivity of these forests may, in fact, be increased rather than decreased. Thus, it is entirely possible that, provided localized timber losses arc of principally mature timber and are not too severe, the dependent mills and local communities may suffer little if any long-term loss In stability. . . .H P. . . The effects on wildlife from epidemic losses of timber arc directly related to the patterning of timber kills. Extensive areas of killed timber which is later salvaged, will provide a new habitat of low vegetation attractive to grazing animals an:l the smaller herbivorous forma. To the extent that this habitat has been scarce, it may provide a v-i/ attractive food source for several big game species. These areas would likewise provide increased range foragu for livestock wlier« this is an important forest use. Watershed values are particularly Important in western mountainous forests. Much water useful to man is derived from forested watersheds. This yield of water is heavily dependent upon the accumulation of snowfall during the winter months. It Is well established that clearing or partial clearing of timber increases the accumulation of snowpack and consequent water yield fron watersheds. However, these increased water yields may be delivered through snowmelt resulting in increased flooding and damage. The effects of clearing and Increased snowpack on the dry season (summer and fall) water yield is less clear. Where watersheds have been cleared extensively, there appears to be a reduction in dry weather yield of water. Where clearing id patchy and partial, it IH possible th^t the total yield of usable water may be increased .without serious losa of dry season flows. The losses In esthetic values from defoliation, temporary or permanent, is felt most heavily In developed recreation areas and homeslt.cs. Loss of shade and visual beauty during the summer months may reduce u:ie and enjoyment. These effects have been particularly serious in eastern states I -235- �attacked by the gypsy moth and occasionally by the spruce bu-lworm. Fortunately, recreation areas arc generally accessible, frequently visited, and as ai consequence, usually receive early control efforts to reduce losses. In this connection, there are additional effects from the attack of both tussock moth and the gypsy moth. Since these pests attack heavily during the recreation season, their presence Is distasteful to visitors aud the larvae may cause allergic reactions in some people. Workers on tin; earliest salvage of tussock moth-killed timber are also hindered by this nuisance. Estimates of the expected benefits from control have been made for a number of recent control projects and are incorporated In the environmental impact statements. However, these estimates are very difficult to document since little serious effort has been directed at evaluating the impacts of past epidemic insect attacks. As indicated, the. nature of damage is highly varied and the extent of damage may be serious in a given situation. Estimates of the timber damage prevented are uncertain for a number of reasons. The effects of man's efforts to control epidemic insect, populations is complicated by his inability to predict the development or collapse of the pest population. As described, the stage of insect population development, or possible spread lias in many cases defied our best efforts at prediction. The widespread ircldencc of the virus disease of the Douglas fir tussock moth lina been associated with the onset of the decline phase of an outbreak. However, other factors not yet understood also seem to contribute to both the spread and the collapse of epidemic populations. Tree mortality as a result of defoliation is somewhat predictable within wide confident';, limits. The possible recovery of trees from multiple years of defoliation appears to be highly dependent upon the weather patterns of succeeding years. Wtu-ii attack-fro-.' years following the first or second year of defoliation are characterized by mild temperatures and ample moisture, tree recovery may be the rule. However, Initial recovery may leave trees In a condition of reduced vigor, making them susceptible to attacks by secondary pasts especially bark beetles (Wickr.ian et al, 1973). Thus, mortality over several succeeding years rcay be higher than would be true in nonattacked stands. Reductions in growth of immature stands through partial defoliation may be only temporary. Where this is combined with scattered mortality in dense stands, the surviving trees may experience stimulated growth in succeeding years equal to or exceeding the growth of nonattacked stands (Wlckman and Scliarpf, 1972). Tim,, thu prediction of growth loss becomes highly complex and dependent in part on future- weather patterns. {'.valuation of higher harvest cost losses due to salvage activity together with the reduced value of products can be mure easily estimated one-.' the extent of salvage has been determined. Once again, the orderly -236- �progress of salvage activities, 1st part weather-dependent , must he assumed in order to estimate the maximum amount ot salvage from the total recovery program. The Impact on local commun t tie;, providing th'* labor for processing plants can be estimated given certain assumptions concerning the market, salvaged material, and the extent and duration of the salvage program. Since markets for wood products, especially lumber, fluctuate widely with the prosperity of the housing and construction market, the salability and price of these products determine the level ;»nd s t a b i l i t y of employment in these processing plants. To date only limited efforts have been made to estimate these employment effects directly traceable to epidemic in->ect attacks and consequent salvage operations (USFS and AI'HIS, lc>74: KPA, 1974b). The effects, both short- and long-term on forest management have been described. No known effort has been made to quantify these effects (McC.-iy and White-, l'J73). Measurement of other values Very l i t t l e effort is directed to evaluation of insect "pi "nic attacks on wildlife, watershed, or esthetic values. The Forest Service, Regions It and I.V.../ have attempted to evaluate the impact of past epidemic;; of defoliating insects '.n the inter-mountain region on losses to recreation, w i l d l i f e , and timber values. The value of residential property losses Ins been estimated based on number of trees, expected mortality, Jot si/.o an<! value (McCay and White, 1973). In order to provide additional information on L!:e benefits of control of the tussock and gypsy moths, .1 study has been funded to evaluate benefits el" DDT and other controls of these two pest;;. This study is conducted under an r.l'A/USDA interagency agreement at a level of .effort of S3.!0,<)00, is now underway and w i l l be completed in l')77. It is expected to -significantly add to the other research I'SDA/I-'S is doing in the area of costs and benefits of control of forest insect pests. .PCM CY ON I'SOF ' In 1%4 , tlie Secretary of Agriculture issued a memorandum urging discontinuation of use of persistent pesticides (I'SDA, l l ld-'»). The expressed concern for environmental effects was p a r t i c u l a r l y directed at the widespread use of DDT. Over the next •-• years, the Forest Service was a c t i v e l y testing a minber of substitute chemicals, w h i l e attempting to phase out the use ot HUT. In I/ Kegion II includes Souin Dakota, NVbraska, Kansas, Colorado, and ji.irt of Wyoming. Region IV include;; Nevada, I't.ih, and parts of K'vonim; and Id.iho. �1969, the Secretary of Agriculture issued Memorand-im number 1666, (USDA, 1969) directing that persistent pesticides will not be used except when no alternatives are available. It also directed that post control actions emphasize: the use of integrated pest management strategies and, where chemical pesticides were required, thoy should lie noripersistent formulations. The Cooperative State Research Service was directed to encourage research on nonperaistent pesticides and biological controls. In 1973, the Secretary of Agriculture ibsucd a replacement memorandum for the 1969 policy statement. This memorandum repeated several policies enunciated earlier and further emphasized the Department's dedication to research into effective biological, cultural, and Integrated pest control materials and mothods. It also pledged the Department to cooperate with other public and private organizations in the development «>nd evaluation of pest control materials and methods, assessment of benefits and potential hazards in control operations, monitor in;; for pesticide residues, an:! dissemination of pesticide safety information. Department users of pesticides were strongly urged to heed label directions and exercise constant care in pesticide application, storage, and disposal for tho protection of people, animals, and our total environment (USDA, 197J). The US Forest Service, has been Involved In most forest pest control activities conducted by states or private owners. The Forest Pest Control Act of 1947 (16 USCA Sections 594 et scq.), administered by the Forest Service, instituted a program of surveying pest hazards and provided fifty percent cost sharing for control of ii.-ect pests on state and private ownerships. Thin program enabled private owners and the states to participate in control activities at the reduced costs made possible by large scale control operations. U_S Depart.went o_f_ _tho^. . JjTt-°-LL°J. Several of the Services and Bureaus of the Department of the Interior are concerned with management of wild lands, management of water resources, or both. In 1964, Secretary I'dall Issued a policy memorandum discontinuing use by Department agencies of chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides. In 1970, Secretary Hickel. Issued a "lore comprehensive policy statement. Attached to this statement is a list of prohibited chemicals and another list of restricted control agents. No agency of the Department was permitted to use any pesticide on the prohibited list, including DDT (USDI , 1970). Thus, by 1970, th,- two Federal departments which had major responsibilities for land management and concern fc: water quality had discontinued or severely restricted the use of persistent pesticides, Including DDT. This was two or more years prior 'n the EPA order cancelling most uses of . DDT. Thus, those issues were not addressed by the cancellation order. -238- �DDT was widely used against defoliating forest insects through the mid-1960's. However, both USDA and USDl discontinued use of DDT and cMier chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides, as a matter of policy, by the late 1960's because of concern for environmental efx'octs. There are registered alternatives to DDT for the spruce budworra and the gypsy moth, but none for the tussock moth. An experimental use permit has been issued by EPA for use of Polyhedrosis virus against the tussock moth. EPA also authorized emergency use of DDT against this pest in 1974. Benefits of control of forest insect pestc by alternative means have been evaluated to some extent but further evaluation is in process via a study under a USDA/EPA intcragcncy agreement. This study is scheduled to be completed by 1977 and will enhance our ability to quantify these benefits. -239- �REFERENCES Hofacker, T. Personal communication, US Forest Service, February 21, 1975. Lilly Co., The Charles H. Personal communication, The Charles H. Lilly Company - Miller Products, Agricultural Chemicals, Portland, Oregon, November 1974. McCay, R.E., and W.B. White. Economic Analysis of the Gypsy Moth Problem in the Northeast , Applied to ._CoriBnercia].__ForegtLJStands. Upper Darby, Pennsylvania, US Forest Service, US Department of Agriculture, 1973. [NE-275] McCay, R.E., and W.B. White. E£Ojiojnj^^maJj^Jj^j)J_t^ t_he North_c_ast> Applied to^ Residential j'rojerty. Upper Darby, Pennsylvania, Forest Experiment Station, 1973V Tdraf t] ~ "~ Northeastern Regional Pesticide Coordinators. 1972. Pesticide Lnfoniuitloa jlatyjal . Sartwell, C., and D. Alligood. Aerial Insecticide Application Against Forest J s £ £ j . _J i ^ J ^ ^£tjL^ul!i^ [draft] US Department of Agriculture. USDA policy on pest control. Secretary's Memorandum , No. 1565, December 23, 1964. US Department of Agriculture. USDA policy on pesticides. Secretary's Memorandum, No. 1666, October 23, 1969. US Department of Agriculture. USDA policy on pest control. Secretary's Memorandum, No. 1799, February 1, 1973. US Department of the Interior. Dcpar tment_ of the Intner_lpr_ Rcsponslbili t it's s -?,£:?fcj£ifl£~• Washington, D.C., US Department of the Interior, , Off ice of the Secretary ~ June 12, 1970. US Environmental Protection Agency. Use of DDT to control the Douglas fir moth - Order on request for an emergency exemption. Fed. Register 39(4), March 5, 1974b. US Environmental Protection Agency, Hazardous Materials Control, Acting Assistant Administrator. DDT and the Tussock Moth . Washington, D.C., Environmental Protection Agency, 1974a. [Memorandum dated February 19, 1974] US Forest Service. Dcti^l as Fir Tu ssock _ Moth. jleacgr^cli nry!_ _PJlQt._T<LgjL .rJL°-E.r.aJU. Season of 1974. Interim Report. Portland, Oregon, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, f975. US Forest Service. FJjj^lJEjwJj£>j^ej]it^^ Suppression P_roj cc.t , Minnesota, l9"74 Ac^j.vi t ics.. jjor. tjieaLSJ cnn^ Area ,.. ja. tc_ a_nd .S Private Forestry. Washington, D.C., US Oepartmcnt of Agriculture, 1974a. -240- �US Forest Service. Pesticj.de Use Report — Fiscal Year J.973. Washington, D.C., Forest Pest Control Division, US Forest Service, US Department of Agriculture, 1974b. US Forest Service. ^^cj^^^^_^][>o]^^_^i^S£^^^L.]:^2^.- V'afhington, D.C., Forest Pest Control Division, US Forest Service, US Department of Agriculture, 1975. US Forest Service and Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service. Final Environmental Star, ement^ Coop or a tiv e Gyj> sv_ Mot h S up_p ression and Regulat qrv_ Program ,19 7 4 Ac ttvl t i e^. VJaalidng'ton, D.C., US Department of Agriculture, 1974. Wickman, B.E., and R.F. Scharpf. Decay JLn White Fir_ Top — Killgd by Douglas F i r Tu sspj;k 1 to t h . Portland, Oregon, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, 1972. [PNU-133] Wickman, B., R.R. Mason, and C.G. Thompson. Major^ Outbreaks of the DpjJjLlas Fir^ Tusgock^Ko tb in Oregon^ ajitj Call f oniia . Portland, Oregon, US Forest Service, T S DepaTtraent of Agriculture, 1973. [PNW-5] ' -241- �APPENDICES �I A. AI'PLNDIX WM use4 eitenMvely for typhu* control. CUnos 1948. DDT ha« been UM>d for genersj control or moaqutUie*. boll we*»U Infertalion lo cotlon-K'uwtiig area*, nod e, variety of other UM*. Peak \ue nf DDT occuri*d at th* end ol tlje. I8JO'» and present domfitlo ut* of DDT la various formulation* ha* b««n Mt'matrd at 0,000 tans per year* According to Admission 7 of lh« record, approximately 04 percent Or 10377.238 pound of dumenUcally used DDT l» «r>t>ll*d to cotton crops Tt>« tarn* admtulon lndK»Us thai 603.063 pound! and M7.COI pounds, or •puroilmately 6 percent and 0 percent of tfc* lot*] furnv.:!*te<t by 31 of tin petitioners tn ibe** hearings nr» uwd respective)? on soybean and neanut crop*. All other use* of th* ll.M«.l»8 pound! amount to I58.8J3 of the toUI. or llttl* over I percent' Counsel tor th* Agency htfl called to our attention publication of th* Department of Agriculture. Th* Pettlclde Review of 1971. wtuch wtlmat** "a domestic dKappeManc*" rat* of 26.467.000 pound! for DDT to 1070. 6r« p. JU. Th* motion to Incorporat* this publication I* granted, a* It UM motion by reentrant* to supplement th* itcord. »e* Infra I do not believe, however, that th« Pesticide Review figure can bo accepted, on It* fnre. without further eiplanrtlon. Since the result I reach today would. If rnythlug. onif b* reinforce* br th« bl(h*r fl»ur». I see DO need to lemsnd. for th* above use* It appears that DDT U sold la four dlffetent formulations: Emulalftabl* (prays; dust; wettabl* powder; and granular form. Public concern over the wlderpread u*s of pesticides wa* stirred by Rachel Carson's book, "Silent Spring,'* and s> nttural out* growth w*s th« Investigation of this popular |I. P. * a D<Kk«U No*. M. etc I and widely spray**! chemical. DDT, which for m&ny years but been used with apparent CONSOLIDATED DDT HEARINGS safety. w»», th* crl'lc* alleged, a htir,bly dan«*rt>u* substance which killed beneficial Opinion and Ortfor e( th« Insect*. Xipaet th* natural ecological balance, Admlnltlroror and collected In th* food chain, thus poAlng PubUahed h*rcwtth In rar opinion and ft bawd to mrtn, and other forms of ad* ottitr twut-J June 14, WX concerning tanred aquttle anrt av.an llf*. In I860, th* the i-r«titr»tlt>n.<i ot prtxiucU contilmnj U 8. Department ol Agriculture commenced • T»»lew rt th* health and environmental ttw. liusecUclJe ODT. hazards attendant to th* UM of DDT. Done thU 30lh day of June 1873. Ce-tala uc?« of OUT "«r« canwled by th* Department of Agrieullur* In 1809 and InWIILIAM D. Uucmtsiucs, formal nview ot remaining uses contmued Administrator, throujh IB70." In **,rlr 1871, th1» Agoncy BTXTTN* Iwctisisirs. IHC.. it tt romnu...«il ((~rir.nl adrnlnttttatlv* review of DDT rrgutratlont by the cancellation of all ortHioH or t>nt AtmtHtmntroa r*£t*.lratlone for DDT product*, and u&es ftfor* the Kn->l*onmental Protrctlon purfusnt to Mctlon *lc) of th* Federal In* Agency. In re: Bt»r»rit Industries. Inc , *t Mcilctde, Fungtcld*. and Rndentlcld* Act aL (Cotuwlldated DDT ileatltsgs). .». * a irifKA) 7 U8C. MCtlon 139 (107J).' Docket Ho. 83 tt al. 1 Thl* hearing represent* th* culmination Admtw'on A shown thtl domeittc shlpof approximately 3 yean of Inteoslvs ad- nwnl* of DDT by Its sol* manufacturer, mlntstratlv* Inquiry Into th* uaes <>* DDT. Montros* Chemical Co, totaled 8,821.000 Part I set* forth th* background of them pound* between January I and August 1, proceeding* and Part M contains a dlsrus- 1'J-l Total domestic Mice In 1510 were sloo of tr>» evidence and law f"t my fsctm; II.860,180. as stipulated In Admission No. 7. conclusion* I am persuaded for rsaions set The Examiner fcur*vl. apparently based on fort& In Psrt III of this opinion that th* AOmtolon 7. that 4orne«tlc ut< in 1070 "wie long-nu»3* Mill of continued u»* ot DDT ]u<>, uiiiltr 13 mllligr. pounds." e«am Report for us* on cotton and most other crops is at "2. unacceptable and outweigh* »n- benefit*. •Some dt»crfi>.-<ncy In '.be fiiriiret ruM*. Cancellation f o ' all vue* ol DDT for crop sine* the nnures f'v-n In brraXdown of UM Production and i^nhealth puryxite* l> here- categurle* total U.OTTf)«5 pour Is. slluhtly by rraRlrmed *nd wlU b*r.om* «,tec live Re- more man th* total told by I he 27 formulacembw 31. l>7}, in excoftjanc* wu>» Tart V tore who supplied flpurrs. of Ihls ofilnluo and the »compan;lR( nr•f*R Nolle* att-i?. Among th* canceled der. *icrpt tbat certain UM*. for green pop- u«et w.er* applications to trees fur control per*, onions, and sw**t potatoe* in utoreg* of Dutch Elm dliriuw, tobacco, home iue». may contlnu* on terms and conditions set forth In Part V of this opinion and the ac- ami aquatic uces 34 Pn :8827 (10601 •In Eiuirrmmrntal Defense Fund v. Ruecompanying order. I—A. Background, DDT Is the tamlllnr VeUhsuft. 430 r. 3d «64 (DC Clr. 1C7II, the abbreviation for the chemical (l.l.l.trkhln- court ot appeals mid that cancellation pro* rophenyl ethane), which •«* tor many ••* 1 th* most widely used chemical pe^ticid* In ceerUiiii* should b* cohimeticrd whenever a this country. HOT'S InMcticldol properties re,tletralioii cf r. prallcld* raises a '•uhwen originally discovered, sppa'ently I>T ac- »tnntial qtiefttlun of safety" which «KrraDts cident. In 1839, and du.lng World War II it turther study. On Jno IS, 1971, nil uw* ot EHVIO«Al PiOTECTIOH AGENCY P. Slalenent of Ihi fate. This hearing I* the final stag* of tannM admlnlstrktlv* review' Thl"y-on« rt<«:*trants hav» challenged 16 ot in* canceled urn of DDT and lu metabolite. TUB.* !*>«** UM* of DDT Include application* to cesium IWds to control th* boll weevil and bollworn applications to vinous vegetabl* crops, and a variety of lecser uses In public pruftramS: The CSH to? cancellation has been presented by oounael tor th« Pettlcld«« Office of th* environmental Protection Agency and attorneys for the Environmental Drlens* Fund «Mch Is an huervenor. Other |»Hrt>K Incltid* Ell Lilly & Co, which liMd a DDT reftttntkm for "topoclde.** *. prevrrtptton drug,' fl. P. Cannon & Eon, a tiur of DDT.' and representative* of th* rhemtrnl manu'actimng Industry and various wildlife groups* Th* wotlmony and *>hlbt.s cover In eihaustlv* fuhloo all aspect* of DDT • clieml* cal and toxlcologlcal properties. Th* cvldenc* of record, however, U not *o eiternUs concerning th* b*r.*ftu from using ODT, and most of It ha* b«n directed 1 th* major to UM. which Is on cotton crops. * DDT not canceled In 10C.9 were canceled, I'R Notice 71-1. And on Mar. It. 1671. notlrvs of citncellatlon won luued for all rfgut-red uwo ol TDE. a DOT mctabolttu. PK Notice 71-5. •Under F1FRA • registrant 11 e stilled to either a public bearing or a sclentlt advisory commute* or both to review his mluratlor, f'*ndiiig completion of that nview. a registrant Is allowed to coi.tlnue shipment of I-.U product. • Unless specified, dlscuwton of DDT In this opinion applies to TDK DDT has three ma]or breakdown product*, DDA, DDE, and DttD. teparat* reglttrattoiu exist for TDK (DDE1. ' There has been aom* controversy over Ell Lilly's status becauM It failed to appeal cancellation nt It* registration within 90 day* as required by cectloo 4(>) of Fi/RA. For th* purpose* of thu cae* I bel!«T* they should b* accorded status as panies. •There ha* been torn* question as to whether or not a "u-tr" hu sundtng to appeal a cancellation and thus teett reinstatement of a canceled us* even though no regtitrant ha* stepped forward to appeal, Th* sarn* reasoning *mplbyed by th* court la Environmental Defene* Fund v. Rrtckelshauv supra, and Environmental Defense Fund v. n&rdln, 428 I> Sd IMS (DC. Clr. l»70», which accords standing to -public tntere*t" groups give* "users" a right to i.;.peal • cancellation. •The groups are: National Agricultural Chemicals AMoclaiion: National A*")jijon Society; The Sleirt Club; and West Michigan Environmental Action Council. Aa already not«d. the Secretary of Agriculture. In addition to being a purty-rrglitrant by virtue of registration* held by Its Plant Regi''atlt.ii Division, has appe.tred at an Intervenes. "Trie following UMS at* Involved: for cotton; for military UM on clothing: for tappers and pimentos; for fresh market corn; for; nnuU; for cabbae*. cauliflower, and brur<Ml sprouts: for tomatoes; for lettuce; for polotoes; for tweet potatoes la Horace (Sculhcru 8tate* only); for uw In commercial grernhouM« and nui£«rle», for bean* (dry, lima, cnap): for bat and rodent control; tor emer. gency use for sericulture, health or quarantine purposes, and for onion*, and garlic; an4 for lie* control. Then tins hern considerable controversy as to wbst uses wer* at IMUO during th* heating. Admission No. 2 net* forth tho** uses which th* Department of Ai;r!cultt>ro consider* eMentlal. Manrof thner IIKI h* ••> been canceled and no appeal wai tsken. Th« UMS at tssu* la thl* heating ar« only then* noted In Adrmtalon II, aioittt*. vol. i'. NO. ui—r»io»r, ,uir i, \<>7i -243- �U170 Reproduced from beit svniiablacopy. lull 1'f.Ucld.» Omc« and KiwlroiureMal D>ff>i«« Fund tlCDP). in I reuniting their raae* agalnnt * imtlnued reftlfltre.tton for DDT. le^n moat henvilv on evidence which, they r< uleud. establishes (1) Tn.lt DDT and I'.* nv'afrw'itte* ftre toxu-ani* v l u - h itf-rm.il ta »nl and the M|Ue\phere; l i t tnu*. uni* unIrAied. DPI U KII umonlrollnhle chrmlral •vhlih can b* trtuispi-itpd l>v , .« hluc. rru! on runoff and viUum/.ttlon: : i| that DI>r IN n.»t wR'rr fu»lulile and collect* in f"l i i .sue. Cl llinl tftfanlMns l»nu lo i.-'i .1 mill !•• 11cculrate. DOT. «6t that these ""nlltlcs tesu'.t lit accumulations ol DOT in wlMlife and luimant: tl.M once nored ur >•.. .sunit-J. imr rna be toxic to b..tn itniii^'s HIKI humans. •» (1 II the eft-* of full and niMltltf inhibit 1 <rt :., r-'.iou «• ^et'ev ana i l l th..t tl.t *•' :.•!:'* eccrut rf from I>I>T llvtye :.;» ;»n.(lusl. gueri U,r ..v»lUMII'y t>f alien.'ill** !."••e-:ticldes and r-e»t manngemrnt PIC/KI«vi.'. :--id also the fact that crop* produced w » i u HUT are in ample Mipply 1h» '.minimi* »n<J *htillutfl Include numerous rrpotu ol espert •I'leiiU^tfi who h*v? described <<b^r\rd eftect* if Dl>T lu the *-iiUroiunent and tiie iJitiuralory. Qroup I'elltlo ver* and Uiu *.' 8 f>?<ittr.t?i<t Of AKf-Jluire (USDA) seek to UbcroiTl llio Agency's caM hi citing Ih* retard of safety 1>DT ha* compiled throughout the yeats, and. point to the r.e»;ativ* fUidldKS of *pldemiological and hu.aan fredi&g ttudh'i carried out oier the }' am on Induetilnl work?™ and \olu ttfrri eipovcd to cvncrntMtfd ttvvla of DDT far In netu of tbat to a l i U h the «ttrat;« Individual U«kpo»e<). Pruponeaia of con« tinutd. regUtratluu hav* »lw tntrodund »ip«rt tcatlmony to th« «B*ct Itiat VOT» i-hiv>rlc toilclty to mmt or antmau hw noi born KUbll»hfd by adrquaM pijof. The re£utranU hav« attacked the twumptlou tiiat Ubnratory data a* to cllfot.i of eidtf(vrat«d do»ef t > DDT, can ptxitmt a mean* togfu) batUi for extrapolating effect* nn iun:i or tha entlrunment. In tba alternant*, Group FvtltlODera contend that what*r«r barm to the environment mlgnl be attributed to DDT. U roulu from m It VIM ami overdoili-i^ that occurred in yetre pail. !*»Uy, Oroiip f'etltlonen and U3DA ha»e attempted to prove that UUT I* HTuMte and that II* use la nor* deilnbl* Ihan the ornnnopho*. phaiaa *vhlch nra more acutely toxic and costly than UUT. On April 25, the Hearing Eiamtner luued an opinion wltlt propoaeit finding*, conclualona and urOMn recommending that alt "eawntlal" unri of DDTb* retained and tltat cancellation be tkfud." Tlie Ftanituer'a report which ha* nndiiigt. concludons. anl an • plalon. U atlwrhed below. 11\t K'oamlner apparently accepted In hi* report tht Aaency't proof that DDT u a ba/ud to I'i'iauc and terrestrial *lldll/e and suh«tlt .it> eilat lie found, u a "mutter of fact." Dr>T cau hare advrrw eflecte on bencnrlal juiouUt. that U la traiuferred througb II.* f.-rat rlaln; Vhet DDT U fat aolubi*. He concluded, honever. at * "niMter of lav," tbat DDT I* neither a CBrclnr^rn nor lerau» gen, 1'ial tha particular uset et Iwue do not adversely anect wildlife, that Dl).' ua« ha* rapidly declined (Eianil.>er'i nept. p. 03} The rtntlcldta umc« of thla Agency and Interrouor Er.-. trunmentai Uetenae fund (cUFt Bled exception* to the Knaoinwr'a rfpori.'* ch«llonBli,(( hla application of the hnrdrn of proof to this cue. hi* fnllnf* of fact. ruttcluMona of law, uud ntmieruue erl« (iriiltiiry ruling] eTtceptlon waa al*o uken to Hte FxaiiUner • application of the •«>i.iilrd i -K r.iicl l.fufiu «!(ir,J«rd of riFHA. On M i y 2. IDIi. Ih* Jurtlrlftl Ofllcer pro;K>iiiitim IH oril*-r. at my direction, a aerie* <•• qur i.tU fi*r brlrOng and diACUMiion At o: il fugn'Mcnt. und oral ftrgunient w^.» held » May .0 I'hat arfrxment WKO trAn»crtbrd ..,.d Is p:irt ol thl* rtci>rd. Croup Petition*;*. D.SUA, l-ll Ltllr. uvl H. P. C.uuif.n f, Su»a li^x a also responded to tna brtef* on exceptions. II.—A. Applicable law. Tt» bulc FIFItA acheine ha* l>e«u outlined Ui court opinion* *r.d Agency declttoii* (ee« KDP v. EPA, DO. cir lil!p Op. 71-I3U6 K. M MX; 6, 197? (opinion of Judge i.<etenttuif j; !>i;«rii» Elec. I'wt* Co. T. Kt'A. 7ih Clr. Slip While Ui« Ian«tin4« of the tlntule. taken literally, fniiutrei, only a nnvllng ol injury tu iKintaruvt »|i«<'le». the Inquiry canii<j>. now•ver. <>iid with a aimpllitlc a|iplicaiti>n of thl* plnln ttatutory lanir^aee. Uuth Judicial and a<linlnl»tratlv« pr*>c«dent recogiilae that ContTifT&K Intf ndetl the »pplK-at!ou of a *>al,mctng t«*'.. thai would inf.LV.uri- the rli-ks i>( uinnu a particular chemical ai;hliu.t ita beuelll* M If a product u "inlibraiHtvd • vitl.iu tl>e meaiunit of the Act. I e , If it brius a IttlK't iv>r us* ttiitt do**.i not nirct thr criu-rin ol .t<r«-tii>u J. u mn) m> lonKrr be thinped In Intcruate conutierro and M'xkt In hand In the orleina: pttcknc*1 mny Iw eelied. 7 U SO. *ectl.»n IJSigl (linai. J. Aiilt a'ld ttfnr/its. It fnllouM from Ihe •tatut^ry trheine atid thla Agrncy'« decision:, that evidence of f-.ih allied risk mutt be retiewcd ar.d t. conclusion readied a* ta wl.ether or not. Mid In what drfrr**. *uch risk t> Incident to the directed use or a particular product. T!te tank, however. Is cotnplfat«l In th* ca.%« of a "|>eiiiiaU>nt" pi«ticlde by It.) pcmlhie chronic ttfvcu. The degre* of |-<r8Hitem-e, extent of overall UB»KO uid mobility all bp« on th* turiplltude or Indred the *«lst*nr« of tho ri>k curve " 1 bettor*, however, It Op No. 11-1113 I". M May 11, Is ase^'il to lwUt« the alleged ruk* and eval11174. Continental ChemliU Co. T. BFA, 7Ui uate each on th* awimplton that they are Clr.Slip Op. No. 71-1828 P. 3d utmrfect4S4 by overall IcvoU of utie. and def^r May 11, III79: COP T. lturkel«naiu (opinion to Tart IV th* dtocuvlon of the AlKntfkanc* of Jucltte B«»!oiu, inpra; HtatetaenA of lleA- of Die relatloiUftilp tefwtvn ,IA* ai'd overall aon* CunceruJnK tho R«£t*tr;iUon of FnxI'tcta unr. OonteJiMnir UUT. 3.4B-T. and Aldrln/ I l l — A . Annl)/>l\ ol »••«.••»"•—!. ,M:lVl-a. iMeldrln. Much 10, 1979; In. re li&rl-Kari llraUli tffectl and rnvln^titi-iiral iiroprrtlet. t.lndane Prliett.et A l . I PAR Ho. « n ^ l ) > . 'I'here Is »o dl<put« t.-n thl» record th^t DUT \vhUe there U no need to traco In detail onc« U • nonipoclBo chiMillcal that kill* b-'lh A^aln tha auuutoty nchecne, a> Ijrtef turn* target and uontarg<;t epeclea In the lmn\t-[Jtmarj i>ru>lde> • ue«I>U ptum for OlMtlng VA« at« area of application. F*w rhcinlcal*. howevidence ever, nro «o wlectlv* that they cun \A uaed I. rifll* Th« Krd»»l InMottclde. Fui«t- without Cftuilng some Injury to "nontargrt" rld*. and IVxiontlclde Act, 7 U«C aectl->n •pscle*. \V» mu»t therefor* proceed to the 135 (18I3I. e«cab!UbM a strict utandiud for evirtonr* bearing an oth»r "rleV*" and til* the rcjrutratton of postlcldf^. Any "ecvrw>riL\o "benefit*" frcm using DDT. pultou' which carufit b» used without InI atn convinced, by a preponderance of tilt jury u> "mau or otner T«rt«brat* anlrnalt. evulonc* that, one* dUperaed, DOT Is an unvpgetaUoa. and useful InvctlOiratj anlnial*" controllable, durabl* chemical that piTslsU la "mlabronded." '• aud U thej»tore tubjcrt In th* aquatic and terrettrlal environment". tu cancellation." Olven IM Insolubility IB water and It* propenalty to be elortd tn tlmuet. It coliecu In "Fxc*,itlor,» hav* aJ*o b»a received In th* rood chain and ta pan-fid up to higher Rocket 104. la R* Wftlltnt*ln. Hurk Bra*. forma of nnuallc and tcrreotnal llf*. Ilier* Numrtes held a r«gl>tratlon for UM of DDT Is aoipl* evidence to show that uuctor ccron nuf«ry plant*. Tba Examiner i*«om> tata conditions DUT or lu metabolite* can mended cancellation on Ui« ground* that pettlat In loll fur many yearn." that U will thla waa not an "eaaentlal" ua* *cocnltn( to volftftllM or mov« along with eroding toll," UHOA. While th* degree of transportability K tin"Sees l(z)(3> (c). (d). and (It, nspec- known, *Tldenn* of record tiiowt that It .t lively pmitc!*: "Tli» t»rm 'inJabrauitod' BhaJI apply— " Be* CDF T. Ct'A (opinion of Judge Leven(a) To any econmnlo pouon— thai), aupra: KOP r. Ruckelahtu* (ftptnlan • • • * • of Judge Bazelon), »uprt. DDT (ttatcment of (r) H the labeling accocnpanytnf It doc*) »e« alto HtaUmcnt of Reanot conta!u direcUona for UM which ar» n*c- neaKona, *upra; au*p<in*lon and Cancella'lon sons UndnlylriK ciwary and If compiled with adequate, for (h» of froduct* Containing Mercury, 37 F.fl, <H19 protection of the public; (Mar. M. 1»73). Id) If th* latxjl dona not contain • nam"Other factor* bearing on rlak may Ining or caution ttatoment whtcn may •>» nec- chide th* geographical location of applicaecury and If oonvllod wltb wleqiut* to tion, aee, f g . . Statement of IMoron* Underlyprevent Injury to llvlnf maa *>nd other ing Registration* for Stirchnlrw, 1080, and vertebnt* animals, vegetation, and useful Bodtum Cyanld*. 37 PR. B7ID (UiJ). tnvertebra'.* anlmalc; although tnl* may not b* u eigrilflcaiit where • • • • • the chemical I* highly volatile a* ta th* com ( K ) If In the ewe of an Insecticide, nema- with DDT. n*t al*o Btatement of Ilcaaona tocide. funticlde. or herMcida when <t**d n* Vnilerlylng the Cancellation of Mlr«E, Deterdirected «r In accordance with commonly mination and Order of th* Administrator at recognized practice It "hull be. Injurloua to t O7 PR. 1Q9B7. Junn I, 1073). living inan oc other vertebral* animal*, or " Method of application and type of eoll vegeUDon, *xcept weed*, to which tt l» ap- and cllmat* can arV*ct per*tnt«nc* tn aoti and. plied, or to the perton applylnf *ucb eco- Ilkewlw runoff Into aquattc area*. nomic poison; " Registrants have mad* much of tlie fact « • • » • that aquatic contamination ard th* npread >> Then U <ome confualon an to what tiia " Sec 4 permit* the Administrator to can- of DDT havo resulted from drift during aerial term "essential" nieatu. By Admk,01on No ? the paniet stipulated that certain <uei ver* cel n registration "U It nppean that 'the application. Whit* th* Examiner* report article and It* labflll.HI • • •' ••eatenllal" In ttt* view of V8DA. No otlpula* with |tb* Act)." Ulnce th* Actdo IWP». cnnply dwells tt torn* length on Unproved m«ihod* ptoluwu cluii»a e«l«tj that theiw UM« are. In fact, eweii- tnbution of a ' mlabranded" peaucMe, we. 9 of application, It recognise* runoff a* a signiftiai In that no alternative* exut ur that ft ( B ) ( H , tn* reftlatiatlon for • "inl*brande4" icant aourc* of wgtiatlc contamination, even with Improved aerial (praying techniques. thortage "t a crop »ou'd mult KUliout DOT. product may be canceled. MOIRAl HOISTIt, VOl. it. NO. lit—fHIDAr, JULY 7. 1»7J -244- '• i �13371 occasionally found ID remote ***** er in ocean »p*ct**, *ueb •* whalae, fat (ram any known cm at application. PerslsUoos and; btocucolBotUoo to MM food c*uun an, or Ui*nw«ln>. *> eautft* for concern. (rt»*n U»* unknown and possibly foi*rer undeterminable long-range *ffe-ct* of DOT In mm. and th* cnvlrotvuwnt.* laboratory test* have, however, produced turoort(•nle effect* on rule* when DDT DM fed lo thorn at high level* " Mo»t of the cancer roeettch «spert* who testified at thl* bearIng Indicated that It WM th»lr opinion that tb* tumor tjifiilc result* of tnt* thu* far conducted arc an Indicator of catctnogenlty and that DDT ahotiM be considered a potential carcinogen" Oroup Petitioners *rgu* that th* testimony ij in conflict aod fasten on to th* testimony of Ihe Surgeon General that of Dre, Loomia and Dutier Th* Surgeon General's statement i v. h iwever. cautious and, by no muni, carilra the burden that the Oroup Petitioners seek lo plao* o% It. In very general term* tht Burgeon General slaleO: "W* ha?* no Information on which to indict DDT rtthrr as a turnorltfen or a« a carcinogen for tn*a and on the bails now available, I rannot conclude DOT represent* an imminent health haurd " (Tr. ISM) ( Till* testimony, however, does not. bear on the long-term efffcu at 1>LT, nor did the Surgeon Osneral *>l<reu a flew on what use*, apart from health uieii. would Justify continued us* of DDT. Indeed, th* entire thruit of the B'irgeon General's testimony wa* only that u>* for linmedlat* he&Hh neede outwelghe th* poMlliie long-rang* e.Iecta of DDT on human health. Oroup Petitioner*' other witnei*e*. Or*. Loomli and Butler, while men of stature In their fields-unkoiogy and pathology— andfctic.wledK.eabl*about cancer treatment and diagnosis art not specialists In caneer research a* l> Dr Hsffloitl, Indeed. Dr. Butter «ttiK>aUn*d such etper'.U* Oroup t^etllloners also taa* refuge under a broad canopy of dti'a—human feeding studies and epldemlologlcal studies—and r> wttti th* tBrnMlngly familiar ihal «Ht>°*v* to any *uto*l*ivc« la <juaoiM!M may MUM euinr. Non* of Uw feeding *tud>e* ctanrttd out wiui DOT Uarc beea a*«t«ued adequately bo detect carctnogvnlrlty. and gtren th* lat<rucy patlott of ca>nc*r, the«* studies would hav* to b* carried out for a much longer pe-rlnd. BiAtletical population aunplea for »p;ldecfiiolugtcal atudlM ar* al» virtually loi|«>5slblt> given th* latency i>ertu<l f<>r cancer and th* long-term eipoaur* of the general population. Bine* ther* Is no ah&rp dlBDnctum between popuunon group* «ifx»ed to low tluses and higher do»s of 1>DT, ntt.-(|imo control Rroiiji« cannot Lt »:.ubllsh«l. 'llio "everythlint Is cancerous arguincqf fulls because It lunores the (Ml Hint not all rhrmtCJli ted If uilmala la equally cuiu-entrawd h*v» produced the torn* tumortfieiilc b. Kni<lTO*mtntal t.fjfetx The ca.te ngnttttt DDT Invulves more. ho»ever, than a long. range harard to man's health. The evident* pretented by th* Agency's Peaticldea OSlc* and th* Intervenors. r;DF. cuniprlllfigiy dr<uonntrates the adverse Impact of DUT rn finh and biidlife. fieveral witnr^es teitlfled la first-hand observed eflects of DDT oh fish and birdllfe, reporting lethal or tub'acute effects on aquatic and avian life exposed In DDT-treated t.reas. t.aburttlory evidenc* u also Impressively abunditnt to show the ac'ut* and chronic effects of UHT on avlan animal species and suggest that DDT Impairs Ihelr reproducttv* capabilities • Th* petuioner-resutrsnts' *.'<:.ertlnn that there Is no tvldence of detaining aquatic or avtan populations. tv«n If actually true. 1* an atte.npt at confession and uvmdance. It d-x-1 not r«'fute th* baxlc proposition that HOT catites Uoniag* to outlnrn specie* Oroup petitioners' argument that DDT I* only one unlc subgtance In a polluted rnvlroninrnt, and thus, whatever IU> la>>oratury ellecu. It raiirot be shown to be the causative agvnt of ciamsge In nature, dors not redeem DDT. but only underscores the magnitude of effort that will bs nrceiuiary for i inning up th* "It Is particularly difficult to enllclpate •nvlrnnment. Wrr* v.o forted to lu'late In th* long-ran?* effect* of eiposur* to a low nature, rather than In the taboralury, the do** of a (he.- Ira). It may take many years effect* of varioiis loilc subitances. it would befoi* advert* effect* would take plac*. be difficult If likjt ImpoMihl* to make a Jmtg* DtfFa.se* Hie cancer hav* in eitended latency ntent an to th* chronic effects o( any chemiperiod. tiiitscenie effect* will be apparent cal As our DDT statement of Mi ~ -ti lull only In future generations I»aatly, It may b« hai noted: "Development of adequate tfMImnomtbl* to relaw observed pathology In Ing protocols and facilities Is a priority iiuman lo a, particular chemical because of th* dertitking nut In th* short term, extrapolaInability to Incite control groups which ar* tion from small-seal* laboratory analyses not exposed In the sam* degree a* the rent must err on th* aid* of safely." SCQ DDT Statement of Reason*, at II, of th* population ' Finally. I am persuade that a preponder* Tumorlgenlc effect] ha»« been noted In • number of laboratory experiment* Th* ance nf the evidence shots that DDE causes moat positive mult* were developed by trie thinning of eggshells In certain bird !>p-<-lrv Illonetlc* Bttidy and the Lyons and Milan The evidenc* presented Included both labteat*. Th* Itlonetlc* Mudy o! the fatlonal oratory data and observational data Thui. Cancer Initltiit* fed 130 compounds to two results of feeding experiments were Introstrains of mice. DDT was on* of II coin- duced to show that bird? In the laboratory, pound* vo produca an elevated Incident* of *,-hen fed DDT. prndufd abnormally thin tumors. Tho Lyons and Milan Htudles nf th* ettgthcll* In addition, rrwttchrrs have alro International Agency for Iteaearch of th* correlated thinning of shells by comparing W'rM Hetitti Omanl&atlon I* a multlgener- the thlckneu of egg* found in nature with atlonal H\i«? (utill in prnfrr*«i of e.ooo rule* that of egm taken from nitiieunu The minenf In- and out-l>red nralna, tncmuwd hepa- tini 'iii show llttl* thinning, wher»an *h'K* tonias wer* noted in mal* and f«ra«l« mire. taken from th* wild after DDT us* had hefed DDT at 2SO p p m , MatuUel* to tin corn* eiteimlr* reveal reduced thlrkneit lung* or kidneys ha* beeu recorded lo flv* Instattocs. "floe th* testimony r-f Mrs T^irwell, * Wltnetnet teill'ylng to the praltlv* corNicholson, Philip llutler, llurdlck, rftlhtlcn between tumorlgens and carclnriftent Dlmond, Itlsvbrough. Hlck«y {hike, Catfr ar.d wer* .Dr, Vmt>erto f)«.fllotti, Auo<^%t* ficisn* While th* E»mtn*r e;roneoui>ly excluded tlflo Director for Carclnogcnests, Etloloiry Are*. National Cancer Institute; Dr Marvin testimony a* to *c'-ttomic losses caused by .Vhnelderrnan, AasoclaM Chief. Biometry DDT'a coniami'-.aMon of th* aquatic entlranch and Asniolated Dlre<Uir f«r IXmng- vlronment--'.'HHes to or*inmerclal flAhern>*n raphy. Kallor,iO Canorr Institute; Dr 0armi*l caused by Inability t/> mark«t cumtaml.tated fish—thl* risk Iv flignlflcsnt. *v*n If It cxiuld Rp*t«ln. Senlrr R«c*«rch AwndaU In Pathot- not b* economically quantified. Not all risk* OS/. Children's Cw.Wr tki*iuxli IPoundatlon. can be trajvMatod Into dollar* and c*n(s. nor loo, Dotloo, can all ben«3te b* sji'ss.ied In cash ternut. Qroup Petitioners and UHDA argue that th* laboratory feeding studies, conducted with *i*gK*rated nc»« of DOS and under *tr«M conditions, provid* tio basl* for *i* Irapolatlng to nature, They atiggett that th* etudy mulls ar* contradictory and place particular emphants on document* which acre nut part of the original record and the li>ron*l«tenclrs In Dr. Heath's testimony aa brought out duitng crofts-examination. Or> up fytitumers also contend tha> th* oh. served phenomenon of eggshell ttiln.ilng and DDK reMdue data are tied by si statistical thread too ilenrler '.o rennect th* two In any meaningful nay. Viewing th* evidence as a total picture, a preponderant* siippi>rt> the conclusion that DDK drm caiiu ogtcMieil thinning. Whether cr not the laboratory data Above would sustain this conclusion la lx*Md* the point. Fur here thrr* la laboratory data and observational data, and In addition, a scientific. hypothesis, which might explain tb* pl»nomennn * H. rrnrfli— I Cotton I am convinced by the evidence that rontluued us* of DDT 1* not necessary to Irumre an adequate supply of cotton at a retwriahl* coat. Only It p*rrr,-it of coiton-proiiuclng ac>»a«* u treat<>d with DOT, although the approiunaUl; 10 XI7.5M pounds u%ed In cotton nroductlon 11 a ciiti-.t«ntl«l volume of DDT and accounts for mint of Its use The record contains tentlmony by witnesses called by registrant* a»1 t'RUA attentinK to the efflcacy of orKt»ini>hatpliai« rhemkals as substliute* for DDT arm. long-ramie, the viability of pest management methods, such aa the diapause program. At present most area* that u<* DDT combine It with an 01 ganurihoaphu;* and to«aphen« In a 4 2 - 1 nilxtur* M Ibs. t<>*sphene, 9 DDT. I methyl pitrathlon). Bfime arean, however, arcc/rdlne, to th* t«stl* riiony. »hl< h normall; >i-e DDT occasionally kpply concentrate)) metliyl parathlon In a 4-poni,d mlHture. There i* evidence that nrcanouhosphates would not rnl:e cost* to th* farmer and iniKht. Imleed. tie chenprr. Any svitigesilon thvit . the orKanophoAphates ar* not economically Tlabl* cKlinot Iw mjlnUlned In lac* of the undisputed evldenco that cotton continues to be tenable crop In Arkansas and Tenai) where DDT u« has declined.'" Th*r« I* "The chief vllrifw Introduced to rebut Dm. Rbiebrmigh. Illckey, and ('ad* was • gradual* student with limited training In •tatlfltlrfti analysis In view of the credential* of FDKn witness— Dr lllck«-7. Profrvmr of Wlldlire Kcol»|!y at ColIrK* of Agrlcul'.lire, University of Wtscniuin: Dr. RU*. hrough. As'oi-late rrolorkt, fnlvfralty of California at Itrrkrley: and Dr Cade, Profr-.sor of Konlogv at CVrnell and Reiearth Director of Cornell orMUioiofry Ijiborslorr — I cannot credit this attempt at rebuttal, The Hrntmif Kiamlner apparently reiolfcd the connict In the evidence b? concluding that "there wa* no evlilrnce that DDT waa th* only factor In a ch^Un* of bird popula> UDIII ..... and t>>,il no evidence ••fnruted Hi direct thrust on daman* 'o bird* by th* uses of Dm that are permitted tinder th* rrxlalrv, ions In cjue»Mon " rtntr.lners Report. 70 71 In tlew of DDT's pemutenc* ana ntohlllty, evljfnce u lo th* causal effect of theft* tuts wa* not reqtttr*cl. At argument and by motion Oroup l*etlHolier* ha\* nrTereil «'l.lltlonsl •vidrnoe, */>m* of which bean on the bum* of eggshell thinning f hav* granted that motion and considered all that data. "Tli* parti** hav* rof fired nelthtr in brlrM nor argument In testimony or eihll>lt» describing In d*t«1l th* *cor.umlrj of cotton proituctlon or substitute*. There u linneral testimony tliat cotton prodit(*r* r»r*lv* a |*r buah»t subsidy and that tliU (Fool not* 14 ci.ntlnufd ua neit pftft) Dtoitru, vot. IT, NO. »ji—»«iDAr, ;iny /, t*/i -24S- �13.172 aim teotlnv-.nr In ihe record to the effert methvl |.a»tlik>u c"»t» le« p*r applkatlon than th* ['OT*t*j«<iphea* formula. Har a» th* teatlntony >n>l enlilbll* that *now cotton Infect* derelnp re»lM4Uu* u> onf«nff-lvi«phate rhernlctU* to the jM>mt Th* very ftajn* eiltlblU make clear th»t IJOT U ftJto *ub)*ct to i»slM*nr* " Group Petitioner* »nd liBDA. whil* not duputin* the lejM-r pi-misience of or*»nopluisphnee. h»»e Mrrwd the a demotietr»?*<l -.me t.-:.:.Hy '.v:t"t •'..-•• »:*• t.-*!.- 1,1 bcne !, -tut Kill Inucti and Jvv-Mrul »p*cle» partl-ularly turd* aJ'Klitinft 1 «•'> treated field*. IheM organopboAphAte* break down more readily than OUT They apparently are not t -aji.«pori«l In tr-.etr tntlc i>t»l« la remote i-.'W t . i i f * nor ":u n hM t/e-ii found 1« from treate' art**. urn c>inMi|iwmlr da not poa* the jvn* mak'niuiti* of risk to the ftquaapher* H>-th testimony and *«• tilbtu also demonvlrau that or?enouh«j«(.halrn are lew atutelt i«»lc to ao,u*itn til*. •llhuuxh different compound* lints different toilcllle* The »(lrct uf nrKanapho»ph»te» on non-target urreftlrlal life can. unlikft the effect* of k>OT, ulna Be mlnluitfexl by prudent ue*. Application In known i.fatlng area* fur fare or eithirt rilfiiftcftit *rf Avoided Realm anel Quanuittn* TrcMmnata In Kmerireneie* •• iwcotumrnrtod \n and OrNtrr I>IK*UOU of «*t»-l^<l«T*l OfteliJe" mxl "fftlrU treauaAivV' hy Ui* roll Mary To* rwwnl M not, uul«tt\jn«wlf. «rH ii«Ttlopwl M u> the xup, or mcUiod uf apfdleiktv» f« then u»tt not M to Ut* overall volume cpolkiMl for t!ira> purpouia. WhUe tun fur l*t and mice control u crutnHettuxl tu AdnuuloD 1! a* a "public hnutb UM. • »ppltcaUon fur Uinw purp'taen If not vupt'rvlMHl uy uuuilc hrajtn t.ar.lMj*. rti« tii^fn nuf£*»t that UM far conunl of txiM uid mlcf u » pro(>rirtarv UH I>y the niilliAry.fVfti (liouch a fillrat* post control operator tr!,11l]«l (tiat uw fin btu wu conlluered eAMntlai by prl\alrot>rt^uin " With rrspecl Ui "A|pU:ultur»l and Uiiariuitine" u*e.i It 11 lUfflcuit tu determine to what ritent B|ipiieaii»na ar« 1.x healtb ptirpoAra or for nuisanet prevention. with ipjpfct |« nil of Ui«« usr«. Ixith (ur public liri'ttl pr..rr%nui and nropilftary ti-», alurmnlnnfloevist Th» l-ubllr Healtb Service UHtuned Chat DUT !• no tonirer the chemical of cholc« for controlling Olseiu* nc'.ori AM tut mice, wufariu U u»4 effectively, atul furulfration and ntuicr>?aUfal me*iu are avail alii* fur tue *in l^aU. t^ilonel }*u%lrr UfttlAeil tiiat Uie nillitAry ha* nut t^wi UDT.in trtU I OCter ifu.l «n<J li'Ptlvct mr> Ihe te^tl- country fc* 2 yrara for HKithprotinni; purniony of record, while •pan*, allow* that puan and lUkled that n« »•• «*v* of regujtered a!*ern»tue«, primarily orjfftnophaftprhate*. e»ifli for nit other crtfi ftnd C »fei(r1f fo b« «rr«»dM the tiammeft nrnaruenlal »•<• t' DOT. etcepl fur *torftice or»n«nn In ivschini? llu» factual coticlUNloiu t.se oii tweet p'HAliie* !o control teerll*. on art forth in the prfieaing in'tloiu, 1 Mac* heft\y com borer lnf>%t»tions of fc'reen pep"1 be«u mindful of Group lYtltlt.net*' arfrupeii. fend perhaps onion* •» ni'ot. ursiviwl in their brieti and «t irral 1. Hawtrp tun. In addition to the rr«t>- ar^\ime4lt, tnat th* ffearlnK Rianilner'ii findtrtUfni for twe on Tope «n<l in riurvfrnw. Inge rttfterv* paftlcular drterence In vlev of •*nnl nftMnktlniu far riancrop iue< kr« UMI U^H offpfvtuolty to te*>lT* oontradictloru m in iMut, AdmlMloa I I ll«u -pubiio tmllh t«*utuonr baard on denwftr.or erldftic*. pnu -t«u *nd rottentt," "AgrteuJtunil, NOWIHT* <!<:** th* ritunlner ntftte Ui»t hi* mndujiton* were l»w«d on credibility choice* • Wnatover entra WF>KM, then, that »»b«iilr U th» ditfrrur* b«t*»m j.rolit »"d nil^ht b* due ftndlnir.4 uaent *iprMWIy on a tirotk-evrn U It i.«t ilur ftlirther or ml rrKllblllty judgment U) rot apprtvprut* In hr»«H-«v*n Inriudn > r»tnrn lo Hit turn the cue twfurv me tie*, e « , NUlll v Diniun owner In l*m;» ef »«l»rf «f return on hu Coil Co. 901 " M 40* (Sil cir. Uf» whrr* lii»c»tm»nt Wlillt Mm» evidenrt *UID;»U the Ciananer'a rvport Ml forth hu a»jn«th*l f»nj»nopt-»pn»i« »« mur* tr«tl». I*- c>rnt uf the wiuieur*' credibility " rauw of h If tiff prir» »nd th« nreil fnf ITIV. The application of (he ri^k-lx-neftt te<it pe«u>d •ppiir«tlim» la ron«nlr«ted qutntl- to the faru of record In t.y nn iiiren*. ntniple IIM, Iher* U little to lujnfKl that the [Krt- W* |yt»* noteol In .itir itati-ment of Marrh I*. •iht* (nrreuw<t varoult nut from u« nf IP) I. that thi>. rartfiljiM ar» nunvrrout It <jiKfenoph^«p)iftt«i would to ft <1u!iirentl»e •hould al*n M borne In mind trmt th* variaIn producer* Indeed. Mltn »ul»!dln It U not not •taltt In rwtnt tlrnf At >rMadew »hst T»« of return ft cotton |iro^uc»r ble* ar* cliemlcal occun or of dr(rrt*d in th* up of a Li t»'elvr» for InteiteA rftplUl Tlirr* wtt ft en»lrr,rm»rt. rink tncreaitce Indeed. It m«y rtfvfenr* m*/)* to ftrt unk]«titlflffl *tudr b* thai th« lam* tendency nf a chemical to •tiowln( thftt the cuit of tiling xit.KtltuU* peratrl or build up In the food chain U would tnrolvf ft!6 mllllun ITiU flKure ftl^n* pretent but not known attout euhvtUute hw no meftiiUiff While Uter ve«tlincH^y BUK- rh*mlrai*. It may aUo b* that (e»t* that elimination of Din' would IncreaM ¥«rl»bl« coutt i>er acre bt t perre^t. "TTi* only •ttileno* M in the amount ot thU. too, U of limited ilRnlncanf* tine* th« rtrord do»» not nlal* It t4i the «upport pro- DDT u«ed for theft* purpuar* wan irtven by Col. fowler, who cald the total tiled by th* ?wa aiid th* ttudjr looked at only • limltxl military for bat ar.d RIOUH control it *parea •1 raunot ariept th* auirgeellon that we. pr>tlmat#tf 800-900 pounda. "UurUifi oral mgumont cvunacl kdmlttrcl Mniuld cnntlnu* to uw UUf untu It In iwxl t > tb* »»rr tut drop. Whuever the Kxiff that the Eiajotner'e. i*p<irt did not purport ta t*ri& e(n?a£* of the orffanophoftphatre th* niak* finding* based on credibility of «ltf id nr,»lr.» lb»t they K'nerally wort Wlitl* neuM, ubr could he point to finding) which IN* tut of Intect rr>utanc« U tniportwit ml»ht b* etjilalned lu ll«tit of a credibility ktiO uiilMtfon* th* n«€d lot rrtalnlnc a ruuiMl. (Triu»crlpt of ArKumrat. p »9 da I torwtr of ciieuifiH or in*ir>u>1* lo oimsK* •Pie tnuic i|<jritl»n* of fact In tlil> cej>e, the lh« aac.* pwt proul*Q>. tbl* Ckct tf<v« nni ha/ard to rruin And the envtrnurnent. wcr* J'lttifr an k»oid>t>l* UM &f a harmful rut and recilned by th* Lintnlner a* "conchemicn. ctuaknui nf law." "TTie piwKSenu. morvoirr. mate riaar •Touph«fw and (ItMlnon •/» rnjuivtrfd fnr control of rutvorm* but It U tint rl»r that th* Aernry l» fr» t« mat* It* otrn endfrom to* nrord aa to wnetnrr «r not the** ing* and that the Ktamlner'* On>tinf»ui« rertirailcal* *ra r»P»t»rKl «r *il*<tm to «-n- port only «>mprtM txt ot lh» record vnl-Jj trol cutvorm InfettatloM on onion* While. a o.iirt will then eraliwt*. rt:o • Atleatowo noo* of tb* pvtle* hae* poiDt*d to helpful HnwVMtlnil OK?.. J4fi U B «« ( I6M) . Ulit• >lit«iH» to oMintrlloD vtlU ua* for con- *«r»*l Camant C-nrp e. NUU1. 3*0 UA 4?« tri>IUnf tut»rrta§ oo onion* and w*<rU* cm (Iftal). Bven when aa EMmUM*'* fiedine* •torol **<** («ata*Ma. I hftt* taken }u#«t«l an b«w4 «fi cKdlbUity. u» AKftncy may n»»ch • mutrarjr renfiuttoa. tie* rcc i. r>of« of ttt* Dan*«t>Ma<*) ot tup**. MM'Al *rCUTl«, VOI. It, HO. -246- appllc*Um of a ehemLflJ In limited titie* for UM*e uve tanK nerrmrj change* tli* Iterant-rink owrnrfeaw *o u to tin th* •ca;** eaamoUf Uban when wo w*Vb *r«i*K*ut UM tor aa puipoM* airainM a«Kran»t* bentflu tie* e*c*mi7 WW ». U'A (opinion of Juo«* lAwatluU) . nrpra. A. fi«rr*r» o/ proo/ The erui cf a canorllatlon iMUCwdlnf! U th* *at>ty of In* product wbra tued M directed ft In •courdathe witn "romtnonly rrcnxnlaxl practice • Meitrnn almplr nated. mean* that thin Agenry l.m the. burdea of Hoirij forward to e»Ubll/,h thoM rkiii ahlrti It b*lt*vM to requin canceUatlori * In 1addition, an afflrnutltre a^(wct of tile Agency * riute nhouid be the antll»t.llIty of (irrfrralll* euMitltuU mcftt.s of controlllne the pem that are controlled by Uie canceled chemical vh«* th« Amncy u rtlyIrit; un thte fart tu titatritoh Uuit rlikj ontwriKh beueflu" Kvldenc* aliowlnc th* a>»Uabluijf nf a rtgtftiartit rbemlcal or rtbrr ineaiu of control wulcri thl» A«»n<-fi lt«icklet Ortloe u preparad tu nccennwrxt a.t a niMtltuu at that point In ttnw. cou]4>tl with lite Afrncy* proof ou rk«k. niaiti» -i*u Ht. arnrmatlv* ra.w " Th* burden at r*UtrtUbl then fa^^e on rciuu»-ni« vr uMn 1 hry m*y either t**k to l,eITJIU Ut« pftK^ on rliks etuier by r*bAit*.in0 the l<**!o acltnllflo dat* or by anirvuig that a particular UM b! to ItDilied tf n>'l tu ea» 'Hie IfrfUU.U, l history of ClhllA. Juill.-Ul decl^bin* and Axency protiouni:virit>nts all •tat4 that Ui* "burden of prouf ' n-rnrilt- i on lha icitUUKnt to deouxwUkt* thct hid prmluct aa,u«Be* the rcquuriucut* for rf«ht.ratl,>n uiuler Ui« Act M« a. Kept i?l at & (Hutu futuj. Ortl atat. 1B03): II. Ite.pt lliti at 4 186th Conir, 0»t »u. l»dl: UJf v KPA. aiui>*. EUlfe. ItucacMuMM. tuiuu; tuirmci.t of .'t*«sone, Vlar. IB. 1971. tvwt* ha«. unr, rt'jnately, bten ft Kreat deal uf ml»unu>rfttaJuilnx concerntnft thcM ttateriienu blni' ply ftUted. tb* burden of proof referred lo by U» 'eeKUatlve titoUiry ia lh« btud*n of pereunilnn nhlch rtqnlro a p»rty to ettnUMi the eiut«nc« of firlni*ry facti It Hiuulit i,. t be ranfuftrct wtth the httrden nf rr>lnt? f'^ri»nrd which M generally a ml* Ui e>-.tv>lt^h th* order for the presentation nf evidrnre The burden of colnjt fsrward may. Jiowcver, have tuMtanllfe con»«r|uene»* Wh*rn a i-»rt r whtch ha* the burden of (tolng furwnrtf fniis to Mtlify that burden, the fa^t* <nu be dendfid aff«1ri*t him. even thouKh thr other party may her* been rriponnlhle for the hurovn of permiaalon, Wht:e In ni'^ft trgal proceeding* t* e pnrly »hlr h has th* burden of going forwar i hritr* the burdeo of pentufutlon. thla I* not nerei* Karlly th* cam. On eonve lftaue<i. Ilk* contrtbvttory oeellKtnc* In aontt Jurl^^llrtlnni. u may t* that onr* one party hae tntrodurrcl eTldenc« to put th* luu* In the ciue, the other (larty bear* th* burden of pm-.ia«ion on that point. In a nPltA •••ncrtutlon rtitrInK th* proponent of ranrrllattnn bean ttir huntrn nf r»me fnnnro. but doe* mt bear the burden of (wrsuulon. "While a mere ulioaiaf of « hlnh desire of rlfJt wjuld make out a prlina farie caoe fi<r cancrllation, where the Age-ory l» rrlylni; oil the fUitenc* of an alterii4U<* raUier tli-tn •Imply a «IIOW|IIK of rl*k. It •ruiuld, a* h«re, |irr<»ni im own witneue.* ••HiLi liearln^ waa rondu^Wtl tintler rule* which have *litc* troa amerced C)ee 97 K H Otlt (May Ii, ItTJfi UnOrr t>» ART !><•>'» fontier rtiiH* reguitranta prorredM oret &t the he*rU>( TnU oriirr of nrefteniatl.m. which u i>ow chaJUKM, wa* not pee/urllrlftj In tbU ouw Th« tf*orj toon Umn dUrliarnr.1 lu burden to put on a (HUM (acu eu*. K*»l*tr*JiU had •A anx»l* opportunity for nduf^al, At *ur*l tfel* Utiorted »rv « nUUMt unntcmmu* |<rvt-wcted tb* b**rli'ii. , 4MV r, t*71 �1XJ73 |,*adtr tb» rttka from wlde<pn*4 tut of tb* la* buildup et DDT In th* mrtronnwnt anil ebmntcal. Thrr on utoo awk to «t*KJk>H e«- IU mifrattiia to muuM ai«s* t\M n*utt*4 frecai* boortW. Wbtr*. u |M», U» »O» fiont pact UM* and mlwtuw The • t*. how. »nc* of a)Urti*tU«* baar* on UM b»o«6t of aw, co p*rau**I?* «»li!»tv<^ of n cc-rd U> *nov tb* cbtmloj un4*r nvtnr U»*y my rlxnm lh»t ta* RCS^a*'* folunt* vf "« of DDT la ahow aonttabmty of alt«rnatlt«*. «SUM* for all UMI la quMUun. <lveD lb* for gtotral *utrtttvjt4on or IB a p*rtlcu!«r g»- •f application. BUI not rctult ta ograpblral r»gt«>».* 711*7 ">»J •Bo **** *• <S!.iy«r«»J aim bulMup to tht «ntlr»iuu*nt •how in* DcndettnfelUty (or rlifc*) erf to* and th;» add to or malo'aln th* *ir«w oa alteroatlt* if ttwy tflucn* wttb tea el*S th« *QTl?ORcnfiit t^tultliig from paftt UM. Judgment o< Uit* Agsocy. Tti» ttapartnitnt of Agriculture ban. fur IU B App'tcaflc.ft o/ ra*-betwjlf to trap u«» furt. «mj>hi HCIFO Dfn n }«w artit* tonlclty la o/ fl»r. Th* Agtat* and IMF b»»e *«tair- conipwlion to that of o]t«rnatlv« chrnil-a;* Ilihed Uiat DDT It tc«le to naatargtt tnMcto and Ibu* IrltO tn aunt* ta« rtak and t>*r,«ftt and animal*. p*nl]t«ni. mob!!*. and tnrit- aquation baluic* out ftTorabl; tot th« coti' f*r*M« and that It build* up la la* I'-xl ttnitnl u» ut Dlrr Whll« th* arut* toilcity ehtia. Ho labal direction* foi UM can «*»- of m«th^i paratftlijtt n,utft. In tlvc tnort run. ptewly pmtm tfct** bwwrd* lo abort, tfcty b* taken Into aAoi>xmt. tr« Infra. II itoc* not bat* *»uH>l!iBt<l at U»« »*ry l*ut U* n»» o( lufttff rontlnutd ua« of POT on a Iong-K#mi th» unknown Tint rtok Is compounded bt«lt. TVlitr* a chemical CM* b* aaf«l* ti**d wh*r*. at U in* caM with DDT. m»n u>4 If labil dlrn-tlous am followed, a producer animal* Und ts acrumulat* and ttor* th* cannut atolJ th* rUfc ol hu own uritllKcnca chemical » T»i«*e fact* alow eorutttut* rttk* bf *ipi*lng thlr-1 partlen and th* tnvlronth*t are unjuitined wbtr* apparently auJtr inent to a toti|[-t»rm harurd. ArmrtStncI;. all crop UM« «f Dt)T ar» h*r« • •Jttrnaiiv** *»iet to acbtet* tin Mia* tenant Witer*. ho»*»«. then u • d«»ru>iittrat«d tly camrtkd cwcpt for appltrattou to onlout laMnktnry relattoruLhlp b*tw**n UM connl- for control of cutworm, wrtvllt on tiorec* c»l anl wik- *<!KU in aian or animate. tli it •wrrl (xitatoM. and fwcet f>«pp*ri. Hhli-mtnu n*k l». gtrtrraliy (peaking. r*nd«*4 awa of l>nr l«hrj<4) for tbmt UMt may cnutlmi* Uor» UMWWptabl*. If ajt«rnatl?** HUt. on wrnia »t forth la Part V-A. Wt drftr u> In Uw C*M Mfje* u* lb* riak to human Pan V B. Infra. oni>nil»r«tlon of th* prcptr hatllB from utlrur. DOT nonet b* dtt- timing of unetUa'lon of other uwi In U«ht counted Wbll* the** rutt ralgbt ba *co»p» of Ittt tbort-rua d^i.ytr* of twitching to th* tor.1* Km w* forced (o UM Mrl*. tn*» »r» tut of organopbonpliatt* without pmtldlug hot *o trivial Ihtl v« «n to* Udlffertat W tralolng k <;. j|pr>''lc«llo<i nf rltk-titniflt ta nmttop •Mumlat tlMin uiuM«M*arUy. TIM vrKlcDO* of nocrd (bowing *Ui»g* la •jici Thtr* rrmaint Ui« qwniton of iht dlt> tinn Mi* m*«aiac»Uon in ttie food rl»la U a pntition on Ui« rrcltwrod htalth and Ontv»raln« to I l>t prudtnt tbftt BUD ni»j tni ««- trnmrnt VMH and other noocrop u*ea of po»lo« btnuwU to k •utKtftnot tlut nsaf olu- DOT It abould tM (mpnaalrcd that th«» hwrlimt har* ntvtr Involnd Ui* tu* of DDT Ai Jo<U» l«f«nih»l rtnnUy pototwt out. by other nMtoni In Uielr hMltb ounttol pror«ot«f l> • •»»tuill» «IK1 (rsght-lulin" m*t> g'Mnt A* w* tall In our DDT irt«t«mtnt of t»r and not«d ctrlltr In hlo cploton Unt Marrb IB7I, "Utlt Anenry will not prrKiim* lo tvK'itau th* Me newanltlr* of other carclnofchic tff^ct* ura emmttlet" ntaMnwnt. at S Intlerd. the v. KI'A. dip Op at U and 14 Th« POMI< riFKA or«i not apply to nporU. Srctlun 7. tallltr tint HOT It a rwctuoe«n U at prwtnt 1 U A C arctlon tltt H97J(. (liven th* alt«rnailT<* for auithpr<-»nng rtmot» anil ur.quanliRablt; but II It U cot a ilrtn to panic, It U a MiHtptior* ohlch and cMHrol of bat* and nuoa ~pit»pri^tiiry • ufgnt* that an l«l»iillfl»hu public tHotflt (ortrnmtnul UCM of DUT -I am p«r>uad«l U raquuxS tu juiuff ronlintiKl UM of L>t>T. t'.itl th* bcneftti M« ntn taon d« nilnlint* Wb«t* on* <-b«mK»l t«tt tuniort(«ole In a than th* rttkt. On th* othrr hand, public labcrabirr ttid nn< <ion not. and both ac««ia> hvalth and rjuanuvtla* pnitEnut)* fall Into a piuh Uit urn* Uik. tbt lall»f I* tu b* pr«- wholly atpant* oategory. 6e« KUP r. ffrr«d. abMDt torn* riunuatlnf tircum- RurKtlxhaut. «S» P. Id at «»«: DDT Slat*. ii*<:' ut l!e«*nnt at II. •tanct*. Whll* altfroaUtw abto eiltt fur UM In TV* ruk* to tht tntir'nimtnt from oentiaurO UM of OUT «*• rnof* c4«ilr otab* public htattn q-iaranllnr prograint and, In Uib«l 1ti«t« u no doubt that OCT runoff n»i*t ln«tai»«*. DUT l> 1aa longor tht >eon,«n can C»UM con lamination of waurra and gl* f u chtrnlcil, I UelKv* th* . it would bo unwlM tin prop* oil! r lo tolalllu* aod tltytttt dur- to natrict kni>wl«dge«bl* public ufllclalt to ing (pptuatlon, lner» u no awunne* that th* ch<<4c« of on* or iw*? ch«mlca)t. IJk* • tu,rl*UM u**(* oo Iht or<l«r of IJ rallllao phytlctan. th* publlj jfflclU muw h»v* an pound* p«r jf*r vill not oaatlnu* lo afftct wtdc»pr*ad ar»x Ixrond the location of apilurnj contl4*rab<* ter(|. ptlratluo. Th» tftaef itaff attahlUbed. a* mooy on tat tflvctji uf ori<auophr)«-.phat«t on *<ll. tb» «>t*tfm't of wi-rptaM* »uto«tttutM nuninrK^t tptclea. Bcvln. It apprant. It highly fur all crop uatt of DDfT «c»pt oa onion* tone to fcw» and mom wllfieMM tKTced tint and »*«t potaton In itong* and (r««n th* nrianopttuiphtl** wer* totlc tu nontarp»r>p«r« gtt tntinal*, >uua!ly Llrd* and lot«ct Hit. NtKtitract* attempted but f»llfd to tur- pir^nt vlieti a (told it «pr«j«l Tl>* prewnt mnunl In* ««id*nr* of Mtabllirurd nu« and tftrttnr* ilemoMtratM. hvwertr. Uiat thro* tht «U>Uoct of nubitltutn by njuing tbat organnphotphat* conipnundt art lew ••pertlttrnt," and tlult do nut liartt or rrixle li>tn "Wh*rt then It a (tntratl; ?!»bl* substi- watcn or collrri in the hitman f'H>d clialn. tute. which will ln»iirc an adaquat* crop Whll* It may IK that In Hint th* familiar tupfklr. tht nonliability of tli* «Ut*>i]»tl»* la phrat* "ramJMamr brecd« contempt' »lil a particular at*a will btat on lb* advlnttuitf apply, aa w* learn tnor* about th*w* romof a transition p*n;«l (we pan IV. Infra poiiiicb*. they appear nnt to prt^ettt a long* "Jo *DarUn« Iht prattnt law on* vf Uw rang* hat aid to man fir a<jtiAiic area* Where gr*at«*t ooncrrn* « (pirHMd t« Congtaw waa r«vl>l'«!t* h«'* orored tv by dcmontlrittng tht run of th* unknown. HM t(»l»m*nl of thctxuu tuilTlty tifmeih;! partthlon whlcu Coc(r>Mmaa Dlnftll. H*a/ln(* btfura It* It tho primary auern»ut» rheinlou "t,t many flutw^mmltM* on Dopwtnvoatal Otranlgbl of tb« cr»p tuan In nur-Uon That ftil di>ta and Contuam n*Utlou> of tl.» nouw Com- n»t. how*e*r, alter th* long-trrm >>*ianc* rr.iet** oa A«ricultur*, at «* (6SUi Oa«8, bttwt*a th* rltki and t:r"«lu. tn view t,i HrwtaM tli* nuOp*mtt«o«* at ampl* anenal for U$g psxnbat of dl»e*,it and tnfeatetlon. I ouinot. buwffvtr. b* Inultttrent to th* fact Utat Uw tfoord *uA!«"t« Hiat "heutn ajvl ()uiu^ullii«" utM nav*. la th* p*.*. ap* Included proprietary uitft by gnvN«r cwi I tw nutnplaoeitt abuut «.-rvlw<d ILI* for thrn* Tturpout by rltlvnt. t an. arcurtTnglT. rr<julrlni a taN-1 which wll' rwtruJu lr><)t«cr!mlnn'* UM of ROT for a w'oe rantty of purjueet >itultr the rubric of oiBclrJ uv Tliat Itbel liim>i«g» U tn ttrth In th* en!»r acrvinpKnylng thlt nviuon. and Is antgnrd to iv*lrio< adljNnent vf DDT uitljr to V H. Oovrrntatnv ofll S»l.i *nd 8t»'« I'Olth depanmentt wlio will b« knuwK^genblt m lo Uit ni'jat riTcrtltt rotiui* fot routrril Mid mlNtUui of the rltkt of u»-.ng DDT. Ill in, on au «ppllcalloD-by-»ppU«tttua br.<ri* for necf'atary beAKb and quafan~ tin* puipn««. th* bcneeta will b* mftilnili<Hl and outweigh vh» rtjik>.» Cf. 42 Ol'O. <*?• tlnn 4332 (1871 j whkh rrquiiM an «nvlronmMiUtl impact ateAauMdt on otvgoUig otttclal V. I turn nciw to the deposition of •tociita lu light of tb* furegoti« principle*. > t Iht ouUicl >t ahould be noted tlikt recent .iKKIal deu«lt>na b*v« urged tbl« Agency to u<r It* ' (WiltiUlty. tn liotb flnal drclMan* anii «u«|«n»lon ordora. lo ijl(l«rtnilat* b«t««u UM-I c.f tlit product " {6e« KJUr* Y. KI'A (opinion "f JuOg* Ijemiltial), inpr*. at JO). and reoituded ut Uiat rreAtlve. axti>ptabllli7 U tb* kjjnton* of a wurlu>bl« rtixulAU>ry proc*u Cf. KKC ». Ntttonal Bcctirltlet. Inc., 101 U 8 4t>3, 4UJ (1868). FJ5P ». RPA. Wbll* <llw>jr«lnR tuiipeiu-lon. wriM M a beacon In thlt regard. mifKetung Uiat repiU'rutH.n bt continued fttleciiMly, taking Into account "rettrtcllorui en klntki and *i'«nt "' u>e." Id at 3t Driving tlieit prlnclplra In Mind. I turn nmt to th* foi m and «bap« i'iir urtlen flu.itld Uk*. A pKpmltlon at to onMit, ifnrrd tvrrt polaior). and iu-tet frpptn. Th*r* U evidence that DUT It tht only useful ehpir.ual fur controlling heavy corn borer InfejiUtluna which attack KTMU p»ppert in the Del Hurra peninsula. Hie reward Hiown that about I3.MIO pound* of DDT are u>ed l«"l«!l» u a ground application for propliylnvilc purPUOM. fjtvtn. guthlon, and pr|u»phanil<1on can. howtrer. be uned at leu than 34 jitneiH tnft-tatlon. Del Marv* produce* Itu than 6 pen«nt r of th* intloi/t tweet peppers and other c op* ran r>« prontabty prtiM)ttr«d. In* A^er.<y ttaff IIM conceded In lid April 16 brief *n tiippni't uf proposed Oudifign. conrliwlon*. and order that thin ti«e of DDT "comet cl"oe«t—of all th* u»rt In twufl— lo being neccvary In the ten** thai i>o real alternative Uuecl control method tiuu uuo«r certain cundltioni" inner, at t i l l Tit* tvtdenre concerning UM <tf DDT to control cutworm* I* lewi clear rut Apparently cutworm titfcutatlonii In th* Nrilhwent art •tmradU' end localln-d WMm It wuiild appear thtit other chtinlcali cxmld b* uted tu rnntrol cittwurin luitfclailoni oil "The une of »3T In Tn|-o«dr a pre«,-rl|i. tlun driiK. U rcKiiK-.-il ' y both the r\»iO and Drug AiliiiliilnirAtkM *nd tlilt Agency. Tin altwtmllvr. Kwell. U ^ liiKlan* pn»I\n-t I • in. however, tnklr.g Judicial nnt|ri> ft Ui* far-t that llri'lane rrRittrailont are j>i<«fntly under review by thin Airwcyt ren'jc4dn OtT^r Mid mvrril ui« of llndruie lime ;n the pAvt, hern the >ub]«rl r/f c*.nr*Uallon pron-nlinicii r^e In l*« liar. Kiirl Uiidjit.e. kiipra. I tun ii'it prepari-o t4i juclga i>n thin mxtfd wh^tli^r or ruit th* rink to lh« enTlforunrnt . and !!•* pulillc at liux* fr'im DUT »l>airi|>oo U greator than fmtu llndan* IIKI/>I|>« A< t't tl>* dlltrt *n«t1* MI tli* »»,» erf Uit ('ro.i. Oil* ni*vt«r I* for n>A and to* iie^-Tiiilit« pbyrtuian, MOIUl MGlSTtl, VOi. i f . NO. lll—f»iOAr. JUtY 7, IVT2 -247- n <i �13.171 ontuni M with iit»ii'K«.""'>oii» <r« aj>|*renUy regl»lernl Ho party MM cited evidence of record «ho»lr^ »u*t percent of the oluonproduclug acreage wvuld be effected by • cancellation <•( POT Ine evidence with reject lo use of DDT M ft ' d i p ' Vi protect kiortd i<*eet polatues agatnil v e t t i l limitation it e«en spottier. Neither counsel t»r the pamri nor our rreearch hika pointed u* to evidence of record allowing 1tli* precise volume i>f IU>T u*e for tbli pun ***- "» Ukrlv effect on the environment. ur the dcum- nl I»\5 tint .night b* smuiued to; pr<Hi'icerv Whll« It would be i«r enMer simply to raiirti or not ram-el tli« regi«tret!an» for the-.a u -ei. I iwMen tiiat environmental prjii'.amt ahi.tiM hv p irvfd »1ui ft ecllpel. not a huckjH-* Whllr I DC end mr oan titlt urge cancellation. <m Hie t'round that procluceri on easily thiP. to pr*i>iclt'g different crop*). Ihere li no eudenee a* to liuw long aucli transition illicit re<iuire Mxrejver. It msy be that continued use of a Untiled volume flf HOT l>l thew few aienv tiken tn rnn;i<iictl'io wlin eivr'Rute V'lmne of UM f»r t/thtr purpose*. like health. present no ri*k to the emir'i'metit ObvinuMy much of tin nrt»« on tn* ' •«"*•"' environment I* reduced by out ilimg overall volume uf u»g* •ad w« muil then etilrnate Ihe Impact of UM, *x)th on IM environment e» a whole, and the local eunounding*. Uetly. It may w«ll tic rtlcTint to «»min* the Itnpoct an ov«rM1 >upp<r °' * fnimndltf Kv»n though p»ppff». unlaiu. tnd «»«t (»t«l(»» m»r nut t» Jood "«iipl«."'H rruif b» i)i«t tli« olhrr •cmet b not «ul(rd fur prud'i^lnn th«M trop» In th«t »T*rit, II will b« ner»»*rT lo dtUrmln* whether or nnt tuppltrt »lll nitMr dfmnnd. »i.J wlirther or nut » Hnnslilon p«rlod >hould lir fltrd to prrmlt • mukrt «<llu»tmrnt • It follows th«t uddltlonitl rvidrnr* li »qutrfd to determine Die ftr.*w#ni to th^«» qufttlorts In lh« tntfrlm th« cnncrllntlou ordrre mil rnntln I" »fl«t. iub|rct to n«u» trmnt» or u»»r» iwtliiantn* to pnwnt m)dl> tlon»l ««td«nc* In that tttint. • <t«; order will IMU* p*iuling tr>» d«t*n»inBtion on rvaitnd. If thtw uwr> or rDgutrant* c*a dirmonttrau tint • pi»dur« ihortitn «t!l iftult and thtir particular IIM uf birr, talun with othtr until. do«i not rr<at* undu* tt»M en th« g«n«ral or local «nvl>onrn»ni, parUdilntly the aqua«phr». c«nf*n«tlon tl ould t» lified.-K n» produce •hurt*** will rvtult b»c«i!5< olh«r «<T»»B« U tuttablt for thfM rropn. It ihall n'lll b« ot>tn to demonitraM that ft tnmitllona! period la nqulrcd tor •witching to nev cn>p« If th* Inttrltn ua» ol DDT doft not conttltut* an fnvirnnnwntal rtik. final ordtr* of can<-rll«lloii for thfM uwa will bt deferred until the Irannltlon rau be accompl!«h«l. proiidcd •Murancu nr« itcrlred at the hfnrlnj that furmulatori and usrn mil not permit bootlegging. B The •«•!«•» fo mttftyl ftarafilon The need for a tranittlan pe'lud er<w« alw In ronn*«tlan with trtuee una that ar« brinff t*n«ied tatied on the eiltttnce of methyl parathlon. The record before m* leave* no doubt that the chief euhetltute fir most iiwt of DDT, methyl paraihlon. U a hlghlf tu«ie chemfal and, \l ml^uaed, U danferuus to applicator! « • It H a roco«nl»ed policy of common law nnlnnee and alto nf Federal environmental lefltlatlon to afTnid artecied pr"d»cera ft tranmtlonal perlixt fr>r IRip'ementlnii new •Not all of the pntsibte aubitttutei for DDT are equally > pot«nl for example, trichlorofoo, monn< niti>plioeI maiatMun, and cartiAryl, amnnft nthera, itre avAllnhle lo control rr,AriT rMluti nefttn; c.irbarvl la an all* i>tirpnM chemical for inn^t rotton pe<*t* It ta. iH.^rirr. hbtin'liin'ly clrr«r ih.i* inv'hxt pnrat ( H-ell TbM waa Ibe ftnuali? uiualaunM opUtlaet o( all Uie wttnwa«. 'ilia luUoHuelkm koto tue of or^aMiptiui^inaUa tuua, tu the put, raiued tteatln ainoii* <uara »Uo nra untrained In their apiiliratloa ajiU (tie tcMIMony and exhlblta of record point t>> the unhappy e»p«ricnce ot uierol rrern ««o wli«r* lour deatha occurred at the tint* ntotiiyl purathlun beK^n t.^ be uiwd on tubacco. crt>|«». Ottier tentlmouy uoled tha IncreaM In IKIII(atal accident* »ml attrltnited aluicwl un«lull reported p»ti<-id* |u<i«iutniii la the urKft'iophoaphat* K^>up. A eurvev t.-ottdut'led ,i(ier tn0 ur^anc>piifv-,phair» beK»ui 10 replace cliU>rltiated tiydro^'arbonn In l e x t » auKHesta a fct^niilfuntly Uicrrawd liic!deuve of ftod UM ttaka o. DOT noun from i iAug-teraa uee. la the very ahort mn. however. the equauoa tieJaocee oui very diffeteouy .« LfVew'iaa, Ihe pm^>e«t uf llik«uUun wbich n< *M eniue were Ihe w*o ar |jl>r immwliaSeiy >wlied where on ftlt«ruatl>ra en-it 14 a fact, T we inuvt reckon with. The iii*ji*r envlrunmeulftl rvgulatory .auttu'^A. enactett ftn<t peiuVUig. prtivUte "Iradt lnu»'* ft^ an adjust tneul lo new requirement* " Wlule Inipitlteiico l» undrf^sui'hible In \i4*>v f»f the pfl^t hlnUiry of (1i*'rt)T »t* i r^' IH-L be lulled lulu the belief tiini !•< u-' ., ...... >: problem* can be corrected by mrTi<;i:M s-.tnlloiw. Todays iK-t-uum pr*>vhlr< n <i-i'n:tiio anioer l<> Die »I.\\M of DI'I' rri:l r»'i,.rn and all concernr,1: to p thH 1 A,/o<irv f.inuriB, That the cklltnt or.d Iralufd l.scr may niaitufa^'.urers. Die O* |MU ltn''t't! »>r .^^rlc'it. apply orgaimphunphatea wttli complete aafety lure, and extelt«l<,n stntcc^. a l "ir. ; '. pr.'K uf comlort only If there li nu orderly tran- cced with alacrity tov-'ard the ip.jrtnnrnr.i'i'iu nuon fioro DUT to methyl parathlon ao aa to of this order. tram worker* now untutored In the wftya (jf proper une. I. ncorc or rtsx I am accordingly niftklnK thti order effective at of December 31. lull, uwofar a* the A. PH KoUceu 71-1. 71 3. 71 .', < o < . « . li r,l| canreltellouft of any particular u«e la pre- rFKl'terM i.«*» of I>f>T and TDK. dicated on the availabiluy of methyl paraB. AppraU be*n receunl ililon aa a euuetuut*. tn the month* that mu!aton who havft re^bitrattuiii for1*7> r .11i u >forheld f i r > i' follow the Department of Agriculture and Ing t>l)T or TDK Thfe f»riipiiai. n nptiiate ekl«n«lou («rvlc«a and rrpreeentallvea pe-ared at Ihla prucre'llnt! by A r MhK]? roitiu^i. nl t:i'A will bav« time to begia educating C. Wyco. Inc. and Ilia W»)lrr:.l. m i. > ami D.OM worker* who will have u> um iiMttiyl Starfe ltru'0. Nurseilea have a!-*, afif'-ut-d by pju-athlun in future growing aoaaoiu. fjucti ft »e|<&rate couruwl program can H» Introduce farmer* lo the I) The Plant Remiiall<m ion of Uvj acutely toilc nrf|ituopho*phh<««, like Peuartmoot of Attriculture M i l ,H p t u t y n.e wo» to cturbaryl, which uiay t>* aatufactory for many Ihle hearing a< a renutriuit niul U>e l>r|«\n. .utts. roant vrvjs &n Intervenor MI to all ^otw VI Fur from being InconaKtent with tb* E Kit Lilly ft Co. and li I' Cai'ii»n A. <tr.n> gi-teral congrajMluiua mandate of XIFftA, ft were partle* to thla heonnp period of adjustment to trato tisers of methyl P. National A^rlcullur»t CneinifaJft A-*o. parathlon or i^errilt a needed traiultlon elation: Kiivlrvninent«l t>eferi4<f FiruJ; lh« where 110 «ut>*tltut«4 exut to a logicM out- Uterra Club: Weat Michigan f.nvlruri>i.':it«i growth of a sensible application of rlek'beae- Action Counnel: and National Ai'uMb^o lilftiiftlytta.While the Initiative Iiletory doee Society aro tntervenor partle'i. not addrean th* ftpeciftc prt>blrra before me — O. ITie following canceled uae? uv e «p.. trie timing of cancellation order* — Uie hcarInga that preceded the enftcttnent of FirnA pealed and at IMue In this Iteiwiv Indicate that conjtrewlonaj concern for aafety Crop Ustl I Cotton. of the fatnier-u&«r of i>eatlclde» maa no le.^t 3. Dean* (dry, lima, tiutp). than Congrm*' *ollcltud* for the environment. While CongrtM ultimately altuck * 8. Sweet potatoM. 4. reartuta. balance that generally place* th* rlik of nfgllR«nce on the applicator. Me (itearn* *. B. Cabbage, cauliflower, aril 1-nis.vie f.l'fi, aupra, it did eo la light of aiturance* npmuta. that farmer) are for their own Mfety a* well «. Tomatoee, aa that of the environment bring trained 7. Frc«h market corn In pniper method* of application. Bee Hear8 Hwtet peppers and plirwu'uri 9 Ontona. ing! before the Subcommittee on Pepvt10. Oarttc. menUtl oversight and Coiuitmer Relations of the IInu>e Committee on Agriculture, 11. Commercial greenhouses auprft, ftt M. 8* » The run-benefit equation U ft dynamic •I do not believe that the Srrohlh rir. can. Tuning I* ft ramble in that equation. cult'* de<c!»lon In 8t*«rn» Pho^phorwu IM.'io What may, tn th* long run, be iiwewary to Co. r. EPA. aupra, preclude! me from 'nki'iiprotect the environment could be ft ihort- lnt>> account the nhort-term d«<i:-'^ fiat t*rm th;tat to human health, Thi» U eiactly could result from IncreAard tine >*f niethvl the C«M before me now. The benefits of untng P«rathtt>n by unlralned u5ern. R f e t t t i s lioldi organopho»3puftt«* ftre ft long-range benefit lhal ft producl IA not "nil^rAftii, i" «ir<iplv It can highly Oi»'i(-rr>M." the •At len.1t two courte hare given esprest because rue-lcM.bellila reanotili^* ft>M<iIf nut. user U reoognltlon to the almllarlly between the however, compel me to l«in<ire thf- *iMidei;cy regulatory rcheron* tn KUliA and the Foot. of humftn beliigt to t>« ne«£)l^ent v hrre ue Drug, and Onatnalle Act. Bee Welfon1 r. are dealing with the Iniplrinriiintio!) ,,f an Huckelthaua. *Q» f . 3d (i»» {DC. Clr. 1871): N«r-Arn r. l(a/rtln. 435 f. M 1191 (7th Clr. order that will Increaee use <>f (i hlitliiy dunI»70| (en bane). I believe that the trail t^rroue Aiihuance. Even itr^lu-rtKe can bo by (•tingree* Intended me to follow U marked mlntinlrjyl tha tralnlttg. e«cHlJf<! from r*l"White by It* directive In eectlcm 3»» of the rood, dence ft utudy Kiaminer of the DDT |>r(J>lfr,i fur tl.» Urug. and Coametla Act. 31 VOO. aeff.lon Agency by a ronmiitTer of tlie 344if)(3) (1871). which permlla the Oecre- Nationalundertaken of Bctencfa, It )« ApproAcade>my vary tu tet an tffectlve date for ble ordvr*. prlatfl to note that Committee recomm^ndi-d While atmllar language hw not been ei- ft phft0a-out period for thin name rewctut outpreiaty Included la nmA, lie omlulon o*n ImM In tit** opinion. White I rench inv rfithardly be conMdered adrertent In njw of rliMtone wiihcnit relying on fh*l rrporl n the legUlatlve lilntory. nee 8. Repi. No 673 factual finding* and ret'ommendatl'inif. ainl the <tetb Cong., flrat aeaalon !««}): U. Refit. baae tht*rn onrefwfrt record ft* compiled belfivc, I believe tb* wat erroneo\mlv evcliHed No. 1135 (Mill Coog. eeo^od eewlon 16841. from the record, |rflrtlcuiarly In v]p\^ nf Die The purpow of th* JM4 amendmenti wa* to offer by counsel fur the Agency to |,r-HlMf*> u elimlnat* regutratlon under protest. committee tneinlii r <<* cr»s«-rininhi I'MII ItOfKAl DCOItTH, VOl. ir, NO. Ill—IHIOAT, JULY 7, -248- �itp O'wt mlO» and baU («1U- ji»i>ik> u»at,nent (mUH*»y only). n D!Um»u Or Uirr praMuu a curclnrgciilc rtuk. A. Pw I. I>UT ta ofc^fxa for the control of c+rtalo cotton t U*M" V ;***u*. 2 tvuu'i ,*!,;* ar* biYORilng rtsLitunt to OUT. S. Mt'thvl fWEtthio'i fti.d olhw orftftni>phf»spttale . heir»-Bl'« are> etttr'.lve for 11.o central . ;> r,mt:«l of '""ty II.* In ur >£• A ll-ulc. n-iduii;-' I l»trr can |K i r.;*E 'n sous for ye»r» and •*»•» )<»* 10* if ;ojvj'inUc I If* limn DDT. 'f.*. „• I'll! , u t ...... i I l;i a.|invi< eroiv.teris 3 |i*.-aiiM ..f i • r-.ls'.enc*. UIJT l« auu;e.-l appear to iff i w "peM.ttent" Hiul do not, i.. UHii«riirt fr..ii. >.:wi of «pi''u anon build t i n .(i u»* fc-vHl main. e l»l*T CUM be • rai'iported t-y dnfl d»trc MMhvl pftrathlon Is uvulely t"Xto by dcrm:%' te-. piiamr) eKf>M.,'*» And crtU InIm: a»rn! i|i|><'' ••'!.>« l> D l r l mo •»;«>•:.•* fn-ni rrop» mid Kv!t« ;i"MI >H 4 IVy MMM; me'hyi pt\mthlon or olhrr r IiDT ca;i h« *'!»•:. fd <«> eC'dlnf oil neat'ji fit p*^i control col*on producers run parti''!'"* 4 t)I>!' u a «••> I«BI|II.IIII "' freormateri. ptirdti<Mt HA m factory yields At HCej,tuar:er » VTU.r ••,«» o-.«»n and It I* dialon! > r i"^«j>.'ji» w |ir»(*nt t)I)T from & 1>UT U fou.^td^r^d u&pful to nav« In rt~ reci'-litMK i»', '" ' i'''" *»'l tvpopraphy non- MTV* far piibltr lif&ith purpose* in duvit^« ><»<'(.i( t iiitr.rt. •l/il»<'''''» »*:0 " " 'l» ''""' '1» •"* of e ir.rf u r»n<mrr«d uwful ta a motliappl'call-11 U CU.TO.f « -I:'.*' Tin *tia** 'tuifn 'oaatitut* i\ run t« the a PUT I. iu.1 prrwiitly «iwd IJJT lli« military ?>ir tri*atin«nt uf fabric. It Al'.vrttallven «xtrtt. 7. IJIJT U ttneful for public iii!ArAiitln» A ruMe-f.nfi.tf* I HOT M concentrated In orKintflitw arid trarjiferrwl Uimtik'n f'K*1 welm a l)l)T <*n l>« "mrertlrmUMl In d/ld tian*ferred thro'iirn wrremtal lnT..>ttrhr»t««. mmimuuA. ami»h:'>!.\na. ropttle«. end bud«. b UIT rjkll t>* ' '.»'« ntrated and transferrrd lit fri*i. water and marine plankton. tiwu, nydl'i*". ciMirr ItivMletjrnlM. *i.il I>Oi I Tl.« »r<- ,'i,'i:n!l"ii Ml t(K f'xxl rh»ln «ii. I '.T-;I rrsljun triulu In human >*pniur« 3 H'Mnun b»lniw*V)r*t>UT II '-'ItlrnaH! Oiidli'K •r»i> «I>OT» fai-ton loiutltut* »i unknown. >m'l':wi f U)A*j> ri-A Vo i»*n and lower A Ihutir flndloir* 1 DDT afTeri* [•f.ytnplankton *p*t*l*V c/Hiifr^tlon und in? natural balanr* in 3 OI/r U !*'t.»i v> ti'Mcy bfiierktal agrl* r u t ' 'if tit tnJ'^*"t*4 1 rM)T t u n M-.v .etti«l kr.ct iul>Vth»l cfbrh 4 "^ (nrludii.K ir^hf't^Kls and rnot.u*c0. « Dirr u tonic f» Ann. ft UI>T cun «fftft tht rrproductur *ucex*»• «,f fish fl inrr CMI b«*« » v»rl*ty of •ubl*lh(d pjiy-l'-toptc*! fttiO h^.nvturml «3iM* on 0*h 7 Ili'tU ran mot>mr* leliiM titwunu of D1>T r«-iMo«i • Dr/T c*n rftUM thltmtnff of Hrd ricffI* Oirr U * (K>ti^nMtl hunxan rftrrtn'Hrfn. » t.>|'*riiii««n^ fl^fionAtr«t« ihftt DUT rH'i-.*-^ tuni'>f« to !«u..r*u,rjr- ftnini&Ui b 'liter* In furr.t tudkntton of uttt«At*A(fl of Uirii'>m ftttnb'.*irt} to rifrfMtirt of minukl* l o F U H in U *• ifth^rn'<;rv It.'I'K'.tori in u.ir* l« • vMl4 *unln«j ol p^fl 'Hi^r* ai^ no adr<iu«l« negative rip^rlmental itudltA la <>tti«r mammalian «r>rci«. « HIT* I* nc a-l"j'JH liumin «i>M«-mlo. Inxiral data on th» '.arcla'-KtnUlty at DDT, lu.r It II Ulul7 U.»t it can >>• u!)tun«4. f Not all clteiulfAlj ahov tti* tutn* tumurlf«nlc prup«ru«a to laboratory tout »• Ho. 131—Pt. I T 1. An O!v>j.-.i:r.:t» to tjr.iln UVT •»:,: ni:«!u.-» ih» r.sitJ a.-.J :tei-p OOWQ tu« numji-r . rmoimts TO. A .To dlrvcttorui for UM of DDT. «vvn IT TplJow.il, c«ii ovir the-lonft nin roni|rtftclir eltinltm** Din"n Injury to uiftn or ^>thcr vcr>bnte ftr.n-Als II. No narnlnit or muMou ?««• u^» of t»DT. tv«-n If fo.lowrtl. r»» ovtr thr loiii? run prov*>nt <njurj l*t Mvliig nmn unrt *.lhpf -•*i i i<rbiu'e »tvimnt3 ft',d n-i'Ml innrrtf Ur^ir C '!"h* r«-%*'n'- t<'tM vo'ume of IIM» <>f 1>I)T lu Uil5 l o y u t r y for Kit purpo&ri ti MI unftcrt-ptfthlf rl.-tk to man and hto pnTl/otunf nt. 1> The HW uf DI>T tri C'inti-'>lkd BlUmUon-, la limit*H| ommint* may prcvnt lew ti»-h tlttin it .»!••• In 1 rfMrr amounts, but &ttU i n n lAtnliuilr!) il** c'lvlrtminent. r. 'Hie f»u''Mt: health pr<t^r(*m fthd cj«ftrn Mi tie- i^c.-i itf DDT by omonj.i. when dwii"() urri\.'<!^ry. can b? Jurt^cd on anft.ppllcnt-1'n< by-tvpr>licnll^n bn-ilt by profci^lonnl'i. F. A pnrtlrvtlnr ('fflclal ttse, in an tsoUtvd (ustfttu'c. nmy iw Important. C»NLL1.'KIUH8 Of L*W 1 Iif>T fortnnlattona when Idb^tfMl with dir^-M on. fi'f use tn Utn production u/ th- «* cti'p* natnrd In fltidlnf; (I| U and for uv '<ii bt\(5. uiIre, nnd fabric ar« "mUbrnmlriT" wtlltln th* inrRHlno; of *trUon J < K ) t 3 l ( C ) . t Qutranltno ftiui nr« nilmliilili-rrd < d ) , a » d to of HKKA, 71UIC r cell on l:)f» l>y puiillr nflcni urt n nom>roprli>tnr; ? IM)T ftlicn Uheied with dUrwtlonn "for UA« of IiDT n r by MH! (li.sinutitfon to only U Ji I'tiblio « Thit U of I l i t l u u» In controlling tho lip-kith S<*tvtrc oMitlMs or for dlMrlbutlon by ovtr«;i t'vpjty ntoth pn^ttlem. «r on a|>prt<val by the ti M Public H<vUtn » [in I i« uv-f'il fur controlling cirrttttn In- 8tr\iru lo other IffUth service ofTl'tlnl!* for well itint «Uatk UK rrup« IlMwl In ilndlng ccnitnd '»f *r«tor Olfl<^v§, for nw l-y arid nuuiix-r UK). Oi---nt.u)l<.ri to tho I^ii>llc H'nlLh Srrvuo, 10 Ail'qimip mib-.iuvmr cliPinlcnU. namrly. IfSOA, ;ui(t nuiUnry for qiiftrHiiUno u^. m«t!iyl parnlhlon and uth»r nri!,\ni,|,i.iii. f'if 11: e In i^fsjcrlptinn drvg^i to b* <tl>,pliat«'Ji--f"r the m<«tt purl— <-«l«; for ron- )tcnwil rinly on ftu'lKirlFAlion by ft crrUflod Irt'lMnn th« tlw«w^ that attarfc lilt crnp<i rurflli nl dortnr" filon^ w i t h ltn» citu'lon !:»l«l In M:rtln« numbrr (HO clfept: prifirti in b<>.«l type "ir-r for any puiiicw nut a Svh^ft ^jtatof!!; s.jif" tfinl or tr>L In nccordai.r* with dim tlui;i b Ili-uvy tnfr<,t«llj);ii of coru bt/crr HtlarK- .trul u-** by iitmtithortr^d pcmon* It rll'<ApUiK n»r«'l fwppf-u gruwn on tho IXImimn provt'd by the Fo'tfTal Ofivrriuiifiit. Tht-iHUliIMtiirtAijla. htunrc H Imrmful to the cnvirot>m<M.t," Ln l>nt r Ont'>il.i nttark^rt hy rutw^iriTU "ml'.brniHicd " I I . IJl'f l« rrTtrtivc for ronlrolllni; ix«ly A O M l M l o T R A I U H ,S Oltnr« ItFGARDINC Ut>T lti-<a Kwell. a l.lndanc product. In a <ul>. Order. Hcf»rr thf Knvlronmenlat rri'tcfMllutc tioii Agency. In rrjfarJ: fjtcrRnn IndivitrlPA. h l.tndan* ifslstiiilloin or« being r*- 1(ic. rt A! tCoTvoMdatwl DDT lfr'.irlftf(M. VlfwPil I !•' A U.l>-<kr-t No C J H a). IS I)I.)TI< itifd rorrnicrmliiatniK ban and In nvrurtlftncr wllli th« forc«o(:in upl'-lott. ml' #h)' thi* military. P.m)..i;'i am! conrliud'jljji of law. u;« uf DDT a rutnlKailoa and tionchrmlf ,il tnrttuidi nn cotton, beans ifmnp, lima, and dry), praran ruard ««nJn«l bat InfMUtton. mttr rabhnttr. caultflowwr, bnirwl «jir«>uts, b Wurfarin ta effective for ctttrnilnalluK ''MuutoT-R, ti***1!* iiinrKrt corn, pnrllc, ptrnenIIIMIM lillr*. U*^, in commercial srrrnliou:**, for moth11 t'llliiialf flnillfiKr.: pn>-.>iinfc and control of b**.3 and ro<tent« I, 'iTi« UW of Dirr In not tirrenMrt for ti.« ar« hereby canceled HA of Deceaibfr C*l, IW73. pr'xIiirMon of rmpi iMtrd In flndinf; (1)7 UM» of DD1" fur omuol of wr*vih UK *U>red •ir^pt that U may be nrfmmry lo prf)duc»> r.-\eo? potatoes. p:r*n pcfiprm Hi th# Dt-I thim cropa llatrd In ftndin>| VIO •:«), < i > ) , Mvra lvninsul.1 and cut'At>rnui «n onion i and Kl nr* rttnrelrd tifile^ within 30 dny* U*TH or •J Nonrrop \att of HUT for mi)lbprfx>fimt rrKlfrttants niove to nupplem^nt the rrcord nn I to ci'iurol ban aod m.'fo aii> proprietary In a-vtird»nrfl nHi Tart V ot my oplnlcn <»f uw* f»r which lilrl' is not UCMBUIV. l<MtAy. tn cuch event th* order fthnJl br H«rrrii.t uruT TXI MLTMTL p«iuiTtti»f* litaytii, jirudinit lb« compielkm of th* mord, o!t 'rrniK nnd ronditlotia act by tl.e Hrwln,: A n««lc Rndlnrn: Uwnlnpr fro: idrd. TTiat t.'iL* M^y mny br I M»ny poivminK* lii>«» li ntlrlhuird rtls ujvecl If Interested uvrs or refiUU^.^U do In th* uMof oi4*t.hTl pnriilhlon. ma prr.Mrt the r^qulrrd rv.denc* in an 1 Untrained itMrx of methyl pnr4tlilnn arc expiMiitlfMiit fK'.Mun At th* e-jnrlual<m of frp<4ti#ully not mimctfntly riirrfut In l'i ur« au.-h pro'eedm^A. tb» Utue iff rniufihtMon drtpito late! dlrwtiont. Khali to rrs^vcd in accordance wltti tny 3 Mnthjl p«r*Uil«.in (an he u.'^'l aafrly. <iVlnton todaf. 4 Traliun* prtyrani* «• uwful In »v«tC'aucrliatlun fur UM« of DDT by public Inu th» noitllK*nt u-» of methyl parnthlon. health ofTk-tiitt In dtnenw contra pro^rami 6 MHIiyl pafathion i» a *iib4tttut' t for m:«t and by UHDA «nd th* mlliury fur hnlth uf^p n^mnf t)IJT quarantine and UMT In pr«wjif<tlo;} (f t.g« ;* U t;itlni*t« nrvtlrw Mftwl. I. Methyl f i iinn It dmigrroiii to U-.frn In mder to Implement till* dr-uilon no anrt pr«-«MiU. . i lltrm. 1>DT iittall t*» ahtji-rd la tnt«r»tat* com* rtOHAl REOISTI1 VOL 3r, NO. Ul— »*IOAT, -249- 7, \1T1 �nrrrr or within In* Dbirkt of Columbt* at *rr Aiufrlrun territory after Evmmtwr >1, I.'.:." tmlru U* Itbrl brnra In • prominent t*ta,-M lit belli tfp« «n<t npiut Ittten. In * itiiiui'r Mturtf tory to "if Pcotlctdn ite(U> luinjit DivUlon, 111* (ollo«lnf l«ii<ru»J»: ( I ) For uw b; uid dlstrllxitton to onlj O.3. PuVt,- Mc.vHh B»rvlc« OCncUll or for flUlrlbuiion by or on approval tor in* V 3. Public Heililt Stnlci to othtr Hnlth Otr»lc» OlArUU for control of vrclor dlnrur^: HI »'«r «-i» by »»<> *i->lriHuiio» to the l)PD.\ <>r Mtlitair for Knlth QuuunMii • \ln- i l l fVr UM in (he (onnuUllon for prrtcriptlnn dn.n* fof conlrolllnf body lw-«. |t| or In drug: for UM in conlrwJHiie tarty lit*- to b» «up«i»«l only toy phtilcunt. V«* by or dlttrlbutlon to iincutbortMd nun or vi«* (or «. purpoM not tpeclflrd hrrton or not In «o fordtnc* »U1 fi'.ifciuuu it dlmpl>ron>4 by th« ft<itn\ uoirriinwiit: Thu nubitunct U titnMul to tlis *nvlroiun«nt Tht pritlcldee (UEnlAilon Dltttlon mikr trquln »uch olhr-r l>nt:iiirc •« It c'.intut«r* Thl* htbtl mtf b» ul]it»d to MBftl th« t*m> »nl cor<lllKin» for *hlpm«nt tor \>a eo (rc«D pcpptn In Oci Hutro. rutwtirmi en ontoot, »nd *M*U> oa Korea i»«tt pu!«t<x< U * M*T U In tflfct. a, I»72. WaiMH O R l H K t H M » t ' » |n» Dor 7J noitnt, vou ir, MO. ui—»*M>Arf mr 7, -250- �IB. APPENDIX DDT REGULATORY HISTORY: A BRIEF f.URVEY jSackground DDT (Dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane), for many years one of the most widely used pestlcidal chemicals in the United States, was first synthesized in 1874. Its effectiveness as an insecticide, however, was only discovered in 1939. Shortly thereafter, particularly during World War II, the U.S. began producing large quantities of DDT for control of vector-borne diseases such as typhus and malaria abroad. After 1945, agricultural and connsercial usage of DD'1.' b°came widespread in the U.S. The early popularity of DDT, a member of the chlorinated hydrocarbon group, was due to its reasonable cost, effectiveness, persistence, and versatility. During the 30 years prior to its cancellation, a total of approximately 1,350,000,000 pounds of DDT was used doi-testically. After 1959, DDT usagr> in the U.S. declined greatly, dropping from a peak of approximately 80 million pounds in that year to just under 12 million pounds in the early 1970*3. Of the quantity of the pesticide used in 1970-72, over 80 percent was applied to cottoa crops, with the remainder being used predominantly on peanut and soybean crops. The decline in DDT unage was the result of (1) increased insect resistance: (2) the development of more effective alternative pesticides; (3) growing public concern over adverse environmental side effects: and ( ) increasing government restrictions on DDT use. 4 In addition to domestic consumption, latge quantities of DDT have been purchased by the Agency for International Development and the United Nations and exported for malaria control. DDT exports increased from 12 percent of the total production in 1950 to 67 percent in 1969. However, exports have shown a narked decrease in recent years dropping from approximately 70 million pounds in 1970 to 35 million in 1972. Public Concern Certain characteristics of DDT which contributed to the *arly popularity of the chemical, particularly its persistence, iMrar became the basis for public concern over possible hazards involved in the pesticide's use. Altho-igh warnings against such hazards were voiced by scientists as early to the mid-1940"s, it was the publication of Rachel Carson't book SjUcnt Spjring in 1962 that stimulated widespread -251- �public concern over use of the chemical, After Carson's alert to the public concerning the dangers of improper pesticide use and the need for better pesticide controls, it was only natural that DDT, as one of the most widely used pesticides of the time/ should come under intensive investigation, / Throughout the last decade, proponents and opponents of DDT have faced one another in a growing series of confrontations, Proponents argue that DDT has a good human health record and that alternatives to DDT are more hazardous to the user and more costly. Opponents to DDT, admitting that there may be little evidence of direct harm to nan, emphasize other hazards connected with its use, They argue that DDT is a persistent, toxic chemical which easily collects in the food chain posing a proven hr.rtard to non-target organisms such as fish and wildlife and otherwise upsetting the natural ecological balance, Both the pro's and con's of DDT UPO were considered by four Government committees who issued the following reports; (1) May 1963, "Use of Pesticides,'1 A Report of the President's Science Advisory Committee (PSAC); (2) November 1965, "Restoring the Quality of Our Environment ," A Report of the Environmental Pollution Panel, PSAC; (3) May 1969, Report of tiie Committee on Persistent Pesticides, Division of Biology and Agriculture , National Research Council, to Agriculture Department; (4) Ik comber 1969, Mral; Coraraissior Report. All four reports recommended an orderly phasing out of the pesticide over a limited period of time. Public concern further manifested itself through the activities of various environmental organizations. Beginning in 1967, the Environmental Defense Fund, the National Audubon Society, the National Wildlife Federation, the Izaak Walton League and other environmental groups became Increasingly active In initiating court proceedings leading to the restriction of DDT use at both local and Federal levels. Varying restrictions were placed on DDT use in different States, DDT use was outlawed except under emergency conditions in Illinois, Iowa, Massachusetts, New Mexico, New York, Rhode Island, Vermont, and Wisconsin. -252- �Alaska, Arizona, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Florida, Idaho, Kentucky, Maine, Maryland, Michigan, Minnesota, New Hampshire, North Carolina, Ohio, Utah, Virginia, and Washington have all placed some limitation on the use of DDT. Although the remaining States have provisions for the "restricted use" classification of pesticides, no specific mention is made of DDT. Jn_it_ia 1_Fedcra 1 Regu 1 atory Actiqns_ The Federal Government has not been oblivious to the hazards of DDT use as is indicated by various Government studies and actions undertaken since the late 50's. 1. In 1957, as a matter of policy, the Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), prohibited the spraying of DDT in specified protective strips around aquatic areas on lands under its jurisdiction. 2. In 1958, after having applied approximately 9-1/2 million pounds of the chemical in its Federal-State control programs since 1945, USDA tegan to phase out its use of DDT. They reduced spraying of DDT from 4.9 irillion acres in .1957 to just over 100,000 acres in 1967 arid used persistent pesticides thereafter only in the absence of effective alternatives. The major uses of DDT by the Forest Service have been against the gypsy moth and the spruce budworm. The development of alternative pesticides such as Zectran, which was in operation in 1966, contributed to further reduction in DDT use by the Department. 3. In 1964, the Secretary of the Interior issued a directive stating that the use of chlorinated hydrocarbons on Interior lands should be avoided unless no other substitutes were available. This regulatory measure, as well as others which followed, was reaffirmed and extended in June 1970, when the Secretary issued an order banning use of 16 types of pesticides, including DDT, on any lands or in any programs managed by the Department's bureaus and agencies. 4. Between November 1967 and April 1969, USDA cancelled DDT registrations for use against house flies and roaches, on foliage of more than 17 crops, in milk rooms, and on cabbage and lettuce. -253- �5. In August 1969, OUT usage was sharply reduced in certain areas of USDA'3 cooperative Federal-State pest control programs following a review of these programs in relation to environmental contamination. 6. In November 1969, USDA initiated action to cancel all DDT registrations for use against pests of shade trees, aquatic areas, the house and garden «ind tobacco. USDA further announced its intention to discontinue all uses nonessential to human health and for which there were safe and effective substitutes. 7. In August 1970, in another major action, USDA cancelled Federal registrations of DDT products used as follows: (1) on 50 food crops, beef cattle, goats, sheep, swine, seasoned lumber, finished wood products and buildings; (2) around commercial, institutional, and industrial establishments including all nonfood areas in food processing plants and restaurants, and (3) on flowers and ornamental turf areas. EPA Regulatory Act ions On December 2, 1970, major responsibility for Federal regulation of pesticides was transferred to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1. In January 1971, under a court order following a suit by the Environmental Defense Fund (EDF), EPA issued notices of intent to cancel all remaining Federal registrations of products containing DDT. The principal crops affected by this action were ..'.itton, citrus, and certain vegetables. 2. In March 1971, EPA Issued cancellation notices for all registrations of products containing TDE, a DDT metabolite. The EPA Administrator further announced thai no suspension of the registration of DDT products was warranted because evidence of imminent hazard to the public welfare was lacking. (Suspension, in contrast to cancellation is the more severe action taken against pesticide products under the law.) Because of the decision not to suspend, companies were able to continue marketing their products Jn interstate commerce pending the final resolution of the administrative cancellation process. After reconsideration of the March order, in light of a scientific advisory committee report, the Administrator later reaffirmed his refusal to suspend the DDT -254- �registrations. The report was requested by Montrose Chemical Corporation, sole remaining manufacturer of the basic DDT chemical. 3. In August 1971, upon the request of 31 DDT formulators, a hearing began on the cancellation of all remaining Federally registered uses of products containing DDT. When the hearing ended in March 1972, the transcript of 9,312 pages contained testimony from 125 expert witnesses ard over 300 documents. The principal parties to the hearings were various formulators of DDT products, USDA, the EDF, and KPA. 4. On June 14, 1972, the EPA Administrator announced the final cancellation of all remaining crop uses of DDT in the U.S. effective December 31, 1972. The order did not affect public health and quarantine uses, or exports of DDT. The Administrator based his decision on findings of persistence, transport, biomagnification, toxicological effects and on the absence of benefits of DDT in relation to the availability of effective and less environmentally harmful substitutes. The effective date of the prohibition was delayed for six months In order to pt/mit an orderly transition to substitute pesticides. In co.iji uction with thin transition, £PA and USDA jointly developed "Project Safeguard," a program of education in the use of highly toxic organophosphate substitute-: for DDT. 5. Immediately following the DDT prohibition by EPA, the. pesticides industry and EDF filed appeals cot testing the June order with several U.S. courts. Industry fllod suit to nullify the EPA ruling while F,DF sought to extend the prohibition to those few uses nJt covered by the order. The appeals were consolidated in the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia. On December 13, 1973, flic Court ruled that there was "substantial evidence" in the record to support the LPA Administrator's ban on DDT. Action^ T,-iken_ Und_er J^j^j^w_J|££t_^c_ijJes_Law On October 2.1, 1972,. the Federal Environmental Pesticides Control Act, a far-reaching amendment to the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticlde Act (FTFRA) was enacted. These amendments provide EPA with mo'-e effective pesticide regulation mechanisms than were previously available under the FIFRA. -255- �1. In April 1973, EPA, in accordance with authority granted by the amended law, required that all products containing DDT be registered with the Agency by June 10, 1973. 2. On April 27, 1973, EPA granted a request by the States of Washington and Idaho for a temporary registration of DDT for use against tiie pea leaf weevil. A similar application was approved on February 22, 1974, for use of DDT during the 1974 growing season. The chemical was registered for 90 clays following a determination by EPA that control of the pea leaf weevil was an economic necessity and that DDT was the only practical and effective control agent available. The EPA order designated spray restrictions, monitoring guidelines, and research roquireir.enti, for the control program. The order provided for further testing of three chemicals—methoxychlor, Imidan, and malathion ULV—which have shown some promise as alternatives to DDT. Other possible long-range alternatives to DDT were tested in 1974, as well. 3. On February 26, 1974, EPA granted a request by the Forest Service for ust- of DDT to combat the Douglas-fir tussock moth epidemic In the Northwest. Previous requests by the Forest Service had been denied oh the grounds that the risks of DDT use was outweighed the benefits. A week long investigation in September 1973, a technical seminar on November 16, 1973, and a series of hearingfi in January 1974, aided EPA in reassessing the need for DDT. On the basis of information acquired during these sessions, the Administrator concluded that the potential for an economic emergency existed in 19/4 and that no effective alternative to DDT was available. The control program was carried out under strict spraying restrictions and with a requirement that research programs to evaluate alternatives to DDT, and monitoring activities, be conducted by the Forest Service. Use of a cancelled pesticide is made possible by the recent amendments to FIFRA which permit EPA to exempt any Federal or State agency from any of the provisions of the Act if emergency conditions exist. All such requests are considered on a case-by-case basis?. 4. On March 14» 1975 the Administrator denied the State oi' Louisiana a request for emergency use of 2.25 million pounds of DDT on 450,000 acres of cotton to control the tobacco budworm in 1973. This decision was affirmed by the Administrator on Anril 1, 1^75, after reconsideration on the grounds of "no substantial tvw evidence which may materially affect the 1972 order with respect to the human cancer risk posed by DDT, the environmental hazards of DDT and the need to use DDT on cotton." (Federal Register, April 8, 1974, p. 15,962) -25G- �Ill B.I APPENDIX Acute Human Hazard Information on Alternatives to DOT Excerpts from Substitute Chemical Program Initial Scientific Review, completed as of May, 1975 -257- �Parathion and Methyl Parathion Symptoms of Poisoning - The symptoms of mild exposure to parathion or methyT parathion as a result of orchard spraying or other activities associated in the fruit-growing industry have been described by Sumerford et al. (1953) and Arterberry et al. (1961). The modes of exposure and the symptomatology have been discussed by Hamblin and Golz (1955). The siqns and symptoms of 246 patients admitted to a hospital in Greece With acute parathicn poisoning have been reviewed by Tsachalinas et al. (1971). Namba (1971) has presented an excellent description of the sigir; and symptoms of organophosphate poisoning in patients. Reference should be made to Hamblin and Golz's paper (1955) for the onset and progressions of symptoms in subjects exposed to toxic amounts of parathion in spraying operations. Namba (1971) has classified the signs and symptoms observed in 77 patients who developed poisoning by the application of ethyl and methyl parathion. The more prominent symptoms were weakness, nausea or vcniting, excessive sweating, headache and excessive salivation. Namba points out that if the exposure to organic phosphorus insecticides is sufficient to produce symptoms, thf-y usually appear in less than 12 hours. Symptomatology that appears 24 hours after exposure is unlikely to be due to these pesticides. A critical clinical observation is the occurrence of miosis, which is found in about 50« of the patients, and the latter symptom appears in subjects even in the miid cases. Death is usually attributed to failure of the respiratory muscles and paralysis of the respiratory center. Cardiac involvement may occur, but is usually seen only at the terminal stage. Man appears to be more sensitive to the organophosphate insecticides in that he exhibits symptoms earlier than experimental animals, particularly central nervous system manifestations. If an untreated organophosphate-poisoned victim is alive after 24 hours, he is likely to recover. The account by Kanagaratnam et al. (1960) describes a parathion poisoning incident resulting from the use of contaminated barley in India. There were 53 persons involved, and the clinical features described included collapse, fits, sweating, dyspnoea, the effect on the pupils, the eye, blood pressure, coma, and muscular fasciculation. Gershon and Shaw (1961) felt that chronic exposure to organophosphate compounds produced psychiatric disorders in orchard workers. In a small field survey, they observed in 14 men and two women schizophrenic and depressive reactions with severe impairment of memory and difficulty in concentration. The range of exposure for these subjects was 1-1/2 to 10 years. No other surveys of this nature were found in the literature. -258- �Brown (1971) reported on the electroencepiialoqraphic changes and disturbance of brain function following organophosphate exposure. Acute organophosphate poisoning disturbs central nervous system functions by causing disorientation in space and time, a sense of depersonalization, and hallucinations; with heavy exposure, convulsions occur. Acute inhibition of brain cholinesterase would be expected to cause effects related to the temporal lobe. EEG changes in acute organophosphate poisoning have been reported to resemble those seen in the interictal EEG of temporal lobe epileptics. Accidents - Parathion and methyl parathion are the pesticides most frequently cited in incidents involving accidental exposure to pesticides. Preliminary data from the EPA Pesticide Accident Surveillance System (PASS) shows that parathion is the third and methyl parathion i s the fifth most frequently cited pesticic'e in 1973. Based on an analysis of PASS data, Osmun (1974) stated that for 1972 and 1973, parathion and/or methylparathion were connected with 78S'of the reported episodes relating to agricultural jobs, particularly those involving fields sprayed with pesticides for which safe reentry times for workers had been set. Some 125 episodes involving methyl parathion are included in the PASS computerized system. Approximately 45, 30, and 15" of these episodes were reported from EPA Regions IV, VI, and IX, respective'y. This distribution is not consistent with that of the domestic consumption pattern. There are a number of 1 imitations, however, in attempting to use PASS data. First of all, the t,ause-effect relationship between the pesticides cited and the effects observed have generally not been established. Second, generally only data for 1972 through about January 1974 have been computerized and are readily available for retrieval. Third, a large portion of the data provided to PASS comes from California. This skev/ed distribution probably represents bias caused by the efficient level with which the State of California documents pesticide information. During a review of PASS files, data in addition to the preliminary information found on the pesticide episode reporting form (Form ACEC1, December 1972) were found on only nine of the approximately 125 episodes involving methyl parathion and 12 of the 257 episodes involving parathion. Further duplicate entries in PASS ha^e been noted for a few incidents. -259- �Data Relating to Other Substitutes Hethorny! Human Toxicity and Epidemiology Symptoms of joisonino and AnJ:jkk>tcs „ Warning symptoms as listed on the label of LarmTtl^O'sTniethomy'lT water soluble powder (EPA Reg. No. 352-342) are typical of those associated with exposure to ar. anticholinesterase agent. These include weakness, blurred vision, headache, nausea, abdominal cramps, sweating and constriction of pupils. Occupational and Acejdental Exposure - Beginning in 1971, EPA and the States of CalTforrna and" Arizona became aware of serious problems in workers handling Lannate^iO" (methomyl) soluble powder. The California Department of Health estimated 150 incidents involving Lannate poisoning in California. There have been no fatalities. After an extensive investigation by State and Federal Officials and wi'ch the assistance of Dupont Chemical Company and various users it was concluded that most cases of 54 documented Lannate poisoning cases would not have occurred if the labe" directions were followed and proper protective clothing worn. (Memo from Mr. Brian Sturgess, Region IX to Acting Director Operations Division regarding Lannate Investigations in Arizona and Califorria, April 19, 1973). Due to possible inhalation of the powder, it is very important that goggles and a mask or suitable respirator be worn. It should be noted that often the extreme heat in certain areas of California and Arizona make the wearing of any protective equipment very difficult. Better hygiene and improved closed systems for loading and mixing pesticides would lessen the chance for accidents not only with Lannate but other highly toxic pesticides. Two cases of methomyl poisoning in men who mix pesticides, probably resulting fror<; inhalation of powder during mixing, were reported in Australia in early 1974. Blood cholinesterase levels were between 0^-35 for one individual and 35%-65« in the other reported poisoning incident; normal values range between 80% and 120". -260- �"One serious point was that when mothomyl caused a fall in plasma cholinesterase activity, further exposure to organic phosphate could deplete red biood cell cholinesterase values as well. Poisoning could probably occur more quickly and could be potentiated by tho carbamate material." Other incidents involving methorny1 poisoning were also reported, but these ceses were complicated *v the fact that the men involved had handled various other organophosphate insecticides during the same time period they had come in contact with methomyl (Simpson and Penney, 1974). No epidemiology studies involving methomyl have been reported. -261- �Aldicarb - Symptoms of aldicarb poisoning are typical of those seen with anticholineiterase agents (see rnethomyl). Accidents - Aldicarb has been cited in a small number of accidental exposure reports. The EPA Pesticide Accident Surveillance System (PASS) computerized data base lists a total of 11 episodes involving aldicarb. This data base includes :rost data reported for 1972 through January 1974. Eight of the 11 reported episodes took place in Region IX. The available data, however, is not sufficient to establish any relationship between accident frequency and specific uses of aldicarb. Disulfoton Acc1jdent_al_ Exposures - Natson et al. (1971) reported the accidental poisoning of cattle "when eight discarded disulfoton bags were blown from a potato field into a pasture. As a result of chewing on the empty bags containing disulfoton residues, one animal was found dead and several others were severely sick. Within three days, six additional animals had died. In addition to the bags containing residues, it was suspected that some of the irrigation water from the sprayed field also entered the farm pond used as a source of drinking water for the affected cattle. Accidental exposures to disulfoton are also recorded by the EPA Pesticide Episode Review System (PERS). The computerized PERS data base, which generally included data through January ]974, shows disulfoton to be the 21st most frequently cited pesticide in the episodes* reported. A total of 63 disulfoton episodes are included in the computerized data (through January 1974). Twenty-eight additional episodes have subsequently been reported. Approximately two-thirds of these 91 episodes involved human exposure. Episodes reported include those involving humans, animals, plants, and contaminated areas. In most cases, however, disulfoton v»os not conclusively established as the cause of. the episodes, i.e., cause-effect relationships generally have not been established. -262- �The distribution of the reported episodes by EPA regions is as follows: Region I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X 0 2 1 16 4 10 8 16 22 12 Unfortunately, the information available was too limited to establish any relationship between the episodes and any specific application or use of disulfoton. -263- �REFERENCES Arterberry, J. 0., W. F. Durham, J. W. Elliot, and H. R. Wolfe, "Exposure to Parathion," Ar^_EjvjxojK_Healj:]x, 3:476-485 (1961). Brown, H. W. , "Electroencephalcqraphic Changes and Disturbances of Brain Function Following Human Organophosphete Exposure," Northwestjted. , 70:845-846 (1971). Fredriksson, T., "Studies on the Percutaneous Absorption of Parathion and Paraoxon. Part II. Distribution of 32P-labeled Parathion Within the Skin," AajJDe_rm._.VenerpJ . , 41:344-353 (1961). Gershon, S. , and F. H. Shaw, "Psychiatric Sequelae of Chronic Exposure to Organophosphorus Insecticides," Lancejt, pp. '371-1374 (1961). Kanagartanam, K. , W. H. Boon and T. K. Hoh, "Parathion Poisoning from Contaminated Barley," Lancet, 1:538-542 (I960). Namba, T., "Cholinesterase Inhibition by Organophosphorus Compounds and Its Clinical Effects," Bulletin of_thc Wqrldjiealth Organization, 44:289-307 (1971). ....... ..... Osmun, J. V., Internal EPA Memo to Ed Johnson, "PASS Information Relating to Agricultural Jobs" (1 April 1974). Osmun, J. V., "PASS Information Relating to Agricultural Jobs," Internal EPA Memo to Ed Johnson (1 April 1974). Quarles, J., "Worker Protection Standards for Agricultural Pesticides," r, 39(62): 16838-16891 (10 May 1974). Simpson, G. R. and D. J. Penney, "Pesticide Poisonings In the flamoi and Macquarie Valleys, 1973," Mejd_._Jpjjrr<5i, August, 1:258-260 (1974). Sumerford, W. T., W. J. Hayes, Jr., J, M. Johnston, K. Walker, and J. Spillane, "Cholinesterase Response and Symptomatology from Exposure to Organic Phosphorus Insect'oides," AMA Arch. Occyfc.Jted. , 7:383-398 (1953). -264- �Trefilov, V. N., Jr., I. S. Faernan, Jr., and E. P. Borisona, Jr., "The Degree of Contamination of the Special Clothing and ikin Coverings of Workers in the Manufacture of Metaphos and Chlorophos," i» is (2) = 51-53 (1971). Tsichalinas, D., G. Logaras, and A. Paradel is, "Observations on 246 Cases of Acute Poisoning with Parathion in Greece," 4:46-49 (1971). -265- �Ill B.2 APPENDIX EM Report of National Pesticide Cpisodes* for DDT Substitues 1971-1974 Human Accident Episodes Animal Poisoning/ Parathion 230 64 70 366 63 Malathion 115 ?4 24 162 71 Methyl Parathion 84 12 42 153 55 Carbaryl 60 31 15 109 55 Me thorny I/ Lartnate 101 2 7 105 96 Phosdrin 119 4 14 131 91 Oiazinon 10$ 7 12 132 80 Chlordane 112 9 28 140 80 27 Other i'OT Substitutes** 391 212 269 830 47 TOTALS 1317 365 481 2120 62 Primary DOT Substitutes Contanination Contamination .oLJo&iAi&to Total Fp is r>des % of total thar are humans injuries. * Confirmed episodes reported in thir, table have not been differentiated from those which are not confirmed cases of pesticide injury. ** 'Other DOT Substitutes reported include: Methoxchlor, Endrir, Azinphos Methyl, Guthion, AzoiIHn, Ga1<?cror,, Tox^phene, fPN, Di-syston, Dasanit, Naled, L»(nethodate/Cygon Bidrin, Dyfonate, lleptachior, D-'cl-Jrin, Aldrin, Thimet, Systox, Oylox, Piptercx, Carhophenothion Meta-Systox-R Galecron, Endosulfan (Thiodai., SO8447/ Gardona. fu 'dan, Aldicarb/Temik, Surracide Source: Special Ingredient Report, Pesticide FpHode Review System, Pesticide • Use Analysis Branch, Operations Division, OPP, EPA, Feb. 19, 1975. -266- �Ill D. 1 APPENDIX Efficacy and Cost Effectiveness of Alternatives to DDT for Cotton Insect Pests Excerpts from Substitute Chemical Program Minieconouiii Review, 1975 -267- �Methyl Paratbion The use of methyl parathion on cotton in 1972 is estimated at 33,500,000 Ib of active ingredient, i.e., 8/4.3% of the total domestic consumption. It is primarily used to control the cotton boll weevil, bolluorm and tobacco budwonn, but is also "recotrcnended for control of thrips, cotton leafworms, grasshoppers, fall armyworms, spider mites, fleahoppers, lygus bugs, aphids, garden vcbworms, false chinch i'ugs, cabbage loopcrs and cutworms. Methyl parr.thion can be applied by itself or in combinations with other insecticides. Prior to the restriction of DDT a typical application consisted of 0.5 gal/acre of a mixture of ft Ib toxaphene, 2 Ib DDT and 0.5 Ib of methyl parathion to control bollwoms. The rumber of applications would vary depending upon the degree of infestation. A highuse farmer might make 14 to 15 total applications, with one or two of these applications consisting solely of methyl parathion to suppress the late hatch of bollwonns, Many states are now recommending a formulation consisting of 6 Ib of toxaphene and 3 Ib of methyl parathion per gallon at a rate of 1 to 2 -qt/acre. Efficacy Against Pest Infrstat Um - The use of methyl parathion expanded significantly as resistance of the tobacco budworm to DDT increased. Adkisson et al. ( 9 5 ! found a hi^h level of DDT resis16)/ tance in the budworm and bollworm. Tests showc d that methyl parathion killed 85% of the bollworm larvae when applied at 0.25 Ib/acre whereas 1.0 Ib/acre of DDT killed only 51%. Wolfcnbarger et al. (1971)Z/ found that inctayl parathion killed 85% of the bollvorras and f.obacco budworns. Yields in a test at Brownsville, Texas, in 1967 increased 689 Ib of seed cotton over the check. Good control of the bollworm, tobacco budworra, and pink bollworm was achieved. ft _!/ Adkisson, Perry L., and Stanley Ncmcc, "Efficiency of Certain Insecticides for Kill in?, Bollwonns and Tobacco Budworms," Progress Report PR-2357, Texas Agr. Exp. Sta. (1065). J2/ Wolfenb.irger, D. A., and Rex McCarr, "Low Volume and Ultra-Low Volume Sprays of Ma lath ion antl Methyl Parathion for Control of Three Lepidopterous Cotton Pests," Production Research Report No. 126, U.S. Department of Agriculture and Texas Agr. Exp. Sta. (1971). -268- �Neraec et al. (1968)i/ evaluated ULV and CLV methyl parathlon sprays at College Station, Texas In 1966 and achieved 100% kill of the bollworm and budworm 48 hr after application of 1.0 Ib/acre. They concluded that ULV sprays should provide more effective and economical control. Hopkins et al. (1970)2^ evaluate-, methyl parathion and other insecticides in 1968 and 1969 at Florence, South Carolina, and found that methyl parathion gave good control of the bollworm and boll weevil. Yields increased 1,629 Ib/acre in 1968 and 867 Ib/aci? in 1969 compared to the untreated checks. The yields from the untrntod checks were 255 and 10 Ib/acre, respectively. Adkisson et al. (1967)- compared various insecticides and found that methyl parathion at 1.0 Ib/acre killed 1007, of the bollworm larvae after 48 hr and 897. kill was achieved vhen methyl parathion was applied at 0.5 Ib/acre. They also found that 0.75 Ib/acre methyl parathion provided 97% kill of tobacco budworra larvae after 48 hr and 1007. kill of tne adult boll vcevil under the same conditions when 0.25 Ib/acre were applied. These tests were conducted at College Station, Texas, in 1966. McGarr ct al. (1969)-^ evaluated insecticides at Brownsville, Texas, in 1968 and reported that although methyl parathion was effective against the tudwonn and bollworm it did not give adequate control. Yield increases from three tests varied from 6 to 219 Ib/acre. When methyl parathion was applied at 2.0 Ib/acre, better cor.crol was achieved and yields increased 845 Ib/acre. In 1968, Nemcc et al. (1968)- noted that the tobacco budworm population in the Lower Rio CrauJe Vallcy> and perhaps near College Station _!_/ n'emcc, S. J., P. L. Adkisson, and H. W. Dorough, "Laboratory Tests of Ultra-Low Volume and Conventional Low Volume Sprays for Controlling the Bollworm and Tobacco Budworm," J. Kcon. EiUomo]., 61:209-213 (1968). J2/ Hopkins, A. R., H. M. Taft, W. James, and C. E. Jcrnigan, "Evaluation of Substitutes for DOT In Field Experiments fof Control of th« Bollworm and the Boll Weevil in Cotton, 1967-1969," J. Econ.^ Entomol., 63:fi/.8-850 (1970). J3/ Adkisson, Perry L., and S. J. Nemcc, "Insecticide:-; for Controlling the Kollvonr., Tobacco liudvcnn, and Boll Weevil," MP-837, Texas Agr. Exp. Sta. (1967). £/ McGarr, f,. L., and I>. A. Wol fnnbargcr, "Field Evaluations of Insecticides for Control of Cotton Insects, Brownsville, 1968," Progress Report PR-2670, Texas Agr. Exp. Sta. (1969). !>/ Ncmec, S. J., P. L. Adkls-oi., and H. W. Dorough, "Laboratory Tests of Ultra-Low Volume and Conventional Low Volume Sprays for Controlling the Bcllvfonn and Tobacco Budworm," J j c < ^ ^ m m o . , 61:209-213 (1968). ^.^.Jijt|. -269- �had developed * low-level resistance to methyl parathion: large doses of the insecticide were needed to kill the budwonns in laboratory tests. The LDug values had also indicated a 2.0- to 2.5-fold Increase over the previous year. These tests showed a 97% kill in 48 hr when applied At 2.0 Ib/acre on College Station larvae. This dropped to a 41!i kill rate when 0.5 Ib/acre was applied. There were no indications of resistance in the bollworm or voll weevil. Kemec conducted similar tests in 1969 (Nemec, 1970i') and found that the W$Q value for methyl parathion increased 1.5- fold over the 1968 value in budwonns from the Brazos River Valley and twofold over the 1968 value in the Uclasco area. Methyl parathion at 2.0 Ib/acre resulted in & 9 7 kill in 48 hr at College Station in 1969. At 0.5 0. Ib/acre it gave a 44% kill. In Welasco the results at the above rates were 79% and 23%, respectively. Nemec et al, ( 9 3 ~ summarized the yearly tests comparing the 17)' effect of methyl parathion on the budworm and bollworm. He reported that prior to 1968 when resistance was detected in the budworm the cost of control was $28/acre. By 1972 the cost for control of the bollworm complex averaged $60/acre due to higher rates and more frequent applications of insecticides, greater populations of the budworm and higher costs of certain insecticides. The results of tests showed that the LD^g values for methyl thion on the budworm increased 50-fold between 1964- and 1972 at College Station, Texas. A fivefold increase from 1968 to 1972 was reported in the Rio Grande Valley, Texas. Some resistance of the bollworm to methyl parathion was also indicated. The LI>5Q values at: College Station were at the same ?.e.vel from 1967 to 1971, but doubled in 1972. Bollworms in the Pccos area were shown to be more tolerant to methyl parathion than those from College Station. j / Nemec, S. J., "Topical Application and Caged Plant Evaluations of [ Insecticide Toxicitics to Bollworms, Tobacco BuJwonns and Boll Weevils," Progress Report PR-2845, Texas Agr. Exp. Sta. (1970). 2/ Nemec, S. J., and P. L. Adkisson, "Orp/mojihosphate Insecticide Resistance Levels in Tobacco Budwora and Bollworm Populations in Texas, Investigations of Chemicals for Control of Cotton Insects in Texas," Technical Report Ko, 73-20, pp. 18-25, Texas Agr. Exp. Sta. (1973). -270- �Wolfenbarger et al. (1973)^./ evaluated budworm resistance to methyl parathion in Texas, Mexico, Central America, Florida, and Mississippi, and focnd the highest levels of resistance In the Mante Tampico area of Mexico. They concluded that thuse insects in this area and Brownsville, Texas were resistant to methyl parathion while those in Mississippi, Southern and Western Mexico were susceptible. The bollworms from Central America and Southern Mexico were resistant to methyl parathion whereas thfi United States resident bollworms were susceptible. Apparently, the resistance of the budworra to methyl parathion is limited to the Texas area. Caiierday (1974)2/ showed that there were no substantial and consistent differences in the response of bollworms and budworms to methyl parathion in tests conducted in Georgia between 1970 and 1972. Cosf^Effectj.yenejss jjf^Pes t_ Control - Numerous studies have been conducted comparing increased yields of methyl parathion treated cotton. Most of these studies were made available from the Texas Agricultural Experiment Station and were supplemented by tests conducted in Mississippi, Louisiana, and South Carolina. The tests covered the period from 1956 to 1972. The 1972 farm value, including an allowance for support payments, was 15.1C for the lint and 2.5c for the seed in a pound of seed cotton. Therefore, the total farm value of a pound of seed cotton was 17.6c in 1972 (Agricultural Statistics, 19741/). Methyl parathion costs averaged $l/lb in 1972 (Chambers and Miller, 1974i/). The range of yield changes from all of the data reviewed varied from a loss of 52 Ib/acre to an increase of 1,629 Ib when compared to untreated test plots. The economic benefit after subtracting '.he cost of the methyl parathion ranged from a loss of $20.15/acre to a gain of $270.A5/acre. The results of the yield tests are tabulated in Table 25. 17 Wolfenbarger, D. A., M. J. Lukefahr, and H. M. Graham, "LDjQ Values of Methyl Parathion and Endrin to Tobacco Budworm and Bollworms Collected in the Americas and Hypothesis on the Spread of Resistance in These l.epidopterans to These Insecticides," J. Econ. Kntpmpl.., 66:211-216 (1973). 21 Canerday, T. 0., "Response of Bollworm and Tobacco Budworm in Georgia to Methyl Pirathion," J. Econ. JRiUoniqJl., 67:299 (1974). 3>/ Agricultural Statistics, 1973, U.S. Department of Agriculture. (1973)* 4/ Chambers, William, and Daniel Miller, Farmland Industries, Kansas City, Missouri, personal communication witli Mr. David F. Hahlen (1974). -271- �Date 1967 1956 1956 1959 1960 1961 1967 1967 1968 1969 1971 1971 1971 1971 1972 1973 1972 1971 1971 1963 1966 1969 1971 1971 1966 1966 1969 1973 1967 1968 1969 1968 1969 1967 1968 1968 1968 (!Jote: Application Rate (Ib Al/acrej No. 1.25 0.3 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.75 1.0 1.0 0.25 0.125 0.25 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.75 2.0 2.0 1.25 1.25 1.0 0.75 8 9 9 13 1.4 13 11 11 6 10 7 7 7 7 10 3 12 •7 8 12 9 8 7 7 9 9 7 5 12 4 9 13 16 17 17 6 11 12 17 12 12 8 6 6 Additional income* Yield increase* ($/acre at (Ib/acre) 17.6c/lb) 436 1,530 476 68 265 290 487 194 119 775 122 158 97 255 197 34 366 337 499 350 165 547 376 460 177 75 773 220 201 15/ 801 1,629 867 689 576 219 175 6 845 800 636 419 629 411 ' 76.74 269.28 83.78 11.97 46.64 51. C4 85.71 34.14 20.94 136.40 21.47 27.81 17.07 44.88 34.67 5.98 64.42 59.31 87.82 61.60 29.04 96.27 66.18 80.96 31.15 13.20 136.05 38.72 35.38 27.63 140.98 286.70 152.59 121.26 101.38 38.54 30.80 1.06 148.72 140.80 111.94 73.74 110.70 72.34 Application cost (AI Economic $l/lb + 50c/ benefit* application) Source () $ 14.00 7.20 6.75 9.75 10.50 9.75 8.25 13.75 9.00 15.00 5.25 4.38 5.25 10.50 15.00 4.50 18.00 10.50 12.00 18.00 13.50 12.00 10.50 10.50 13.50 13.50 10.50 7.50 15.00 5.00 11.25 16.25 24.00 25.50 25.50 9.00 16.50 15.00 42.50 30.00 21.00 14.00 9.00 7.00 62.74 262.08 77.03 2.22 36.14 VI. 29 77.46 20.39 11.94 121.40 16.22 23.43 11.82 34.38 19.67 1.48 46.42 48.81 75.82 43.60 15.54 84.27 55.68 70.46 17.65 (.30) 125.55 31.22 20.38 22.63 129.73 270.45 128.59 95.76' 75.88 29.54 14.30 (13.94) 106.22 110.80 90.94 59.74 a/ y c/ d/ £/ tj sJ h/ a/ 101.70 64.84 Income anr! benefit figures have bei-n adjusted for error in source document.) �Table 25. Date 1969 1969 1969 1970 1971 1971 1972 1972 (Note: Application Rate )b Al/acre) No, • 1,5 1.5 1.6 2.0 1.5 1.17 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 0.8 1.5 1.5 0.8 1.5 1.5 6 6 8 13 12 6 4 6 6 8 8 8 8 8 8 10 8 (Continued) Yield increase* Additional income* ($/acre at 1.7,. 6£/lb) Application cost (AI $l/lb + 50c/ 11.44 18.48 11.44 105.78 41.54 20.24 51.04 17.25 (9.15) 77.26 104.90 79.02 125.14 108.06 67.58 72.86 64.06 12.00 12.00 16.80 31.50 24.00 10.02 8.00 12.00 12.00 16.00 16.00 10.40 16.00 16.00 10.40 20.00 16.00 65 105 65 601 236 115 290 98 (52) 439 596 449 711 614 384 4 1/. 364 Economic benefit* Source (.56) 6.48 &.I (5.36) 74. 28 17.54 10.22 43.04 5.25 i/ i/ Ji/ If (21.15) 61.26 m/ 88.90 68.62 109.14 92.06 57.J.8 52.86 48,06 n/ o/ Incone and benefit figures have been adjusted for error In source document. * Data in parentheses indicate decreases yield, income, and economic benefit. a./ Cowan, C. B., Jr., and J. W. Davis, "Field Tests With Conventional Low Volume or Ultra-Low Volume Sprays for Control of tlic Boll Weevil, Bollyorm, and Tobacco Budworro on Cotton in 1967," J. Kconv KiUomol., ^61:1115-1116 (1068). b/ Bost, W. M., Director, Cooperative Intension Service, Mississippi State University, State, College, Mississippi, Summary of Test Results at Stonevillc and Verona, Mississippi, and Costs of'Pesticides, personal letter to Mr. David F. Ilalilcn. £/ Cox, John A., Director, Louisiana Cooperative Extension Service, Baton Roufcc, Louisiana, Sttmm.iry of Test Results in Louisiana, personal letter to Mr. David V. Ilalilcn (1974). d/ '.ec.ett, J. K., T. C. Cleveland, and W. P. Scnit, "Comparison of Several Insecticide Combinations for Control of llcl ict.lilr. spp.." J. Kron. Kntomol., G'i:ll{!2 (1972). £/ Hopkins, A. TiT, II. M. Taft, VJ. James, and C. K. Jornfp.an, "Evaluation of Substlmtos for DDT in Field Kxperinu-.its (or Control of the B o l l Kiitojnol . , vorm and the Boll Weevil in Cotton, 1967-1969," 63:848-850 (1970). JY WoTfcnbarf.c-r and McGarr, op. cit. (1971). p/ Hr.Rarr and WolCcnbarper, op. clt. (1969). -273- �Table 25. (Continued) h/ Hann.i., R. L., "Field Performance of Chemicals for Control of Tobacco Budworms, Bollwonns, and Carmine Spider Mites on Cotton, College Station, 1968," Progress Report PR-2671, Texas Agr. Exp. £Tta. (1969). ij Uanna, R. L., "Field Tests of Chemicals for Control of Tobacco Budwonns, Bollwonns, and Carmine Spider Mites on Cotton, College Station," Progress Report PR-2842, Texas Agr. Exp. Sta. (1970). J/ Cowan, C. B., Jr., and . . W. Davis, "Field Evaluation of Insecticides for 1 Control of the Boll Weevil, Bollworni and Tobacco Budworm on Cotton, Waco Area, Central Texas, 1968," Progress Report PR-2672, Texas Agr. Exp. Sta. (1969). k/ Hanna, R. L., "Field Tests of Chemicals for Control of Tobacco Budwonns and Bollworros on Cot'.on, College Station," Technical Report 19, pp. 19-22, Texas Agr. Exp. Sta. (1971). I/ McGarr, R. L., "Field Tests With the i)elta-Endotoxin of Bacillus thurinptcnsis KD-1 and Chemical Insecticides for Control of the Tobacco Budworm and Bollwonn and the Cotton I.oafperforator, 1970 and 1971, Investigations of Chemicals for Control of Cotton Insects in Texas 1970-1971," Progress Report PR-3082, pp. 1-4, Texas Agr. Exp. £1*, (1972). «/ Uanua, R. L., "Field Tests of Chemicals for Control of Tobacco Budworms end Bollwor on Cotton, College Station, Investigations of Chemicals for Control of Cotton Insects in Texas, 1970-1971," Progress Report PR-3084, pp. 22-36, Texas Agr. I'xp. Sta. (1972). £/ Cowan, C. B., Jr., and J. W. Davis, "Chomicals Evaluated in Field Tests Against Cotton Insects, Investigations of Chemicals for Control of Cotton Insects in Texas," Technical Report No. 73-20, pp. 9-12, Texas Agr. Exp. Sta. (1973). of McGarr, R. L,., "Field Tests With Bacillus thurinpfcnsls HD-1 and Chemical Insecticides for Control of the Tobacco Budworm and the Bollworm at Brownsville, Texas, 1972, Investigations ot Chemicals for Control of Cotton Insects in Texas," Inimical Report No. 73-20, pp. 13-17, Texas Agr. Exp. Sta. (1973). -274- �Aldicarb Approximately 440,000 Ib AI of Tcmikv> were used to treat cotton insects and nematodcs in 1972. It has been shown to be effective in controlling thrips, aphids, boll weevils, leaf miners, desert spider mites and fleahoppcrs. Efficacy Against P^st Infestation has been evaluated for insect control on cotton by a number of researchers. These tests were conducted prior to registration and in noncommercial trials since registration. For this reason the results may not be representative of actual field conditions, but they have been included BO that the review may be more complete. (See Table 14.) Beckharc ( 9 0 ! evaluated Tcroik© and other insecticides for the 17)/ control of thrips on cottoain Georgia. Results of tests conducted in 1967 and 1968 showed that Temlk^ was hiphJy effective in thrips control. Davis and Cowan (1972)J!/ showed that Temikvx applied in the reed furrow at planting gave effective control of thrips, the cotton aphid, and the cotton fleahoppers. Davl-s and Cowan (1974) •?_' conducted tests with Tcmik^ nnd concluded that effective control oC thripu, cotton nphids and cotton f Icahoppers was achieved. The director of the Cooperative Extension Service in Mississippi, W. M. Bor.t (1974).i/, reporting on tests of Tew Ik & at Verona, Mississippi, In 1971, found tb* pesticide pave excellent thrips control and reduced the number of boll weevils. Its effect on f Icnho^pers war, inconclusive. Fifj.y additional tests, conducted from 1965 to 1973, rompnrcd yields of Temik^- treated plots at Sionevillc, Mississippi (Host, 1974). Substantial yield information was also obtained from Union Carbide pesticide petitions registered with EPA. :j BccUham, C. M., "Influence of Sy&tctr.ic Insecticides or. Thrips Control nnd Yield of Cotton," iJ^.n^J^itoRol^, 63:9.16-938 (1970). 2J Davis, J. W., and C. B. Cowan," Jr.,""Field Evaluation oC Three Formulations of Aldicarb for Control of Cotton Insects," _J._ i:cpn._Entoniol.. 65^231-232 (1972). ! 3/ Davis, J. W., and C. B. Cowan, Jr., "Early Season Insects on Cotton: ~ Control with Two Systemic Insect icicles." J.u Kcon. J'r.tonol., 67:130-131 (1974). A/ Bost, W. M., Hin-ctor, Cooperative £xti%nsi«'-n Service, Mississippi State University, State- Co 11 (:(;<•, Misn,, Personal letter to D. F. llahlen (Midwest Research In.-.tlluto, St. I-ov.is, Mo.) (1974). -275- �In addition to the above test data, Union Carbide has submitted the results of 1974 efficacy and comparative yield tests for cotton. This data has been compiled and evaluated in the same manner as the published data and is presented in Table 15. These tests are results of commercial use and are likely to be nore representative of actual field conditions than the experimental trials in. Table 14, The tests wore conducted in several states and, therefore, probably cover a wide spectrun of environmental conditions. Most of the yield increases are averages of several tests ana in the cases where the number of tests was given, this number has also been presented. The average change in yield has been calculated as a weighted average based on the number of tests frota which each yield charge- was derived. Thio supplementary data, on cotton gave no indication of the efficacy of insect control but the tests did report increases in yield of from 0 to 390 Ib/acre in South Carolina and Alabama respectively. The weighted average of all the tests Indicated that the use of Temik Cw caused an average increase, in cotton yield of 75.6 Ib/acre. Cor. t The 1972 price, received by farmers fur cotton was 24.0c/lb for lint. Additional Income from cottonseed of 4.2c/lb and government price supports -of 12.5c/lb brought the total income to 40.7c/lb of cotton (Arrlciiltural ,Stntj_sti£S, 1973)!/ Aldlcarh costs amounted to $9.50/ib of active Ingredient (Bost, 1974). For the data reviewed from non-conimorcl.il u.-.o situations :he r.ingft of changes iu cotton varied from a decline of 281 lt>/ncre to an increase of« 1413 Ib/acrc. The economic benefit after subtracting the cost ot Tomik® ranged from a loss of $133.37/acrc to an increase of $558. 75/acrc. The 1974 commcrcl.il use data indicates a range of economic benefits frora a loss of $5.70/acrc to an Increase of $153.03/ar.rc. The .average economic benefit shown by. this data Is ait Increase of $25.07/arrc. However, in typical farm situation!! this increase to farmer Income would be reduced nominally by costs of InKvctfcido application and cos to of harvesting the. additional output. The .icJti.il application cost was trr.ii-ed here ;ts a joint cost with the plant Ing operation; therefore, a rather ronlnally low figure resulted. Furthermore, there is no indication that thin supplementary data is a statintically repreuent.it ive sample of nil comparative yield tests conducted on cotton. \J U.S. Department of Agriculture, ^j£ult\i^l^Jitatistlcs^t 1973. -276- �Table 14. SUMMARY OF EFFICACY TESTS OS COTTON Additional Application Date WnMIBM 1964 1964 Unknown Unkncvn 1965 1965 1965 1965 1965 ir.comc* Yield ($/acre at increase* (Ib Al/acrc) (Ib/acrc) 40.7?/ib) Aldicarb cost at $9.50/lb ($/acrc) 8 37 73 (98) 65 (192) 328 277 152 87 (119) (38) 851 83 523 396 917 395 130 ?00 (60) 820 60p 3-26 15.06 29.71 (39.89) 26.46 (78.14) 133.50 112.74 61.86 35.41 (48.43) (15.46) 346. 3f 33.7" 212.86 161.17 373.22 160.77 52.91 122.10 (24.42) 333.74 (244.20) 5.70 S.50 19.00 19.00 3S.OO 10.07 4.75 9.50 5.70 9.50 19.00 9.50 23.50 9.50 19.00 5.70 9.50 28.50 28.50 29.45 29.45 35.15 35.15 0.6 1.0 2.0 2.0 4.0 1.06 0.5 1.0 0 .67 ICO Ib seed 1.0/100 Ib seed 2.0 1.0 3.0 1.0 2.0 0.6 1.0 3.0 3.0 3.1 3.1 3.7 3.7 Economic benefit* ($/acre) (2.44) 5.56 10.71 (58.89) dl.5'0 (88.21) 128.75 103.24 56.16 25.91 (67.43) (24.96) 317.86 24.28 191.86 155.47 363.72 132,27 24.41 92.65 (53.87) 298.59 (279.35) Source £/ b/ �Table W. Oate 1966 1936 196S 1965 1966 1966 IS&6 1956 (Contimicd) Additional income * Yield increase* ($/acre at Application (Ib Al/acre) (Ib/.-.crcl 40. /<•/!:•) 0.98 1.94 2.68 1. 1 2.5 1.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 0.55 1.25 1.72 2.56 0.60 1.33 1.90 2.68 1.0 1.0 + 1.0 1.0 + 2.0 1.0 -f 3.0 S92 839 536 230 365 (33) 851 1,253 1,281 (-10) 360 (ICO) 320 2iC 350 553 661 1,413 1,224 300 230 63 (70) (251) (231) 150 207 363.04 3-U.47 238.50 S3.61 IAS. 56 (15.46) 346.36 J09.97 521.37 (S5.47) 146.52 (40.70) 130.24 101.75 142.45 227.11 269.03 575.05 ' 498.17 122.10 93.61 24.42 (23.49) (114.37) (IK. 3 7) 61.05 84.25 Aldicarb cost at $9.50/lb ($/acro) 9.31 13.43 34.96 10.45 23.75 ?.50 2S.50 28.50 23.50 9.50 19 . 00 2S.50 9.50 19.00 23.50 5.23 11. &?• 16.34 24.32 5.70 13'. 11 18.05 25.46 9.50 19.00 23.50 J8.CO Economic benefit* _T$/2Crc_J_ 353.73 323.04 203.54 83.16 124. SI (24.96) 317. £6 431.47 492. S? (94.97) 127.52 (69.20) 120.74 i^.75 113.95 221.83 257.15 538.75 . 473.85 116.40 50.50 6.37 (54.95) (123.87) (133.37) 32.55 46.25 Source b/ �Table 14 (Continued). Additional Yield Cate 1966 1967 1968 1970 1972 1970 1972 1972 1972 1972 .972 in cone* Application increase* ($/aere at (Ib Al/acre) (Ib/acro) 4G.7c/lb) 0.1 0.25 0.5 1.0 1.0 0.6 2.1 0.9 1.8 1.0 0.8 1.2 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.125 1.0 0.5 0.33 0.67 1.0 0.5 2.0 2.0 614 937 970 54 152 296 3S4 351 394 3S1 309 443 307 164 11 231 433 221 907 898 701 595 f ^t 846 Aldicarb cost Economic benefit'' (S/acre) at $9.50/lb ($/acrc) 24^,90 331.36 394.79 21.98 61.86 120.47 155.29 142.36 160.36 155.07 4.75 9.50 9.50 5.70 19.95 8.55 17.10 9.50 7.60 11.40 9.50 19.00 3.50 10.69 9.50 4.75 3.14 6.37 9.50 4.75 19.00 19.00 248.95 378.93 390.04 12.48 52.36 114.77 136.34 134.31 143.26 145.57 11C. 16 16S.90 115.45 47.75 (5.02) 83.33 166.73 85.20 366.01 359.12 275.81 0.95 125.76 160.30 124.95 66.75 4.48 94.02 176.23 89.95 369.15 365.49 235.31 242.17 257.22 344.32 2.33 Source y £/ $J sL' LI £/ y u 237.42 . £/ 238.22 325.32 I/ £/ �Table 14. Dace 1971 1965 1965 1965 1965 1965 IS 6 6 1966 1906 1956 1965 1966 1967 \:J£>7 1*6? 1907 V3C7 1967 156S 1963 1963 1%3 1969 106S 1969 196^ Application (I b Ai/ncrcJ 0.25 0.5 1.0 1.0 2.0 0.5 1.0 2.0 0.5 0.1 0,25 0.5 1.0 -1- 2.0 1.0 + 4.0 0.5 0.75 0.25 0.1 0.25 0.5 0.25 1.0 0.25 0.5 0.25 0.1 0.25 0.5 ^Continued) Additional Yield incase* increase * ($/acre at 40.?c/lb) (Ib/ocre) 300 197 50 83 523 1114) 157 538 1,258 614 937 970 150 206 310 542 585 10 321 134 277 207 230 61 363 675 293 266 122.10 60.13 20.35 33.73 212.86 (46,40,' 63.90 213.37 512.01 249.90 381.36 394.79 61.05 83.34 126.17 220.59 233.10 4.07 130.65 54.54 112.74 84.30 113.96 3^.97 147.74 274.73 119.25 108.26 Aldicarb cost at $9.50/lb ($/.icrc^ Economic benefit * ($/acro^ 2.33 4.75 9.50 9.50 19. CO 4.75 S.50 19-00 4.75 0.95 2.38 4.75 28.50 47.50 4.75 7.13 2.38 O.S5 2. 33 4.75 2.38 9.50 2.38 4.75 2.33 0.95 2.38 4.75 119.72 75.43 10.85 24.28 193. S6 (51.15) 54.40 199.97 507.26 243.95 378.98 390.04 32.55 36.3'» 121.42 213.46 235.72 3,12 128.27 £9.79 110.36 74.80 111.53 2P.22 145.36 273.78 116.17 J.03.51 Source k/ �Table 14. Date 1970 1970 1970 1971 1971 1971 i ro 1971 1971 1971 1971 1971 1972 1972 1972 1972 1972 1972 1972 (Continued) Additional income* Yield increase* ($/acre at Application (Ib Al/acre) (Ib/acrc) 40.7c/lb) 0.25 0.5 0.1 0.1 0.25 0.5 1.0 0.25 0.5 1.0 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.5 0.25 0.25 0.5 545 536 207 232 260 223 330 117 303 366 155 657 137 195 193 £9 53 171 221.82 218.15 84.25 94.42 105.82 90.76 134.31 47.62 125.35 148.96 63.09 267.40 55.76 79.37 80.58 19.94 21.57 69.60 Aldicarb cost at $9.50/lb ($/acrc) 2.38 4.75 0.95 0.95 2.38 4.75 9.50 2.38 4.75 9.50 2.38 2.38 2.33 2.38 4.75 2.38 2.33 4.75 Economic benefit* ($/acrc) 219.44 213.40 83.30 93.47 103.44 86.01 124.81 45.24 120.60 139.46 60.71 265.02 53.38 76.99 75.83 17.56 19.19 64. S5 Source k/ �Table 14. Date 1973 1973 1^73 1573 1973 1973 1973 (Continued) Additional income* Yield increase* ($/acre at Application (lb AZ/acrej (lb/gcre) 40.7c/lb) 0.3 0.6 0.15 0.3 0.6 0.5 1.0 89 120 130 281 18? 228 215 36.22 48.84 52,91 114.37 76.92 92.80 87.50 Aldicarb cost at $9.50/lb ($/acrc) 2.85 5.70 1.43 2,85 5.70 4.75 9.50 Economic benefit" ($/acre) Source 33.37 43.14 51.48 111.52 7! .22 ' 3.05 78.00 i JSJ oo ro i * £/ W £/ d_/ el j:/ Data in parentheses indicate decreases in yield, income, and e< .aoziic benefit. Union Carbide Corp., EPA Pesticide Petition Files, Section 1:.. Union Carbide Corp., EPA Pesticide Petition 8F0637. Bockhass, op cit. (1970). Davis and Cowan, op cit. ( 9 2 . 17) Davis and Cowan, op ci;. (1974). Birchfield, W., "Cotton," Fungicide and Neaatocide Test Results of 1970. Report So. 277, American Phytopathological Society, St. Paul, Minn. ( 9 0 . 17) £/ Blackrcan, op _ci_t. (1972). h/ Birchfield, op cit. (1972). i/ Bird ct al., og cit. (1972). j/ Saith, F. H., "Cotton," Fungicide and Nematocide Test Results of 1972. Report No. 312, Aaerican Phytopathological Society, St. Paul, Minn. (1972). k/ Host, op fit. (1974). Note: AI = active ingredient. �Table 15. 1 7 RESULTS OF 7EMIK® APPLICATION ON COTTON 9 4 Value of — Yield Char.Rc($) Economic 3/ Benefit No. Application (Ib Al/acrc) Yield Change (Ib) Calif. -Aril. .6 79 32.15 5.70 26.45 14 Calif.-Arie. 2.0 144 53.61 19.00 39.61 N/S Texas .6 93 37.85 5.70 32.15 25 K.C.-S.C. .6 11 4.78 5.70 -1.22 20 Ark.-Ho. .6 73 23.71 5.7C 24.01 5 Georgia .6 274 111.52 5.70 105.82 10 Al«ba=a .6 390 158.73 5.70 153.03 I Hississippi .6 40 16.28 5.70 10.58 45 ^ s.c CO V s.c. .6 0 0 5.70 -5.70 1 .6 25 10. IS 5.70 4.78 ) S.C. .5 50 20.35 4.75 IS. 60 1 s.c. s.c. .5 25 10.18 4.75 5.43 1 .5 25 10.18 4.75 5.43 1 .6 75.6 30.77 5.70 25.07 Location Average. All Tests - Tcaik®!/ Cost I/ Change In cotton yield x $.407/lb '1972 average price). 2f Lb Al/acre x S9.SO/lb AIj since nost Teolk ® Is cpplled at planting, application cost (usually calculated with planting costs) Is not evaluated. 3/ Value of Yield Change nlnua Tealk ® Cost equals Econoatc Benefit. Note: N/S - pests not specified; AI - active IngredientSource: Cosparatlve yield data subrsltted to EPA by Dr. Richard Back, Union Carbide Corporation, Washington. D C .. Tests �Ma lathion The use of malathion on cotton is primarily for control of tbc boll weevil as it enters diapause. It is also recommended in some areas for the control of thrips, two spotted spider mites and grasshcr; --?rs. . . . . ~ Tne thrcc "lajor insects that cotton are the. tobacco budworn, the bo] Iwonn and the boll wcc.v}1. Mala:. h Ion is relatively ineffective against tbc budworro and bollworn and is no; recommended in some states for this use against those insect!*. I. a test of several organophosphntc insecticides, Flnpp (1971)--' found that mal.ithion was not highly toxic to cither the budworw or bollworu. Similar results were obtained by Cowan and Davis (1968)?:/ who concluded that rr.nlathion did not control bollworws or tobacco budvonis . Malathion has been fou'r.d to be effective on the boll weevil as it enters diapause. Lloyd et ol. (1972)-?-/ concluded that UI,V formulat ions of malathion p.avc effective control of boll weevils during tests conducted in 1966 and 1967 in Carroll County and State College, Mississippi. Applications of 0.25 to 0.50 Ib of malathion every 4 to 5 days provided effective control. Cowan and Davis (1968) also concluded that Ul.V applications of rcalathion at 0.-'- to 0.8 Ih/acrc Rave goor! control of the boll weevil. These tests were conducted at Waco, Texas, in 1967. Plapp, F. W., Jr., "Insect Resistencc in Heliothis: Tolerance in Larvae of H. yiie^cons as Compared with II. z.oa to Organophospli.itu Insecticides," ; ^ ? ^ J i . . ~ r _ 64:999-1002 (1971). L.j.>tjlo., Cowan, C. B., Jr., and J. W. Davis, "Field Tests with Convcntlon.-jl Low Volume and Ultra-Low-Volume Sprays, for Control of the Uol1 Weevil, Roll worm and Tobacco Budworm on Cotton in 1967," J_._FLcon.. EnjtjnaioJL, 61:1115-1116 (1968). Lloyd, K. I'., J. p. McCoy, W. P. Scott, E. C. Hurt, I). B. Smith, and F. C. Tingle, "In-Season Control of the noil Weevil with llltraLow-Volumc Sprays of Azinphosmcchyl or Mnlathion," J. !i£pi^_Kn_tj[M;io_l. , • 65:1153-1156 (1972). -284- �There appears to be little change in the: efficacy of taalathion to the boll we-'vil. Namec and Adkisson (1968 to J.972)!/ have conducted toxicity !:ests of insecticides to the boll weevil. Data since 1968 are shown below. Table 34, MALATHION EFFICACY TESTING RESULT ON BOLI. WEEVILS f Insecticide Malathion Malathion Malathion Malathion Malathion Lb/acrc 7.. k i l l (.'*8 hr) Year 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.5 1.0 78 92 82 100 100 1968 1969 1970 1971 1971 Cantu and Wolfenbarger (1969 to 1972)1' have conducted tests on the toxicity of two spotted cpider miter to tnalathion. The results .is shown below do not indicate any reduction in efficacy over a 4-year period. Table 35. MALATHION EFFICACY TESTING RESULTS ON SPIDER MITES 7. concentration I n s_ectjc_i_d c Malathion Malathion Malathion Malathion Malathion Malathion Malathion Malathion •I. kill after 72 hr (foliar spray) Yjear 90 27 88 24 86 20 88 20 1969 1969 1970 1970 1971 1971 1972 1972 j 0.25 0.01 0.25 0.01 0.25 0.01 0.25 0.01 On the basis of these results it appears that there is no reduction in the efficacy when raalathion is used to control the boll weevil and two spotted spider mites. \l Nemec, S. J., and P. L. AdUisson, "Laboratory Tests of Insecticides for Bollworm, Tobacco Budworm and Boll Weevil Control," J[D.YJl!LL3Jlit tions of^ Chf^ (1968-1972), 2/ Cantu, E., and D. A. Wolfenbargcr, "Effectiveness o£ Experimental Insecticides for Control of the Tobacco Budworm, Boll Weevil, Fall Arnyworm, find Two Spotted Spider Mites," InyesHr.^11'ons of Chomica 1 s -285- �Cost Effectiveness of^JPcet^Cpntro^ - Tlicrc have been a limited number of otudieo on the change in cotton yield due only to the use of malathlon. It la most often used In mixtures with met!:yl par.jthion to control the budwcrra and the boll weevil. Vleld Increases from tests comparing loalalhion-treatcd cotton to untreated test plots varied widely depending .upon the number of applications and the degree of pest infestation. Data were only available from seven testa conducted in Mississippi and Texas. The wide ranpe in yield increase is often due to the variance in the rate of pest infestations. Pfrlmmer et al. (1971)1' reported that during; tests in 1969 a field that normally produced 1,500 to 2,000 Ib of seed cotton per acre produced only one-tenth of the normal yield without any insecticidal treatment. The 1972 price received by farmers for cotton was 24.0c/lb for Unt. Additional income from cottonseed at 4.2c/lb and government price supports of 12.5C/lb brought the total income to 40.7c/lb of cotton (Agricultural Statistics, 19731'). Malathion costs averaged $1.20/lb (Bost 1974l/)j application costs arc. $1.25 per treatment. Economic benefits vould range from $5.95 to $683.96. The range of yield changes from all of the data reviewed varied from a small gain of 20 lb/acre to a substantial increase of 1,730 lb/acro. when compared to untreated test plots. The economic benefit after subtracting the cost of the ^alatliion ranged from $6.70/acre to $700.21/acrc. If P-fritr-Ticr, T. R., R. E. Furr, and E. A. Stadclbocher, "Materials for Control of Boll Weevils, Bollwcrms, and Tobacco Budworms on Cotton at StonevHle, Mississippi," J^Lfon_.J^nj_oj™l_._, 64:475-478 (1971). 1.1 ^jJj?iL?JJiEJLL.5JJlLl?_LL<L?._15i2» u - s - Department of Agriculture (1973). 3f Kost, W. M., Director, Cooperative Hxtcnsion Service, Mississippi State, Mississippi, personal letter to D. F. Hahlcn (1974). -286- �The results of the yield tests are tabulated below. Table 36. YIELD AND BENEFIT ANALYSIS RESULTS OF MALATHION ON SELECTED COTTON PESTS Application Additional Cost at $1.20/lb Application Yield income Ply? cost.t" Economic ?£c.a Rate increase ($/acre at at $1.25/ benefit effort ($> D.i tc 1[Ib M/acrcl No. 1956 1956 1958 1967 1967 1967 1967 1.0 1.0 0.5 0.25 0.5 0.4 0.8 i 9 7 13 13 3 3 83.45 186.41 290.60 704.11 476.19 8.1 A 16.28 £/ Dost, ojjj cijc. (1974). b/ Cowan ct al., $9^ fiiL. (1966)„ -287- 12.25 22.05 12. y5 20.15 24.05 2.19 3.63 71.20 164.36 277.65 683.96 452.14 5.95 12.65 Source £/ a/ S.I af b/ b/ �Parathiyn Par.itMon is registered for a wide variety of cotton incccta. The tobacco budworn, bollworra, boll weevil, aphids, flcahoppers, leaf hoppers, cabbage loopcrs, spider mites, ami thrtps are major cotton posts treated vilh parathion. Application rar.es vary from 0.25 to 1.0 Ib'acre, depending upon the typo of insect. The number of applications expends upon the degree of infestation. Repeated applications are recotuacnded for the bollworm, budworn, and boll w.>cvil until adequate control is achievsd. . . . _ _ " Data i s available o n the efficacy o f parathion for control of the budworn, bollworm, anil boll weevil-- the three major cotton pests — 'from tests conducted in Texas. Adkisson et al. (1966).*' compared a wide variety of insecticides for control, of bollworta larvae near College Station, Texas in 1965. The use of parathion resulted in a 702 kill after 48 hr when applied at 0.5 Ib/acrc. Adkisson et al. (1967)-V conducted similar tests in 1966 and reported an 85X kill of bollworra larvae 48 hr after parathion was applied at 0.5 Ib/acre. Parathion was also less effective against the budworm with an 637. kill at 0.75 Ib/acro after /S hr compared to a 97% kill for 0.75 Ib/acre of raethyl parathion. Against adult boll weevils, 0.25 Ib/acrc of parathion resulted in a 97% kill after 48 hr compared to 100X for methyl parathion at the same rate. Volfcnbargcr (1973)Iv found that tobacco budworns from a susceptible strain were 2.45 tiroes more resistant to parathion than to methyl parathion durinj; tests conducted in Brownsville, Texas in 1970. \l Adkisson, Terry 1,., and S. J. Nonce, "Comparative Effcctivuncsg of Certain Insecticides for Killing Bollwortns and Tobacco Budworma," Publication B-1048, Texas A«r. Kxp. Sta. (1966). 2/ Adkisson, Perry I.., and S. J. ftemcc, "Insecticides for Controlling the Bollworra, Tobacco Budworra, and Boll Weevil," KP-837, Texas Agr. Exp. Sta. (1967). J3/ Wolfenbarger, 1). A., "Tobacco Budworm: Cross Resistance to Insecticides in Resistant Strains and in a Susceptible Strain," J. He on,;. 66:292-294 (1973). -238- �Cost Effectiveness of Pest Conjrrgl — Information was found on only one test relating yield changes to parathion usage. Bost ( 9 4 - summarized 17)' tests conducted between 1956 and 1973 at Stonevlllc, Mississippi. The results of one test In 1956 ohowed a 253 Ib/acie pain over an untreated check when nine applications of parathion at 0.5 Ib/acrc were raadc. The 1972 price received by fanners for cotton was 14.0c/lb for lint, Additional income from cottonseed of 4.2c/lb and povernrcent price supports of 12.5c/lb brought the total income to 4Q.7c/lb (AylculUiral_StatistJcG,_ 1973).-' Paratl ion costs averaged $l/lb in 1972, w'hflc 7fpp"lTcation~c~bT£s' averaged $.50 per treatment (Chambers ct al., 1974).-' the above cost and price data, the additional income would amount to $102.98/acre. Subtracting the cost of parathion at 99.00/acre would result In an economic benefit of $93.98/.ic.re when parathion was used to control boll weevils, bollwonas, and tobacco budworms. Ij Bost, W. M., Director, "Cooperative Extension Service Mississippi ~ State University, Mississippi Stare Mississippi, Sunmary of Test Results at Stoncvillc and Verona, Missi.ssippl, and Costs of Pesticides," personal letter to Mr. David F. llahlen (1974). 3J U.S. Denartncnt of ARrirultnrc, Aprleult«ral 3J Chambers, William, and Daniel Mniet:,"" City, Missouri, conversation (1974). -289- �Ill D.2 APPENDIX THE VALUE OF DDT IN COTTON PRODUCTION PRELIMINARY SUMMARY REPORT TO ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY CONTRACT # 68-01-2483 JULY I, 1975 bUMintolnii Roa<t • Altwnditi. Vt 11)12 » -290- �So;oo fnrjiicrs and V.hcir repro.snnt-ut ivo^ contend that they rOvvjid be allowed, onco again, to use DDT in the product. ion of cotton. qu.csti.on of s.ocic-1 ccstn and b e n e f i t s must- be answered. The The sccr i c< 1 cost.s of ufjir.q DDT are still very coiitiovcris.-i?i.l and this study of>t:s not n t t e ' n p t to address them. The purpose hero is;, j-yt-hi.-r, to iiSi-.o.ia l:ho pr>i.r?ntial bonofits of allowing DDV u u i J i/.dtion in cotton p.vodt'c- In ordor to allow for both wit.hjn and .imony rojron chanycn in crop production w i t h i n a fraincv/ork which takes «u:ct>r.nt of historic responsivenoss, a co:iatm.inod opt.ijniirnfclon.inoilol was er;ployr.-d. Tho linear prograr.nurK,- (LP) model previously developed by KSJ wr-n ):.,-)di-Tied for this purpose. T\-io s o l u t i o n s were obtained: a fcssc tr.cdc.1 (HARE2) which .illovjod D!)T for cotton in 1975; -2nd an c.ll or n a t i v e wliich d i d not (COTQD1). 7'»e I.j_n"3r_ _Proi-)ri;^-ti '.n^£j-indol Actf viti'iu were Defined by prcuuc.ino' ( 1 2 9 ) regions to prov :*•-•-• fov d'.irt. jon of c:ropr, (by method, ]«~.nd clairs ar.cl rTitji •"•'') J e* cc'.:l 3 oC fM.'infjc i'ro;n h i s t c r i t prodvictior )3:<L1 » • •:;!'•.. Ac'.'.iv it » c-s I'.'.-.TO t'of ir.C'd jiy cor.sJ'nng iortj'on f 2 7 ) to p r o v i d e f o r o> exports of [.'.'•'•;.">') 1 I - V ' K ; o H i j J. i / :.t .'"i i o '." c. .-limed it i r s fc'i: f t c d ? ."M.J c trjincpor t.ti;:-.on of fo»."iCKl 1 1 leu bPtv/c-.'n Dcj'irr. cf -291- �Constraints were defined by producing am to e limit land use to the quantity actually available (by land class) ; • to provide crop acreage targets; and • limit the proportion of cott.on acreage using DDT. Constraints were defined by consuming region to • balance commodity production and demands. The objective was to minimize production coot, transportation cost. and flexibility penalties. Tht: LP model constrained the maximum production of cotton UKJJT;; OUT «>nd using no pest.'c idles to be- no groatei than the proportions .shown in Table 1. The "Donna" regions referred to are: 2 - Georgia, Carolina^, Virginia; 3 - Texas, Oklahoma; 4 - Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama, Arkansas, Mississippi and Louisiana; J> - Missouri; and 6 - California, Arizona, New Mexico. As Table 1. chows, only regions 2 and <1 utilized DDT in any significart pr Two benefits may accrue to the use of DDT— decreased costs and increased efficacy. This analysis focuses on the interregional impacts of changes in cost which resulted frcro the DCT cancellation. T!ie questions of efficacy and yield effects were evaluated only in as much as fewer applications per year were assunwd to be required with DDT. This phcncxncna was rcflecrtec'l in reqional insecticide cost estimates. A second cost imj;>act occurs because DDT -292- �costs let.s than ;il tor native insecticides. Table 1 shows the? assumed. co.'-t.s oi: insecticide (includiiicj application) when DDT is allowed and when it is not. In the Li? model three distinct cotton production activities were defined on each land class in each producing area: e Cotton with DDT (constrained to be less than the proportion of total cotton shown in Table 1); » Cotton with othor insecticides; * Cotton with no insecticides (constrained to he less than the proportion receiving none as shown in Table 1). Tables 2 and 3 illustrate the oonformancc of the model results; with both observed and projected acreages and total production. All results are somewhat lower than tha. observed and projected levels. This occurs because of substantially lov;er export requirements ohov.'n in Table 4. Ivith lowor total demands, of course the acreage and production will decline. Table 5 shows the reyionel distribution of cotton production for both models and for observed .1.973. The distribution in the models show a greater concentration in Texas than hos been observed historically. Otherwise the distr.iLut.ion is quite similar. Table 6 shows ('.be regional distribution of cotton acreages; among the ini-ectricido options. These data correspond with the. upper liiniVs impoccc: on "DDT" and "ho J'osticidos" as shown in Table 1. -293- �With DDT cisa]lowed, certain production shifts must occur. The farmers who had used DDT must replace it with some other insecticide or stop producing cotton. As shown in Table 5, very few reduced production. The Atlanta region declined by 3,900 acres (.4%), Memphis declined 8,900 acres (.4%), New Orleans decl.in-.id by 24,000 acres (7,23), Louisville declined by 600 acres (34,01) and Sun Francisco increased by 17,500 acres (2.2%). Since the yield is higher in Uie San Francisco region, total production remained constant even though total acreage declined by 19,900 acres (.18%). It follows that most farmers utilized other, higher cost, insecti* cidcs. Table 7 chows that this is the case, Conporing it with Table 6 shows that nearly all the cotton previously .usircj DOT was shifted to other insecticides—<a total of 980 thousand acres. The land idled by those farmers who elected not to grow cotton in the southeast and delta states was generally left idle, although 2,250 ucreas in the Atlanta region were planted to soybeans. In MempMs, cotton is shifted to higher yielding land classes, causing a degradation in soybean and oat yields there. The land in San Francisco on which cotton production was increased was previously slack; thus no shift in other crops wr«s observed. There was a negligible impact on equilibrium prices which aro, by definition, theroai^i'Jijilcost of production. Since each region was forced in e^ch solution to proJuca some cotton using other inBuct-icides for each aero using DDT, and since there'was no direct -294- �\ \ yj.elu impact, the nicnrq j.1^1 cost of production war; not increased by the removal of the low cost option. Thus corns amors are not noti- ceably in.p^cted by the removal of DDT. Avernge costs were, of course, increased. This reduces the return to land, which is a proxy for net farm inconi-,-. illustrates the changes in land values. Table 8 The Memphis region sut- fered moat with a decline of 1.93% in return to lard. Other regions in the southeast and delta also suffered sorne loss with Atlanta declining . 37'i and New Orleans declining ,93'i. Francisco region, conversely, realized a gain of .261. The San These changes are quite small even on a regional basis—although some '•imli-vickiial : 1 arraers may suffer substantial losse:.. At the national level, the returns to land declined by .082. Summary ^pc^ C_onclusi_onF.: Given the data on comparative insecticide costs and DDT upper I limits, the impact of restricting DDT use on cotton is quite small. The national impact is negligible-! for both producers anc? consumers. Regionally, there are sinnll losses in some regions arid gains in one for producers. On tho basis of this study, we must conclude thi.:t the value of DDT in cotton production is not overwhelming. -295- �Table 1. Historic cot.ton insecticide use. ape Insecticide Cost_ DDT " Other $ cicre $/ a ere 2 3 4 5 6 48.53 Table 2. 59. 60 15. 03 27.05 6. .19 12. 38 24.47 P r 9 l £ ; o L ! .. .- ; : ( . A ° l iJ j £ c ; i i £ .? DDT" " "Any % % 30.00 26.9 93.1 27.2 79.0 28.0 72.4 Comparison of observed and projected planted acreage (nillien acres). Mndr.1 1973 Barley Corn Cotton Soybeans Celts Soryhum Wheat --- Total 11.33 71.61 12.50 57.30 19.2] 16.26 59 . 01 247.22 1975 11.33 66.85 12.62 55.72 15.01 15.66 58.49 R.38 54.18 10.97 49.35 10.32 15.05 45.00 235.68 193.25 -296- �Tub-le 3. CojT'paris;ot! of observed and projected crop commodity producti^n (millions). ibserved Time Trend Model _197J> 460.2 5,760.1 13.3 1,508,8 564.2 946.1 1,820.5 110.0 337,8 5,389.7 1.1.2 1,622.6 457.0 1 jLiyji— ..,-j.m IV.r ley (bu) C'ovn (bu) Cot.ton (ba) Soybeans (bu) Oats (bu) Soryhum (bu) Who .it (bu) Cottonseed (cwt) Table 4. 424.?. 5,636.6 13.2 1,568.4 663.2 930.6 1,711.2 98.96 865. 1 1,402.9 92.7 Comparison'; of obuervou and projected croo conaumpLio:"» and export (mil3 invjs) Export Dcncatic Consumotion (excludlncj Feed) Observed 1 ?J'.^—. 1 Barley ( b u ) Corn ( b u ) Cotton (b.V) 145 4 2 3 .0 7 .47 SoyKc«inr> 141 .0 , ' "* > J .0 Oat.' (bu) 6 .0 Sorghum (bu) 526 .4 Wiiej.1- ( b u ) . Cottonseed l ( c - H-) 9 .7 Mode 1 1 y 7 f> Observed 19J73 Model _19_V5 186.1 769.5 7.4 180.5 124.4 33.9 608.7 66.0 1,258.0 5.0 50.5 932.5 3.8 565.9 5.0 74.6 701.9 26.3 12.4 Estimated -297- 6*;i< 24.0 2.12.0 .1,184.2 37.0 �Table 5. Regional Distribution of cotton acreage as percent of US tonal: ba<;e Model, with DDT disallowed, observed 1973. Obr.crved 1973 Arlrnta Jcckuonvilli? M-.ir.'.phi iHour.tori Now Orleans Loc.iavillo. S t.. Lou i s Am.irillo San Francisco Los AnqolcK --Total. Table 6. Baric Mode?! 197^ 11.28 .09 23.39 18.04 4.34 .003 l.SO 3J .09 7.17 3.28 0.48 .11 21.70 20. GO 3.04 .02 .83 36.26 7.14 1.91 rooToo " DDT U i s a l 3975 8.46 .11. 21.66 20.64 2.83 .01 .83 36.32 7.31 1,82 100". (TO lodToo Regional d i s t r i b u t i o n of cotton acrcacjr; by insecticide; t r e a t m e n t : base model ( m i l l i o n acres). No Reg ion Atlanta Houston Nev; O/loati:j I.oui;:vi lie St. I,o ..-ir: Aroi-r j ) .To Sar- J-'i •;i''.c.\5;c:c J.-o^ A:ri<*3ea —Total !£isi<te ..-: .125 .500 J .645 .070 .066 ! . i) 4 2 ,216 . O r >L> DDT .266 .641 .090 - -298- Other Pesticides Total Acreage* .539 1.241 .615 .1.74 .002 .026 1.13J .!>6V .1X4 .930 2.381 2.260 .334 .002 .09.1 3.970 .783 .190 �Table 7. Regional distribution of cotton acroago by insecticide treatments: model with DDT disallowed (million acres). No Pesticides _ ^ Atlanta Jacksonville Memphis Houston No* Orleans Louisvj.llo St. Louis Amarilio San FrancJaco Los Angeles --•Total Table 8, DDT Other PpjstjLcides Tot_al_ .124 .498 1.645 .065 .066 2.B42 .27.1 _. 055 57517 ^....."_...... - .802 1.874 .615 .245 .001 .026 1.133 .580 _rM^ 5.Tf¥ .926 .012 2.372 2.260 .3.10 .001 .091 3.970 .801 _iJ-.?9 10.9'liZ Returns to land by region. DDT j?Gcu.on """" WpcI^JL ($ ntfilion) P_if'"i! \!-?^£f* (? m i i l j o n ) Atlanta Jacksonville Memphis Houaton Uov; Orleans Louisville SL. I.c-u-.s Ai.iarDlo Pun Ffan-..:i.sco Lot; Ar yclos 45.35 3.74 63.53 48.38 10.47 11.95 44.39 121.48 33.41 7.73 45.19 3,74 62.30 48.18 10.37 11.95 44.." J .9 121.48 33.50 7.73 -299- ?Ji'3.!}^C!. (tj - .37 0.00 -1.93 o.OO - .U3 Q.OO Q.OO o.OO 4 .26 0.00 ��� Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange Description An account of the resource <p style="margin-top: -1em; line-height: 1.2em;">The Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange comprises 120 linear feet and spans the late 1800s to 2005; however, the bulk of the coverage is from the 1960s to the 1980s and there are many undated items. The collection was donated to Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in 1985 by Dr. Alvin L. Young (1942- ). Dr. Young developed the collection as he conducted extensive research on the military defoliant Agent Orange. The collection is in good condition and includes letters, memoranda, books, reports, press releases, journal and newspaper clippings, field logs and notebooks, newsletters, maps, booklets and pamphlets, photographs, memorabilia, and audiotapes of an interview with Dr. Young.</p> <p>For more about this collection, <a href="/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/alvin-l--young-collection-on-a">view the Agent Orange Exhibit.</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Box The box containing the original item. 047 Folder The folder containing the original item. 1183 Series The series number of the original item. Series III Subseries I Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Description An account of the resource <strong>Corporate Author: </strong>U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Office of Pesticide Programs, Criteria and Evaluation Division Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1975-07-01 Title A name given to the resource DDT: A Review of Scientific and Economic Aspects of the Decision to Ban Its Use as a Pesticide Subject The topic of the resource aquatic animals ecological impact health effects pesticide toxicology ao_seriesIII https://www.nal.usda.gov/exhibits/speccoll/files/original/3115a0b0721d97ce1ccc804a998ccf6d.pdf 38777d4fb47a0a6bdbd237f831c9d4c0 PDF Text Text Item ID Number °1185 Author Anonymous Corporate Author Report/Article Tltlfl Technology Notes JOUrnal/BOOk TitlB World Review of Pest Control Year 1969 Month/Day Color n Number of bnages 1 DeSOriptOU Notes Alvin L Youn 9 f'led tnis item under the category "DDT/Human Toxicology and Environmental Fate" Wednesday, April 11, 2001 Page 1185 of 1242 �or Technology noted W.VIN t. YOUNG DDT and man's health It is a strange fact that, in their consideration of the long' term hazards to man of exposure to the chlorinated hydrocarbons, the Advisory Committee on Poisonous Substances used in Agriculture and Food Storage, made no mention of the men subject to high and continuous exposure in the manufacture of these compounds. Dr Hayes, in his contribution to the Royal Society discussion of the toxicity of pesticides to man,1 concluded that real assurance about the possible long-term effects of small repeated doses may be gained by studying the effects of larger doses given over a briefer period. Hence the results of a clinical and chemical study of men with an intensive occupational exposure to DDT, carried out by Laws, Curley and Biros," arc of high interest. This study was made on thirty-five men with eleven to nineteen years of work in a factory that has produced DDT continuously and exclusively since 1947, now producing an average of six million pounds per month. The content of DDT, its isomcrs and metabolic products, in the men's fat ranged from 38 to 647 ppm; the average for the general population of this area is 8 ppm. From these figures and the excretion of DDA in the urine, it was estimated that the mean daily intake of DDT by the twenty men with high occupational exposure was 17-5 to 18 mg per man per day; the average for the general population was 0-04 mg per man per day. Neither medical history, physical examination, routine clinical tests nor chest x-ray revealed any ill effects attributable to this massive exposure to DDT. 1 Hayes, W. J. Jr, 1967, Proc. R. Soc. B., 187, 101. 2 Laws, E. R., Curley, A. and Biros, F. J., 1967, Arch, environ. Health, 16, 766. International Congress of Plant Protection The Seventh International Congress of Plant Protection will be held in Paris from September 21st to 25th, 1970. The objectives of the Congress are those of previous Congresses, the sixth of which was held in Vienna in 1967, though the seventh Congress will not be concerned with the chemistry of pesticides, but rather their general characteristics. Section A, dealing with economic studies, will include the significance of crop losses due to pests, the economic aspects of pest control, the implementing of crop protection measures and methods of investigation. Section B comprises: (I) prophylactic methods including sanitation, the use of resistant varieties, regulatory methods; (2) mechanical and physical methods such as thermal therapy, irradiation, etc; (3) chemical methods such as the use of pesticides, chemosterilants, attractants, repellents and inhibitors; (4) biological methods; (5) integrated control, prognosis and warnings. Section C is for the study of the consequences of pest control including the risk of residues and their effects on wild life and the problems of pesticide resistance. Section D is concerned with general procedures for the application of control measures. The Congress is sponsored by the Socie'te' Francaise de Phytiatrie et de Phytopharmacie, from whom further particulars may be obtained, the address being 57, Boulevard Lannes, 75-Paris XVP, France. Technological economics of pest control and crop protection The Symposium arranged under the above title by the Pesticides Group of the Society of Chemical Industry was mentioned in an earlier Technology Note (Spring 1968, p. 5); further details are now available. The symposium will open, on the evening of September 77 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange Description An account of the resource <p style="margin-top: -1em; line-height: 1.2em;">The Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange comprises 120 linear feet and spans the late 1800s to 2005; however, the bulk of the coverage is from the 1960s to the 1980s and there are many undated items. The collection was donated to Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in 1985 by Dr. Alvin L. Young (1942- ). Dr. Young developed the collection as he conducted extensive research on the military defoliant Agent Orange. The collection is in good condition and includes letters, memoranda, books, reports, press releases, journal and newspaper clippings, field logs and notebooks, newsletters, maps, booklets and pamphlets, photographs, memorabilia, and audiotapes of an interview with Dr. Young.</p> <p>For more about this collection, <a href="/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/alvin-l--young-collection-on-a">view the Agent Orange Exhibit.</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Box The box containing the original item. 047 Folder The folder containing the original item. 1185 Series The series number of the original item. Series III Subseries I Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived World Review of Pest Control Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1969 Title A name given to the resource Technology Notes Subject The topic of the resource DDT pesticide toxicology health effects ao_seriesIII https://www.nal.usda.gov/exhibits/speccoll/files/original/c241d5fc4c85822fde6f309c1bbd2dd5.pdf ca0489f0945f206eb1cbeee1bbec2997 PDF Text Text Item ID Number Author on 37 Anderson, John M. Corporate Author ROpOrt/ArtlClB Title DDT: Sublethal Effects on Brook Trout Nervous System Journal/Book Title science Year 1969 Month/Day A ril 25 Color n Number of Images 2 P Alvin L. Young filed this item under the category "DDT/Human Toxicology and Environmental Fate" Wednesday, April 11, 2001 Page 1187 of 1242 �cent rabbit serum; pH 7.0; without agar), with incubation for 24 hours at 37°C. The end point of activity was complete inhibition of growth. After isolation of metronidazole-resistant organisms, experiments were done in hamsters to compare the efficacy of metronida/ole against the metronidazole-sensitive and -resistant strains. Hamsters were infected with 24-hour cultures of vaginal washings from donor animals infected with either the sensitive or the resistant strain of T. foetus. After 1 week a vaginal smear was taken to confirm infection. Groups of ten animals each were then treated orally with up to 200 mg of metronidazolc per kilogram of body weight, daily for four successive days. A group serving as infection controls was treated with the drug diluent, 0.5 percent gum tragacanth. Twenty-four hours after each treatment, a vaginal washing was taken and placed in Diamond's medium con, taining 100 units of penicillin G and 100 fig of streptomycin per milliliter. The sample was then incubated for 24 hours at 37°C, examined, and scored for trichomonads present. An additional sample was taken 1 week after the last treatment. The degree of infection, designated as the infection score, was . determined by assigning a value of 0, 1, 2, or 3 to each culture examined, 0 indicating no detectable organisms and 3 indicating more than 100 trichomonads per microscopic (X 10) field. The isolate from the animals treated with the aforesaid suboptimum doses of metronidazole was 8 to 16 times more resistant than the parent strain. The minimum inhibitory concentration of metronidazole for the parent strain ranged from 0.0975 to 0.195 /xg/ml, whereas that for organisms isolated from the metronidazole-treated animals ranged from 1.56 to 3.12 /tg/ml. There was no further increase in resistance to metronidazole in infected animals in which treatment was continued for a period of about 3 months. After four oral treatments with metronidazole, hamsters infected with the metronidazole-sensitive strains of T. foetus had a significant reduction in parasites, even at 50 mg/kg per day (Fig. 1). One week after the last treatment, an exacerbation of the infection was observed. Animals infected with the metronidazole-resistant strain of T. foetus and treated with metronidazole, even at 200 mg/kg daily for 4 days, 440 showed no change in parasite numbers during the test period. Resistance to antiprotozoal agents is an important problem in animal and human therapy. Although metronidazole-resistance apparently is not a widespread clinical problem (4), its presence may be more common than believed. Most clinicians do not isolate organisms and test for resistance in cases of therapeutic failure. Furthermore, epidemiological problems cloud the search for resistant organisms in recurrent cases, as the long-term followup required is of little value if the treated individual cannot be isolated (5). Chloroquine-resistance in human malaria first became evident after the drug had been used for many years. Similarly, metronidazole-resistance could prove to be a significant clinical entity. P. ACTOR, D. S. Ziv J. F. PAGANO Research and Development Division, Smith Kline & French Laboratories, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19101 References 1. I. dcCarneri, Lancet 1966-1, 1042 (1966). 2. B. M. Ilonigberg, Proc, Int. Congr. Parasltol. 1st Rome, 1, 368 (1966). 3. I. deCarneri, ibid., p. 366. 4. L. Watt, Practitioner 195, 613 (1965). 5. S. C. Robinson and D. W. Johnston, Canad. Med. Ass. ]. 85, 1094 (1961). 13 January 1969 • DDT: Sublethal Effects on Brook Trout Nervous System Abstract. When brook trout are exposed for 24 hours to sublethal doses of DDT, the cold-blocking temperature for a simple reflex, which shows lability related to thermal history, is altered in a way suggesting that DDT is affecting the thermal acclimation mechanism. Sublethal dosage of DDT also prevents the establishment of a visual conditioned avoidance response. Fish show behavioral changes after exposure to sublethal concentrations of pesticides (1, 2) that may act on either peripheral or central (or both) nervous structures. One receptor system (the lateral line) is markedly affected by sublethal concentrations of DDT (3). Although there is little supporting evidence, the central nervous system (CNS) nevertheless seems the most likely site for the pesticide-sensitive region responsible for changes in complex behavior. Two different behavioral responses of brook trout Salvelinus fontinalis to sublethal exposure to DDT implicate the CNS as the target site. The first is represented by changes in the low temperature (cold-block temperature) which is just sufficient to extinguish the propeller tail reflex (4). The spinal cord is the site for this cold blockage (5). The second response involves visual conditioning of an avoidance response that is formed in the optic tectum (6). The fish ranged from 6 months to 2 years old. They were fed DDT-free beef liver once daily. To minimize the amount of detritus present, the fish were not fed for 3 days prior to and during the period of treatment. All DDT exposures were for 24 hours and were carried out in 6 liters of continuously-aerated water at the acclimation temperature in glass jars, one fish per jar (7). The DDT was always added to the water in 0.3 ml of acetone. Control fish were treated the same as were experimental ones, except that no DDT was dissolved in the acetone. The fish were tested in clean water, and, unless otherwise specified, each experiment 9(0), .£ 4 3 ° 2 I - | 3(38 ) 40 60 DDT concentration (ppb) Fig. 1. The effect of acclimation temperature and exposure to DDT on the coldblock temperature of the propeller tail reflex in the brook trout. The numbers refer to the total number of fish tested and (in parentheses) the percentage which failed to block down to the lowest temperature obtainable, 1°C±S.E, also shown. Solid line, fish acclimated at 9°C; broken line, fish acclimated at 18°C. SCIENCE, VOL. 164 �began immediately after the 24-hour ^sposure to DDT. Cold-block temperature was determined as described (5), except that our stimulus was a 10 msec train of square wave pulses (1 msec and approximately 10 volts each at a rate of 400 per second). As expected, for control fish acclimated at 18.0°C, the cold-block temperature was significantly higher than for the ones acclimated at 9.0°C (Fig. 1). Treatment with DDT also altered the cold-block temperature. The response of DDT-treated fish acclimated at 9.0°C was not quite the same as that of those acclimated at 18.0°C (Fig. 1). The difference, however, may be more apparent than real. The lowest temperature obtainable with our apparatus was l°C and not only did many fish acclimated at 9 d C fail to block, but also, for those fish that did block, the blocking temperature was about 1°C. If much lower temperatures had been possible, the response of fish acclimated at 9°C might have differed. To say that DDT can alter the coldblock temperature just as can thermal acclimation, may be more than a convenient analogy. Sublethal concentrations of DDT, like thermal acclimation, shift the selected temperature of brook trout (and other salmonids) (2). Low doses lower the selected temperature; higher doses raise it in a pattern very similar to that shown in Fig. 1 for the cold-block temperatures of fish acclimated at 18°C. The DDT may be interfering somehow with the thermal -acclimation mechanism. This would be consistent with our hypothesis that DDT acts upon central nervous structures because changes in selected temperature are thought to be controlled by the CNS (8). The effect of DDT on a nervous function more complex than the propeller tail reflex was investigated by exposing trout acclimated at 9°C to 20 parts per billion of DDT and then comparing their ability to learn a simple conditioned avoidance response with the ability of untreated fish. Brook trout have an individual preference for either the lighted or darkened side of a two-chambered aquarium. We trained our trout to avoid the side of their preference. The nonpreferred lighting was the conditioning stimulus; electric shock was the unconditioned stimulus. Fish were consid25 APRTL 1969 Table 1. The response of fish during the establishment of the conditioned avoidance response. The "avoidance" response is the one used for the training criterion. The fish tested at various .times after DDT exposure were all different fish and had not previously been tested. Day Pish tested (No.) A e Missest Escapest <%) ( o) 13.0 S (No.) 52.0 35.0 0.0 2.9 7.8 Avoidances§ (%) Untreated 12 30.3 DDT-treated 1 4 7 6 6 6 >25 94.0 6.0 >28.3 >29.5 52.0 43.0 45.1 49.2 * Trials per fish until trained to .avoid preferred side. t Failures to leave the initially preferred side of a two-chambered aquarium during the electric shock period. Misses typically occurred early in the training session. I Successful exit during the electric shock period. § Departure after lighting change but before the electric shock. ercd to be conditioned when they showed eight consecutive proper avoidances. The apparatus and method of training were similar to that used by Roots and Prosser (5). Although untreated naive fish took only about 30 trials to become conditioned, not one of the DDT-treated naive fish became conditioned (Table 1). Training was discontinued after approximately 25 trials because by this time, after almost 6 minutes of intermittent electric shock, the fish had become refractory and were sitting on the bottom, often at an angle, failing to exhibit any overt response to the shock. The duration of the DDT effect was investigated by testing the response of naive fish 4 and 7 days after DDT exposure. These fish showed some improvement in performance. Fewer misses and more escapes and avoidances were observed. However, the improvement was at best slight, for it did not appear that the fish would ever show the required eight consecutive avoidances. Even after 7 days, no fish showed even two consecutive avoidances. Evidently, DDT treatment reduces the ability of fish to form an association between the connecting doorway and escape from shock. There was no apparent impairment in either the swimming or visual abilities of the fish. The effect of DDT treatment on the retention of the conditioned avoidance response was determined by comparing the number of trials initially required to attain full conditioning with the number required for the same fish when tested 24 hours later. Six fish served as controls and six as experimcntals. The second performance of control fish was enhanced by the previous training, the difference between the initial 32.7 ± 3.04 (S.E.) trials and the subsequent 11.2 ± 1.20. trials being significant (P < .005). The fish exposed to DDT required 27.8 ± 1.80 trials before treatment and 24.2 ± 1.80 trials after treatment. The difference is not significant (P > 0.5). It is as if the DDT treatment had converted the previously-trained fish into naive ones. Yet, clearly something has been retained by these fish, for if they had not had the training session prior to the DDT exposure, then, as shown in Table 1, they would not have been able to learn at all. JOHN M. ANDERSON* MARGARET R. PETERSON! Department of Biology, Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada References and Notes 1. D. M. Osilvie and J. M. Anderson, J. Fisheries Res. Board Canada 22, 503 (1965); R. E. Warner, K. K. Peterson, L. Bergman, /. Appl. Ecol. 3 (Suppl.), 223 (1966); R. E. Warner, World Health Organ. Butt. 36, 181 (1967); L. F. Stickel, Report on the Unintended Occurrence of Pesticides in the Environment Sponsored by O.E.C.D, and Development and Natural Environment Council of the United Kingdom (Patuxcnt Wildlife Research Center, Laurel, Maryland, 1967). 2. M. Y. Javaid, thesis, Carleton University, Ottawa (1967). 3. J. M. Anderson, J. Fisheries Res. Board Canada 25, 2677 (1968). 4. This reflex, first described by von Hoist, [Z. Vergl. Physiol. 20, 582 (1934)], consists of a weak propeller-like movement of the tail in response to electric stimulation of the gular region. 5. B. I. Roots and C. L. Prosser, /. Exp. Biol. 39, 617 (1962). 6. F. K. Sanders, ibid. 17, 416 (1940). 7. The DDT was a technical mixture consisting of 80 percent 1, 1, l-trichloro-2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl) ethane and 20 percent 1, 1, 1-trichloro2-(o-chlorophenyl)-2-(p-chlorophenyl) ethane obtained from Fisher Scientific Company as Reagent Grade. 8. K. C. Fisher, in Physiological Adaptation, C. L. Prosser, Ed. (American Physiological Society, Washington, 1958), p. 3. 9. Supported by grants from Fisheries Research Board of Canada and National Research Council of Canada. * Present address: Fisheries Research Board of Canada Biological Station, St. Andrews, New Brunswick, t Present address: Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Illinois, Urbana, 61801. 23 January 1969 441 �Circadian Rhythm of Serotonin in the Pineal Body of Immunosympathectomized Immature Rats Abstract. In the pineal body of the immature rat the circadian rhythm of serotonin persists when sympathetic innervation is abolished by the administration of nerve growth factor antiserum. This rhythm is regulated by a mechanism that does not involve the sympathetic innervation and is, therefore, fundamentally different from that in the adult. In the past 10 years major advances in our knowledge of pineal physiology have been established. Compounds within the pineal body have been identified and their levels measured. Many of them have been shown to have a circadian rhythm that is dependent upon environmental lighting mediated through the retina and the sympathetic nervous system (7). Serotonin is one of these compounds. In the rat pineal it exists in high titers (2) and has a circadian rhythm in which levels are lowest 4 hours after the onset of darkness and highest 6 to 8 hours after the onset of light (3). Sympathetic postganglionic fibers from the superior cervical ganglion (4) regulate the rhythm. After bilateral superior cervical ganglionectomy or severance of preganglionic fibers the cycling of serotonin in the pineal body is abolished (5, 6). Although this role of the sympathetics has been confirmed in the adult rat, the following observations suggest that pineal serotonin may not be regulated through sympathetic innervation in the immature animal. As early as 6 days postpartum the circadian rhythm of serotonin is present (7), but at this age there is a sparsity of intrapineal sympathetic nerve fibers ( 8 ) . To learn the significance of this apparently inadequate innervation we undertook the study, described in this report, of serotonin levels in totally denervated pineals in young rats. Because of stress and mortality after superior cervical ganglionectomy, we chose to den3rvate the pineal by immunosympathectomy (9). Holtzman rats of both sexes were given bovine nerve growth factor antiserum (NGFA) (10) within 6 hours after birth and again 24 hours later. Experimental and control animals were maintained together in a controlled environment. The temperature was 19° ± 1°C, and fluorescent lights were kept on from 5:00 a.m. to 7:00 p.m., that is, a cycle of 14 hours of light and 10 hours of darkness. Animals were decapitated at either 8 or 20 days of age—one group at 1:00 p.m. and another at 11:00 p.m. Pineals were dissected quickly, weighed on saline-moistened filter paper on a Roller Smith torsion balance, homogenized in groups of two in 0.5 ml of 0.1 N HO and 0.5 percent ascorbic acid, and refrigerated. Within 24 hours serotonin was assayed on a Farrand spectrofluorometer (model No. 104244B) according to the method of Quay (11). Since fluorescence microscopy reveals the extent of sympathetic nerve suppression Table 1. Serotonin levels in the pineals of normal and immunosympathcctomizcd young rats. Each group contained 10 or 12 animals. There is no significant difference between pineal weights of groups in each of the four treatment categories. N.S., not significant. Treatment Pineal weight (nig) Serotonin (ng/pineal) Significance of difference Groups Level Rats 8 days old None Day* 'Nightt Night-lighted NGFA (1100 unit g-* day-1) Day Night Night-lighted 0.470 ± 0.035 .502 ± .022 .410 ± .013 30.5 ± 2.20 13.3 ±1.60 23.1 ± 1.50 Day: night Day:night-lighted Night : night-lighted .001 .473 ± .015 .527 ± .030 .483 ± .017 29.6 ± 1.63 10.0 ± 2.33 14.5 ± 2.78 Day:night Day:night-lighted Night: night-lighted .001 .001 N.S. .02 .01 Rats 20 days old None Day Night NGFA (600 unit g-1 day-1) Day Night * Day, 1:00 p.m. 442 0.586 ± 0.039 .632 ± .037 54.5 ± 4.59 13.5 + 4.12 Day: night ,001 .549 ± .031 .550 ± .034 61.0 ± 3.52 19.0 ± 1.81 Day: night .001 t Night, 11 p.m. (12), a sample of pineal bodies frojoj. each group of treated animals was examined by this method. In addition, stretch preparations of the iris of all the 20-day-old animals used in the experiment were examined by fluorescence microscopy. In normal control pineals (from animals 8 and 20 days old), the sympathetic innervation was present and similar to that described elsewhere (8). In animals injected with NGFA (600 unit/g) there was no nerve fluorescence in the iris preparations, and although denervation of the pineal was almost complete, occasionally a few scattered fibers remained. When the dosage was increased to 1100 unit/g, pineal nerve fluorescence was abolished. Prolonging the light period into the normal dark period prevents the nocturnal fall in pineal serotonin in both adult and immature animals (6, 7). To clarify the role of sympathetics in the immature rat, it was important to determine whether prolonged lighting would modify the amount of serotonin in denervated pineals. Thus on the day the animals were killed a third group was given four additional hours of lighting, that is lights remained on until 11:00 p.m., the time they were killed. Results in Table 1 show that at both 8 and 20 days of age there is a circadian rhythm in rat pineal serotonin and that after immunosympathectomy the rhythm persists unchanged. Thus its regulation must be through a mechanism fundamentally different from that in the adult. la the adult, central nervous system stimuli that regulate serotonin levels reach the pineal via sympathetic fibers (5). Since rhythm persists in the young animal after denervation, it seems reasonable to speculate that in the immature rat the rhythm is intrinsic to the pineal itself. However, the origin and nature of its regulator remains unknown. An endocrine influence in immature rats has not been studied, but in the adult, removal of endocrine organs does not modify pineal serotonin rhythm (6). The results of Table 1 also show that in sympathectomized animals additional lighting did not elevate serotonin levels above the nocturnal low. From the first observation—that serotonin rhythm persists in the absence of sympathetics— one might presume that innervation has no regulatory function on serotonin metabolism in the young rat. However, since additional lighting prevents the nocturnal fall in serotonin in intact SCIENCE, VOL. 164 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange Description An account of the resource <p style="margin-top: -1em; line-height: 1.2em;">The Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange comprises 120 linear feet and spans the late 1800s to 2005; however, the bulk of the coverage is from the 1960s to the 1980s and there are many undated items. The collection was donated to Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in 1985 by Dr. Alvin L. Young (1942- ). Dr. Young developed the collection as he conducted extensive research on the military defoliant Agent Orange. The collection is in good condition and includes letters, memoranda, books, reports, press releases, journal and newspaper clippings, field logs and notebooks, newsletters, maps, booklets and pamphlets, photographs, memorabilia, and audiotapes of an interview with Dr. Young.</p> <p>For more about this collection, <a href="/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/alvin-l--young-collection-on-a">view the Agent Orange Exhibit.</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Box The box containing the original item. 047 Folder The folder containing the original item. 1187 Series The series number of the original item. Series III Subseries I Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Anderson, John M. Margaret R. Peterson Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Science Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource April 25 1969 Title A name given to the resource DDT: Sublethal Effects on Brook Trout Nervous System Subject The topic of the resource aquatic animals health effects pesticide toxicology fish population ao_seriesIII https://www.nal.usda.gov/exhibits/speccoll/files/original/705d330b601bd6f010265578c4d03efa.pdf b4e95d1fe9cf25954eae9a55134fb242 PDF Text Text Item ID Number ones Bababunmi, Enitan A. Corporate Author Report/Article TltlB Toxins and Carcinogens in the Environment: An Observation in the Tropics JOUmal/BoOk TltlO Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health Year Month/Day Color D Number of Images 9 DOSCrlptOn NotOS ^'vin ^- Young filed this item under the category "DDT/Human Toxicology and Environmental Fate" Wednesday, April 11, 2001 Page 1188 of 1242 �TOXINS AND CARCINOGENS IN THE ENVIRONMENT: AN OBSERVATION IN THE TROPICS Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, University of Ibadari, Ibadan, Nigeria The incidence of primary liver cancer in the countries of tropical Africa is the highest in the world. There, is a growing belief that the relatively high prevalence of hepatocellular carcinoma in Niyeria may have a multiple chemical factor etiology in such forms as food contaminants, herbal leas, and environmental chemicals. Major chemical toxins and carcinogens that have been identified so far in the tropical environment include supotoxin, cycasin, mushroom toxin, capsaicin, oxalic acid, prussic acid, fluotooleic acid, N-nitroso compounds, aflatoxin, palmotoxin, pyrrolizidine alkaloids, quinine, DOT, and eye/ornate. INTRODUCTION During the past two decades, there has been an increasing awareness of the hazards to human and animal health from various chemical substances Jthat occur in the tropical environment. There is evidence to indicate that azarious health problems, including some forms of cancer, have their origin in the presence of toxic chemicals in medicines, herbal residues, pesticides, foods, and drinks. Some of these problems are common to countries throughout the world, while others are peculiar to Africans who live in the tropics. For example, altogether the incidence of primary liver cancer in adult males is • the highest in the world in African countries such as Nigeria, Uganda, and Mo/ambique (IARC, 1971). The primary objective of the present review is to focus attention on the presence of toxic chemicals in foods and in the environment of tropical African countries, particularly Nigeria, which is the most populous country in Africa. Some of these toxins have been shown to possess carcinogenic (or mutagenic) properties in various biological systems. However; in a large number of cases, adverse effects of some of these toxic substances on human health are not known. It is hoped that this paper will have the important effects of stimulating more research into the special toxicological problems that arc of concern to people living in the tropics. This article was written during the author's tenure as an ICRCTT Fellow of UICC (1977) at the Department of Biochemistry and King's College, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, [England. Requests for reprints should he sent to fcnitan A. Bababunmi, Department of Biochemistry, School'of Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria. 691 journal oi Toxicology and Environmental Health, 4:691-699,1978 Copyright © 1978 by Hemisphere Publishing Corporation 0098-4108/78/040691-09$2.25 �692 E. A. BABABUNMI ENDOGENOUS FOOD TOXINS Endogenous food toxicily is widespread in tropical Africa. Nicholls ct al. (1961) dealt with the various types.of tropical foods that carry toxins. The review of Crampton and Charlcsworth (1975) adequately covers the occurrence of food toxins in the nontropical world. Hypoglycin This toxin is contained in the unripe fruit of the food plant, Blighia sapida. In Nigeria the fruit is called isin, whereas it is commonly known as ak.ee in Jamaica. There are two types of this toxin, A and B. Although both types are biologically active, the A type (/J-mcthylenecyclopropylalaninej is the more toxic. Very little work has been done on the chemistry and the biological function of the B type. Dioscorine This toxic chemical is sometimes referred to simply as dioscorea toxin; it is an alkaloid that is present in Dioscorea hispida. The main toxic species of these tropical yams of West Africa are D. hispida, D. dumctorum, D. sansibarensis, and D. bulbifem. Since the isolation and identification of the related alkaloid dehydrodioscorine by Bevan and H.rst (1958), scientists have not looked into the existence of these or other structures in the other species of the wild yams. Sapotoxin Some tropical foodstuffs such as soybean, breadfruit, tomato, melon, orange, and groundnut contain some sapotoxin, which, at high concentrations, has drastic effects on humans. The toxin can cause gastroenteritis and produce paralysis of the nerve centers. Sapotoxin is a nitrogen-free glycosidc. Cycasin Cycasin occurs in plants of the family Cycadaceae, which are indigenous to tropical and subtropical regions (IARC, 1972). The biologically active moiety of cycasin is the aglycone melhyla/oxymelhanol. Cycad seeds are used as medicine in some parts of Africa, Indochina, and India. Feeding of a cycad diet has been shown to induce malignant tumors of the liver in the rat, mouse, hamster, fish, and guinea pig (IARC, 1972). Mushroom Toxin A large number of mushroom species are edible, but certain species that arc eaten in the tropics are poisonous. Examples of toxins elaborated by these species are agaritine (Ayaric'us bisporus toxin) and champigeon (A. hortemis toxin). Muscarine and Amanita phalloictes toxin have been reported to be toxic by Nicholls el al. (1961). �TOXINS AND CARCINOGENS IN THE TROPICS 693 Names for different species of mushrooms are descriptive in many pails of I he tropics. In the western state of Nigeria, these names give an indication either of the habitat, morphology, and texture or of the growth habitat of the fungi (Oso, 1975). Corprinus ephemerus, a fungus that grows on dunghills, appears at night or early in the morning, and within a very short time the pilcus is fully expanded. However, it deliquesces in the sun. It is considered poisonous by the Yoruba people of Nigeria, and local doctors use it in the preparation of some (harms. (Extracts of the fungus should be tested for mutagenicity. Capsaicin (Red Pepper Toxin) The substance is the active principle of the plants Capsicum annum and C. frutescens. It is a powerful irritant and a skin blister. Although these plants are rich in vitamin C, excessive feeding on them can be dangerous. Species of pepper such as Piper nigrum contain alkaloids and volatile oils that are toxic to both animals and humans. Halogeton Toxin (Oxalic Acid) Plant species such as Halogelon ylomeritus, Celosia argentae, Amaranthus candatus, Celosia laxa, and Talinum are used as food in tropical Africa, especially on the west coast. These vegetables contain significant levels of oxalic acid (Oke, 1967). There are conflicting data on the lethal dose for humans. However, Oke showed that an average healthy Nigerian would consume about 6 g of oxalic acid daily, on the basis that 50 g of fresh vegetables could be consumed at a meal. Cyanogen (Prussic Acid) Tropical plants, cassava, mai/ie, and sugar cane are good sources of cyanogenetic glycosides such as linamarin and dhurrin. Cassava (manioc; Man/hot ulilissima} is the most widely grown of all tropical root crops. It is mainly a carbohydrate food with a very low protein content. In West Africa, manioc flour (gari). has become a major diet. In the West Indies the dried flour is called farina. All over the tropics it is used as food for the young and adults in one form or another. The en/yme linasc liberates prussic acid (HCN) from linamarin. HCN is toxic to many species of animals, including humans. The production of HCN varies with the variety of the plant and the conditions of cultivation (Osuntokun et a!., 1969). Although significant amounts of HCN arc said to occur only in the bitter variety of cassava, there is in fact no clear differentiation between the sweet and hitler strains. The fact that the cortex of the root contains the highest concentrations of the toxin provides biological protection for the plant against invading insects. Chronic cyanide intoxication by laboratory animals has resulted in neural damage in the guinea pig, rabbit, sheep, and cat. �694 E. A. BABABUNMI Fluoruoleic Acid The seeds of the West African plant Dichapctalum toxicarum contain fluoroeleic acid and some minute amounts of shorter-chained fluoro acids. These fluoro compounds arc toxic.'Local, doctors in the countries of West: Africa often administer the seed extracts in an attempt to produce loss of motor activity, loss of sensation, and sometimes death (Peters el al., I960). Free oleic acid uncouples oxidative phosphorylation (Pressman and Lardy, 1956). /V-Nitroso Compounds .Dimclhylnilrosaminc (DMN) and diethylnilrosamine (DEN) have been detected in measurable quantities in several alcoholic beverages in Nigeria (joaquim, 1973). Bababunmi et al. (1977) reviewed the extent of contamination of these drinks by the two carcinogens. There is some evidence that the formation of these nil.rosamines involves bacterial action. FUNGAL TOXIC CONTAMINANTS Fungus-infected foodstuffs are the cause of many types of food poisoning (see Kadis et al., 1972). In the tropics, a Variety of fungal species have been reported to be involved in some toxicity syndromes. Notable examples are Asperyi/lus, Penicil/ium, Stachybotrys, Trichoderma, f-'usarium, Pseudomonas, and .Helminthosporiurn species. The most ubiquitous in Nigeria are Aspergillus and Pcnicillium. Many strains of each of these fungi are toxigenic. Among the common toxic metabolites of the aspergilli arc aspergillic acid, flavacol, j3-nilropropionic acid, kojic acid, sterigrnatocystin, ochratoxin, aspet toxin, aflaloxin, and palmotoxin. Penicillium elaborates the mycotoxins patulin, islandiloxjn, lutcoskyrin, rugulosin, cifrinin, frcquentic acid (citreomycctin), gliotoxin, costaclavine, and citreviridin. Of these, aflatoxin has been studied most extensively, mainly because of its potent carcinogenic properties. A comctabolile of aflaloxin, palmotoxin, has been the subject of investigation for some years in this laboratory. Many other naturally occurring toxins (Table 1) that are known should be tested for carcinogenictty. Aflatoxin The literature on the biochemistry, toxicity, carcinogenicity, and mutagenicity of aflatoxin is enormous (Goldblatt, 1969; Wogan, 1975a, 1975b; IRAC, 1976), The discovery of aflatoxin in the tropics (Asplin and Carnagnan, 1961) as a contaminant of human and animal foodstuffs (groundnuts) aroused the interest of scientists all over the world because of i t . health ha/aids and possible economic effects on the producers of these foods. Nigeria is one .of the world's major exporters of groundnuts. Other tropical foods that arc vectors of aflatoxin are beans, corn, rice, cocoa, and wheat. �TOXINS AND CARCINQGtNS IN lilt. TROPICS 695 TABLE 1. Sonic Known Naturally Occurring Toxins Toxic sulislance Occurrence in l-'usaric acid Fiisariuni oxysp oiium Pcriconin T toxin llclminthosporo'sidc Tabtoxin Javanicin Pcriconia circ'inatu 1 lei min tli ospvrium may dis Hvlniitithosporium sqcchari Pseudomonus coronal aciens f-'usarium solan! Possible human exposure through Tomato, sorghum, maize Sorghum Maize Sugarcane Tobacco Maize Aspergillus flavus, the main source of aflatoxin, is common in air and soil, It will grow on agricultural products and food materials in a favorable environment with a relative humidity of 70-90% and a minimum temperature of about 10°C. In general, the growth of A. flavus can be correlated with the production of aflatoxin except at high temperatures, 40-50°C. !n different regions of Muranga in Kenya (Hast Africa), mean aflaloxin levels of about 0.25 ppm in food and 0.1 mg/l in beer have been detected (IARC, 1972). When common food preparations of Nigeria's principal food crops were sampled from local market stalls and assessed for aflatoxin contamination by conventional techniques, the aflatoxin content was not less than 0.5 ppm in any of the foods (Bababunmi, 1976). Several industrialized countries such as the United States, Denmark, Britain, and Italy consider a level of aflatoxin of the order of 0.25 ppm as dangerous and the contaminated food as unconsumable. Although the proportional contribution of agriculture to the Nigerian economy continues to fall, it will continue to be the single most important sector in the economy for a long time (Aboyadc, 1971). The export value of cocoa ranks second to that of oil in Nigeria. In 1974, Nigeria's foreign trade was $3.462 billion. If oil accounted for 80% of the export value in the 1974-1975 fiscal year, other export products such as cocoa, groundnuts, and palm products should account for about $700 million. Therefore, if aflatoxin contamination in this class of export commodities is not eliminated, Nigeria's foreign reserves may diminish continuously. Palmotoxin Isolation of two additional fluorescent toxins from cultures of A. flavus on unfcrmcnled palm sap (a common West African wine) obtained from a variety of Elacis yuineensis was reported by Bassir and Adekunle (1968). Toxicity titrations of pal rnolox iris B 0 and G0 on 6-d-old White Rock chick embryos indicated that B 0 is as toxic as aflatoxin B t . Recent results of Uwaifo ct al. (1977) suggest that the structures of the palmotoxins could be hetetocyclic and may be similar to those of the aflatoxin family (Asao et al., 1965). Comparative mulagenicily studies by �696 E. A. BABABUNMI Uwaifo el v.al. (1978) show that palrnotoxin B() induces microlesions thai consist of point mutations, in Ames' tester strains of Salmonella typhimurium. However, the ratio of the mutagcnicity of aflatoxin fi, to that of palmotoxin B0 is about 6:1. In Nigeria and several developing African countries, several facilities and preservation techniques for agricultural products are quite inadequate. The combination of this unfortunate situation, the natural warm and moist weather, a dirty environment, human error, and ignorance is conducive to the growth of A. f/avus and consequently to the elaboration of mycotoxins (such as aflatoxin and palrnotoxin) on agricultural commodities. It seems to me, therefore, that the problems associated with mycotoxin contamination of food and agricultural products will remain in the developing tropical regions of the world for some time, at least.in the foreseeable future, unless very drastic control measures a' - c initialed. HERBAL RESIDUES For years, herbalists and local doctors in tropical Africa have used herbs and their concoctions to treat various human diseases (Dal/.iel, 1948). In modern times, countries such as Nigeria and Ghana have intensified their search for authentic medicinal plants ;ind their active principles. Apart from their use as local medicines, many toxic plant species are used as food in many parts of West Africa. Many chemical compounds have been isolated from useful plants of West Africa and characteri/cd in their pure forms. In this respect, scientists in the Department of Chemistry of the University of Ibadan have contributed immensely to the knowledge of the chemistry of active principles in plants. Toxicological and other biological studies of these chemicals are, however, scanty. Miller and Miller (1976) staled that the plant genera Crotolaria, Senecio, Laburnum, and Heliotropium have long been known to contain carcinogenic substances (IARC, 1976), some of which arc pyrroli/idine alkaloids. •; • FOREIGN TOXIC CHEMICALS Environmental toxins of this class exist in such forms as medicines, pesticides, and food additives. With the gradual emergence of some tropical African countries (for example, Nigeria) from the underdeveloped to the developing slate, environmental pollution and the presence of industrial materials such as those used in the processing and packaging of foods are potential sources of toxins. Common examples in this calegory are ioni/ing radiation, plastici/ers, adhesives, paraffins, printing inks, and irea'cd papers. Well-rccogni/.cd environmental toxic (or carcinogenic) chei lical substances in this tropical area of the world include quinine (antirnalarial drug), DDT (insecticide), and cyclarnate (food additive). �TOXINS AND CARCINOGENS IN THt TROPICS 697 Quinine Malaria is a disease that occurs throughout the tropical and subtropical countries. It is actually a group of diseases characterized by recurrent attacks of fever, anemia, and enlargement of the spleen. Malaria can also occur in temperate climates if the environmental temperature is right for the protozoan species (e.g., Plasmodium falciparum) to complete their life cycle in the female Anopheles mosquitoes. The parasite lives in the red blood cells. There are three forms of the malaria parasite in humans corresponding to malignant tertian, benign tertian, and quartan malaria. In the tropics the most common malaria is the malignant tertian, although the other two varieties have been identified in a very few cases. Chloroquinc, mcpacrine, and quinine arc drugs that are very effective in rapidly destroying the parasite in the blood. Chloroquinc (Nivaquine) is the most widely used antimalarial drug and has been reported to be the safest. Mcpacrine (Atebrin) can be given only intramuscularly and is not often used. Quinine is the oldest of all the antimalarial medicines. It is also the quickest acting. For many years quinine was the only drug available for the treatment of malaria. Although quinine has some toxic side effects, it is still used, especially for cases that are resistant to other drugs. Quinine was the first alkaloid isolated from the bark of the Cinchona tree. A single oral dose of about 8 g is regarded as fatal for an adult man. Quinine poisoning usually results in nausea, headache, visual disturbances, nervous system and cardiovascular system disorders, and respiratory arrest. DDT The insecticidal properties of DDT are well known (IARC, 1974). This compound has been extensively used as an insecticide and produced commercially for this purpose since 1943, when a low-cost production technique was developed. It has been widely used for the control of numerous insect pests—for example, as a mosquito larvicide and as a residual spray for eradicating malaria in the tropics. DDT is distributed by the World Health Organi/ation throughout the world for the prevention of yellow fever, sleeping sickness, and malaria. Apart from these uses, quantities of DDT are used for the treatment of peppers, onions, soybeans, groundnuts, cowpeas, and sweet potatoes, in storage. Tropical countries such as the Upper Volta and Ghana use at least 500 kg of DDT annually for agricultural purposes. In 1973, research on the environmental effects of pesticides in the tropics was carried out at the International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Ibadan. The study was concerned with the effects of DDT (used as a crop protector) on the fertility of agricultural soil. Cowpca (Vigna unyuiculata var. Prima), which is a high-yielding legume, was selected in the IITA study because it requires regular pesticide applications and also because of its growing �698 C. A. BABABUNMI importance in tropical agriculture. Since 1970, DDT has been restricted to uses other than on human and animal foodstuffs in the more advanced countries. The hepatocarcinogenicity of DDT on oral administration has been amply demonstrated in several strains of mice. Liver cell tumors were produced in both male and female mice, and an increased tumor incidence was reported in some other organs. The most frequent tumor types were leukemia, rcticulum cell sarcoma, carcinoma of the lungs, and hemangioendothclioma (IARC, 1974). Cyclamate Calcium cyclamate (cyclohexylsulfamic acid calcium salt) is still used as a nonnutritivc sweetener in a large number of soft drinks in many African countries. The use of cyclamic acid as a sweetener has been banned in several industrialized' countries because the compound was suspected of being a bladder carcinogen in the rat. CONCLUSION Apart from foods, beverages, and medicines, there are other sources of potential toxins and carcinogens that are introduced by humans into the tropical environment, especially in the cities, in such forms as narcotics and atmospheric pollutants. With the arrival of various industries in big African cities, inhalation of dust, vapors, and exhausts presents a new form of danger. Epidemiologic appraisal of these factors is lacking. There is a need to estimate the total load of toxins and carcinogens in the tropical environment. REFERENCES Aboyadc, O. 1971. Nigeria's economy. In Africa South of the Sahara, 1st ed., pp. 558-563. London: Luropa. Asao, T., Buchi, G., Abdel-Kader, M. M., Chang, S. 13., Wick, E. I . and Wogan, G. N. 1965. The ., structures of aflaloxins B and G,. ]. Am. Chum. Soi: 87:882-886. Asplin, [-". D. and Carnaghan, K. 13. A. 1961. The toxicity o\ certain groundnut meals for poultry with special reference to their effect on ducklings and chickens. Vet. Kec. 73:1215-1219. Bababunrni, Li. A. 1976. Excretion of af'latoxin in the urine of normal individuals and patients with liver diseases in Ibadan (Nigeria). In Di'tuclifin and 1'revcnt/on of Cancer, ed. H. E. Nieburgs. New York: Ueker. Babdbunni, L:. A., Uwaifo, A. O., and Bassir, O. 1977. Hepatocarcinogeris in Nigerian foodstuffs. World Rev. Nutr. Did 28: article 44. Bassir, O. and Adckunle, A. A. 1968. Two new metabolites of Aspcnjillus lluvus (Link). FF.BS Lett. 2:23-25. Bevan, C, W. 1.. and Hirst, ). 1958. A convulsuil alkaloid of Dioscoreu dunu'torurn.' Chcm. Ind, 4: 103. . Crampton, K. l:. and Charlesworlh, I . A. 1975. Occurrence of natural toxins in food. Or. Mvd. B II. 31:209-213. Dal/:iel J. M. 1948. Useful plants of west tropical Africa. In i-loia of West Tropical Africa, cds. J. hutchinson and J. M. Dal/iel. London: Crown Agents for the Colonies. �TOXINS AND CARCINOGENS IN Tilt TROPICS 699 Goldblalt, L A. 1969. Allatoxln. New Yoik: Academic Press. IARC. 1971. Liver Cancer. Sci. I'ubl. no. I. l.yon: International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC. 1972. Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Man, vol. 1. Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC. 1974. Chemical Carcinogencsis l.'ssays. Sci. Publ, no. 10. Lyon; International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC. 1976. Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risk of Chemical* to Man, vol. 10. Lyon: International Agency lor Research on Cancer. Joaquim, K. .1973. Nilrosamine contamination of some Nigerian beverages. Ph.D. thesis, Ibadan University. Kadis, $., Ciegler, A., and Ajl, S. J. 1972. In Microbkil Toxins: A Comprehensive Treatise, vol. 8, Fungal Toxins. New York: Academic Press. Miller, j. A. and Miller, !"..• C. 1976. Carcinogens occurring naturally in foods. Fed. Proc. 35:1316-1321. Nicholls, L., Sinclair, H. M., and Jelliffe, D. B. 1961. Tropical Nutrition and Dietetics. London: Bailliere, Tindall & Cox. Oke, O. L. 1967. Oxalic acid in plants and in nutrition. World Rev. Nutr. Diet. 8:262-303. Oso, B. A. 1975. Mushrooms and the Yoruba people of Nigeria. Mycologia 67:311-319. Osuntokun, B. O., Monekosso, G. L., and Wilson, J. 1969. Cassava diet and a chronic degenerative neuropathy. An epidemiological study. Niger, j. Sci. 3:3-15. Peters, R. A., Hall, R. J., Ward, P. l:. V., and Sheppard, N. 1960. The chemical nature of the toxic compounds containing fluorine in the seeds of Dkhapelalum toxicarium. Biochcm. J. 77:17-23, Pressman, B. C. and Lardy, II. A. 1956. Effect of surface active agents on the latent ATP-asc of mitochondria. Biochim. B/ophys. Ada 21:458-466. Uwaifo, A. O., Emcrolu, C. O., and Bassir, O. 1977. Comparative study of the fluorescent characteristics ol solutions of aflatoxins and palmotoxins in chloroform. /. Agric. Food Chem. 25:1218-1220. Uwaifo, A. O., Emcrolc, G. O., Bababunrni, E. A., and Bassir, O. 1978. Comparative rnutagcnicity of palmotoxin U0 and aflatoxin B,. In press. Wogan, G. N. I975a. Mycotoxins. Annii. Rev. Pliarmacol. 15:437-451. Wogan, G. N. 1975b. Dietary lactors and special epidemiological situations of. liver cancer in Thailand and Africa. Cancer Rex. 35:3499-3502. Received March 12, 1978 Accepted April 3, 1978 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange Description An account of the resource <p style="margin-top: -1em; line-height: 1.2em;">The Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange comprises 120 linear feet and spans the late 1800s to 2005; however, the bulk of the coverage is from the 1960s to the 1980s and there are many undated items. The collection was donated to Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in 1985 by Dr. Alvin L. Young (1942- ). Dr. Young developed the collection as he conducted extensive research on the military defoliant Agent Orange. The collection is in good condition and includes letters, memoranda, books, reports, press releases, journal and newspaper clippings, field logs and notebooks, newsletters, maps, booklets and pamphlets, photographs, memorabilia, and audiotapes of an interview with Dr. Young.</p> <p>For more about this collection, <a href="/exhibits/speccoll/exhibits/show/alvin-l--young-collection-on-a">view the Agent Orange Exhibit.</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Box The box containing the original item. 047 Folder The folder containing the original item. 1188 Series The series number of the original item. Series III Subseries I Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Bababunmi, Enitan A. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1978 Title A name given to the resource Toxins and Carcinogens in the Environment: An Observation in the Tropics Subject The topic of the resource heath effects pesticide toxicology ao_seriesIII